Cat intelligence

{{Short description|Intellectual capacity of the domesticated cat}}

File:Cat opening door.webm Cat intelligence refers to a cat’s ability to solve problems, adapt to its environment, learn new behaviors, and communicate its needs. Structurally, a cat’s brain shares similarities with the human brain,{{cite book |last1=Gross |first1=Richard |title=Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour |publisher=Hodder Education |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4441-0831-6}}{{page needed|date=June 2013}} containing around 250 million neurons in the cerebral cortex, which is responsible for complex processing.{{cite book |last1=Ananthanarayanan |first1=Rajagopal |title=Proceedings of the Conference on High Performance Computing Networking, Storage and Analysis – SC '09 |last2=Esser |first2=Steven K. |last3=Simon |first3=Horst D. |last4=Modha |first4=Dharmendra S. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60558-744-8 |pages=1–12 |chapter=The cat is out of the bag: cortical simulations with 10⁹ neurons, 10¹³ synapses |doi=10.1145/1654059.1654124 |s2cid=6110450}} Cats display neuroplasticity, allowing their brains to reorganize based on experiences. They have well-developed memory retaining information for a decade or longer. These memories are often intertwined with emotions, allowing cats to recall both positive and negative experiences associated with specific places. While they excel in observational learning and problem-solving, studies conclude that they struggle with understanding cause-and-effect relationships in the same way that humans do.{{Cite journal |last1=Whitt |first1=Emma |last2=Douglas |first2=Marie |last3=Osthaus |first3=Britta |last4=Hocking |first4=Ian |date=September 2009 |title=Domestic cats (Felis catus) do not show causal understanding in a string-pulling task |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10071-009-0228-x |journal=Animal Cognition |language=en |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=739–743 |doi=10.1007/s10071-009-0228-x |pmid=19449193 |issn=1435-9448|url-access=subscription }}{{cite news |last=Meikle |first=James |date=16 June 2009 |title=Cats outsmarted in psychologist's test |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2009/jun/16/psychologist-test-outsmarts-cats |newspaper=The Guardian}}{{cite journal |last1=Pallaud |first1=B. |year=1984 |title=Hypotheses on mechanisms underlying observational learning in animals |journal=Behavioural Processes |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=381–394 |doi=10.1016/0376-6357(84)90024-X |pmid=24924084 |s2cid=31226100}}

The study of cat intelligence is mostly focused on domesticated cats. Living in urban environments has exposed them to challenges that require adaptive behaviors, contributing to cognitive development.{{cite journal |last1=Carlstead |first1=Kathy |last2=Brown |first2=Janine L. |last3=Seidensticker |first3=John |year=1993 |title=Behavioral and adrenocortical responses to environmental changes in leopard cats (Felis bengalensis) |journal=Zoo Biology |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=321–31 |doi=10.1002/zoo.1430120403 |s2cid=32582485}} Selective breeding and genetic changes have further influenced their intelligence. Kittens learn essential survival skills by observing their mothers, while adult cats refine their abilities through trial and error.

Background

Early research on cat intelligence can be traced back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when psychologists such as Edward Thorndike used puzzle boxes to study animal learning. Thorndike’s experiments demonstrated that cats could learn to manipulate levers and latches through trial-and-error, thereby revealing their capacity for associative learning. Over time, more refined experiments began to examine additional facets of cognition, including spatial awareness, memory, and problem-solving strategies.{{Cite journal |last=Thorndike |first=Edward L. |date=1898 |title=Animal intelligence: An experimental study of the associative processes in animals. |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-13303-001 |journal=The Psychological Review: Monograph Supplements |language=English |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=i–109 |doi=10.1037/h0092987 |issn=0096-9753 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240704093835/https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-13303-001 |archive-date=2024-07-04}}

In controlled experiments, cats demonstrated fully developed concepts of object permanence, indicating that their sensorimotor intelligence is complete. In contrast, human infants are tested with multiple invisible displacements of an object to assess the emergence of mental representation during the sixth and final stage of sensorimotor intelligence. The cats’ search behavior in these tasks was consistent with their ability to represent an unsensed object and reflected fully developed sensorimotor intelligence.{{cite journal |last1=Triana |first1=Estrella |date=March 1981 |title=Object permanence in cats and dogs |journal=Animal Learning & Behavior |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=135–139 |doi=10.3758/bf03212035 |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |last1=Heishman |first1=M. |last2=Conant |first2=M. |last3=Pasnak |first3=R. |date=June 1995 |title=Human Analog Tests of the Sixth Stage of Object Permanence |url=http://pms.sagepub.com/content/80/3_suppl/1059.refs |journal=Perceptual and Motor Skills |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=1059–1068 |doi=10.2466/pms.1995.80.3c.1059 |pmid=7478858 |s2cid=20288798|url-access=subscription }}

In 2009, an experiment was conducted in which cats could pull on a string to retrieve a treat located beneath a plastic screen. When presented with a single string, the cats easily obtained the treat; however, when multiple strings were provided—some of which were not connected to treats—the cats were unable to consistently choose the correct string. This finding led to the conclusion that cats do not understand cause and effect in the same way that humans do.

Cognitive abilities

In wild cats, such as lions, selective pressures have demonstrated that these animals exhibit extensive long-term memory in relation to problem-solving for at least seven months after solution.{{Cite journal |last=Borrego |first=Natalia |date=2017-08-01 |title=Big cats as a model system for the study of the evolution of intelligence |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376635716302960 |journal=Behavioural Processes |series=Feline Behavior & Cognition |language=en |volume=141 |issue=Pt 3 |pages=261–266 |doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2017.03.010 |issn=0376-6357 |pmid=28336301 |s2cid=3683457|url-access=subscription }} However, relationships with humans, individual differences in intelligence, and age may all affect memory. Cats possess impressive long-term memory capabilities, retaining recollections of events and locations for a decade or longer. These memories are often intertwined with emotions, allowing cats to recall both positive and negative experiences associated with specific places.{{Cite web |title=How Smart Are Cats? |url=https://bondvet.com/b/how-smart-are-cats |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=Bond Vet |language=en}} This ability to adapt their memories of past environments throughout their life enables cats to easily adjust to their current surroundings.Stock, Judith A. Pet Place. 1 January 2011. Web. 24 March 2011.{{verify source|date=June 2013|what's the URL?}}Pawprints and Purrs. Cat Health. 11 October 2010. Web. 24 March 2011.{{verify source|date=June 2013|what's the URL?}}

The period during which the cat is a kitten is the time when the cat learns and memorizes survival skills, which are acquired through observation of their mothers and playing with other cats. Playing, in fact, constitutes more than fun for a kitten, for it is essential for ranking social order, building hunting skills, and for generally exercising for the adult roles.{{Cite book |last=Little |first=Susan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rnyakraHGdcC&dq=kitten+play+development&pg=PA185 |title=The Cat: Clinical Medicine and Management |date=2011-10-14 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-1-4377-0661-1 |language=en}}

The older the cat, the more these changes can affect its memory. There have been no studies done on the memories of aging cats, but there is some speculation that, just like people, short-term memory is more affected by aging. In one test of where to find food, cats' short-term memory lasted about 16 hours.{{cite web |last1=Schindler |first1=Melissa |title=Do Cats Have Long-Term Memory? |url=https://pets.thenest.com/cats-longterm-memory-8646.html |website=The Nest |access-date=10 March 2025}}

Feline brain

The domesticated cat’s brain measures roughly five centimetres (2.0 in) in length and weighs between 25 and 30 grams (0.88–1.06 oz).{{cite journal |last1=Roth |first1=Gerhard |last2=Dicke |first2=Ursula |year=2005 |title=Evolution of the brain and intelligence |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=250–7 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.005 |pmid=15866152 |s2cid=14758763}}{{cite web |last=Kinser |first=Patricia Anne |title=Brain and Body Size |url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/kinser/Size1.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070510160739/http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/kinser/Size1.html |archive-date=10 May 2007 |access-date=26 June 2013 |work=Serendip |publisher=Bryn Mawr College}} For a typical cat measuring about 60 centimetres (24 in) in length and weighing around 3.3 kilograms (7.3 lb), this amounts to approximately 0.91%{{cite book |last=Freberg |first=Laura |title=Discovering Biological Psychology |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-547-17779-3 |page=56 |chapter=Relative Encephalization Quotients |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-zyTMXAjzQsC&pg=PA56}} of its total body mass, compared to about 2.33% for an average human. According to Jerison’s 1973 study on the encephalization quotient (EQ)—which classifies values above 1 as big-brained and below 1 as small-brained,{{cite book |last=Davies |first=Paul |title=The Eerie Silence: Renewing Our Search for Alien Intelligence |publisher=HarperCollins |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-547-48849-3 |pages=66–92 |chapter=How Much Intelligence is Out There? |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gscYcI4uHhkC&pg=PA66}} the domestic cat has an EQ value between 1 and 1.71, whereas human values fall between 7.44 and 7.8.

The largest brains in the family Felidae are those of the tigers in Java and Bali.{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2009.01249.x |title=Brain size of the lion (Panthera leo) and the tiger (P. Tigris): Implications for intrageneric phylogeny, intraspecific differences and the effects of captivity |year=2009 |last1=Yamaguchi |first1=Nobuyuki |last2=Kitchener |first2=Andrew C. |last3=Gilissen |first3=Emmanuel |last4=MacDonald |first4=David W. |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=85–93|doi-access=free }} It is debated whether there exists a causal relationship between brain size and intelligence in vertebrates. Most experiments involving the relevance of brain size to intelligence hinge on the assumption that complex behavior requires a complex (and therefore intelligent) brain; however, this connection has not been consistently demonstrated.{{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rspb.2006.3748 |title=A critique of comparative studies of brain size |year=2007 |last1=Healy |first1=Susan D. |last2=Rowe |first2=Candy |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=274 |issue=1609 |pages=453–64 |jstor=25223800 |pmid=17476764 |pmc=1766390}}{{cite book |last=Outhwaite |first=William |title=The Blackwell dictionary of modern social thought |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |edition= 2nd |page=257 |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-4051-3456-9}}{{cite book |last1=Weiner |first1=Irving B. |last2=Craighead |first2=W. Edward |title=The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology |volume=4 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2010 |page=1857}}{{cite book |last=Sorabji |first=Richard |title=Animal Minds and Human Morals: The Origins of the Western Debate |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-8014-8298-4}}{{page needed|date=June 2013}}{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Allen |first1=Colin |title=Animal Consciousness |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=13 October 2010 |editor1-first=Edward N. |editor1-last=Zalta |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/consciousness-animal/}}

The surface area of a cat's cerebral cortex is approximately {{convert|83|cm2|in2|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}; furthermore, a theoretical cat weighing {{convert|2.5|kg|lb|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} has a cerebellum weighing {{convert|5.3|g|oz|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}, 0.17% of the total weight.{{cite book |first1=Rudolf |last1=Nieuwenhuyis |first2=Hendrik Jan |last2=ten Donkelaar |first3=Charles |last3=Nicholson |year=1998 |title=The Central Nervous System of Vertebrates |isbn=978-3-540-56013-5}}{{page needed|date=June 2013}} According to researchers at Tufts University School of Veterinary Medicine, the physical structure of the brains of humans and cats is very similar.{{cite book |first1=Richard |last1=Gross |year=2010 |title=Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour |publisher=Hodder Education |isbn=978-1-4441-0831-6}}{{page needed|date=June 2013}} Humans and cats have similar lobes in their cerebral cortex.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0165-0173(79)90015-8 |title=Sets of neurons in somatic cerebral cortex of the cat and their ontogeny |year=1979 |last1=Mann |first1=M |s2cid=35240517 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |volume=180 |pages=3–45 |pmid=385112 |issue=1}}{{cite web |url=http://www.catwatchnewsletter.com/issues/14_2/features/140970-1.html |title=How Smart Is Your Cat? |work=Cat Watach |publisher=Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine |date=February 2010}}

The number of cortical neurons contained in the brain of the cat is reported to be 203 million. Area 17{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.284.5411.167 |title=The Role of Area 17 in Visual Imagery: Convergent Evidence from PET and rTMS |year=1999 |last1=Kosslyn |first1=S. M. |journal=Science |volume=284 |issue=5411 |pages=167–70 |pmid=10102821 |last2=Pascual-Leone |first2=A |last3=Felician |first3=O |last4=Camposano |first4=S |last5=Keenan |first5=JP |last6=Thompson |first6=WL |last7=Ganis |first7=G |last8=Sukel |first8=KE |last9=Alpert |first9=NM|s2cid=9640680 |bibcode = 1999Sci...284..167K }} of the visual cortex was found to contain about 51,400 neurons per mm³.{{cite journal |bibcode=1984PNAS...81.3898S |title=Numbers of Specific Types of Neuron in Layer IVab of Cat Striate Cortex |last1=Solnick |first1=Bennett |last2=Davis |first2=Thomas L. |last3=Sterling |first3=Peter |volume=81 |year=1984 |pages=3898–900 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |doi=10.1073/pnas.81.12.3898 |pmid=6587398 |issue=12 |pmc=345329 |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/cne.902790206 |title=Number of neurons in individual laminae of areas 3B, 4?, and 6a? Of the cat cerebral cortex: A comparison with major visual areas |year=1989 |last1=Beaulieu |first1=Clermont |last2=Colonnier |first2=Marc |journal=The Journal of Comparative Neurology |volume=279 |issue=2 |pages=228–34 |pmid=2913067 |s2cid=85251210}} Area 17 is the primary visual cortex.{{cite web |url=http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/area+17+of+Brodmann|title=visual cortex|access-date=22 May 2016|publisher=Farlex}} Feline brains are gyrencephalic, i.e. they have a surface folding as human brains do.{{cite web |url=http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/kinser/definitions/def-gyre.html |title=Gyrencephalic Definition |access-date=6 February 2012 |publisher=Serendip |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603203820/http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/kinser/definitions/def-gyre.html |archive-date=3 June 2012 |url-status=dead }}{{cite journal |doi=10.1017/S002187820100766X |title=Investigation of feline brain anatomy for the detection of cortical spreading depression with magnetic resonance imaging |year=2001 |last1=Smith |first1=J. M. |last2=James |first2=M. F. |last3=Bockhorst |first3=K. H. J. |last4=Smith |first4=M. I. |last5=Bradley |first5=D. P. |last6=Papadakis |first6=N. G. |last7=Carpenter |first7=T. A. |last8=Parsons |first8=A. A. |last9=Leslie |first9=R. A. |last10=Hall |first10=L. D. |last11=Huang |first11=C. L.-H. |journal=Journal of Anatomy |volume=198 |issue=5 |pages=537–54 |pmid=11430693 |pmc=1468243|display-authors=8 }}

Analyses of cat brains have shown they are divided into many areas with specialized tasks that are vastly interconnected and share sensory information in a kind of hub-and-spoke network, with a large number of specialized hubs and many alternative paths between them. This exchange of sensory information allows the brain to construct a complex perception of the real world and to react to and manipulate its environment.{{cite journal |doi=10.3389/fnins.2011.00083 |title=Exploring Brain Function from Anatomical Connectivity |year=2011 |last1=Kurths |first1=Jürgen |last2=Zhou |first2=Changsong |last3=Zamora-López |first3=Gorka |journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience |volume=5 |pmid=21734863 |pages=83 |pmc=3124130|doi-access=free }}

The thalamus of the cat{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19980808)395:3<281::AID-CNE2>3.0.CO;2-Z |title=Corticocortical communication via the thalamus: Ultrastructural studies of corticothalamic projections from area 17 to the lateral posterior nucleus of the cat and inferior pulvinar nucleus of the owl monkey |year=1998 |last1=Feig |first1=Sherry |last2=Harting |first2=John K. |journal=The Journal of Comparative Neurology |volume=395 |issue=3 |pages=281–95 |pmid=9596524|s2cid=11629224 }}{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0013-4694(73)90254-X |title=Polysensory responses and sensory interaction in pulvinar and related postero-lateral thalamic nuclei in cat |year=1973 |last1=Huang |first1=Chuong C |last2=Lindsley |first2=Donald B |journal=Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=265–80 |pmid=4129614}} includes a hypothalamus,{{cite book |first1=Mark F. |last1=Bear |first2=Barry W. |last2=Connors |first3=Michael A. |last3=Paradiso |year=2007 |chapter=Neural Components of Aggression Beyond the Amygdala |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DbahEn-y6AoC&pg=PA579 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/neuroscienceexpl00mark/page/579 579–81] |title=Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |isbn=978-0-7817-6003-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/neuroscienceexpl00mark/page/579 }} an epithalamus, a lateral geniculate nucleus,{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0304-3940(80)90335-3 |title=Synaptic potentials in cat's lateral geniculate neurons during natural sleep with special reference to paradoxical sleep |year=1980 |last1=Fourment |first1=A. |last2=Hirsch |first2=J.C. |s2cid=12172929 |journal=Neuroscience Letters |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=149–54 |pmid=6302571}} and additional secondary nuclear structures. The domestic cat brain also contains the hippocampus,{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0163-1047(83)90212-1 |title=Partial kindling and emotional bias in the cat: Lasting aftereffects of partial kindling of the ventral hippocampus |year=1983 |last1=Adamec |first1=R.E. |last2=Stark-Adamec |first2=C. |journal=Behavioral and Neural Biology |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=205–22 |pmid=6314985}} amygdala,{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0361-9230(97)00343-2 |title=Neuropeptides in the Cat Amygdala |year=1998 |last1=Marcos |first1=P |last2=Coveñas |first2=R |last3=Narvaez |first3=J.A |last4=Aguirre |first4=J.A |last5=Tramu |first5=G |last6=Gonzalez–Baron |first6=S |s2cid=11932415 |journal=Brain Research Bulletin |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=261–8 |pmid=9580215}} frontal lobes (which comprise 3 to 3.5% of the total brain in cats, compared to about 25% in humans),{{cite journal |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.159.9.1615 |title=The Executive Brain: Frontal Lobes and the Civilized Mind |year=2002 |last1=Forrest |first1=David V. |journal=American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=159 |issue=9 |pages=1615–6}}{{cite book |first1=Adele |last1=Diamond |year=2011 |chapter=Frontal Lobe Involvement in Cognitive Changes During the First Year of Life |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FkOBOcj7a0kC&pg=PA127 |pages=127–80 |editor1-first=Kathleen R. |editor1-last=Gibson |editor2-first=Anne C. |editor2-last=Petersen |title=Brain Maturation and Cognitive Development: Comparative and Cross-Cultural Perspectives |publisher=AldineTransaction |isbn=978-1-4128-4450-5}} corpus callosum,{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF00231988 |title=The auditory pathway in cat corpus callosum |year=1995 |last1=Clarke |first1=Stephanie |last2=de Ribaupierre |first2=François |last3=Bajo |first3=Victoria M. |last4=Rouiller |first4=Eric M. |last5=Kraftsik |first5=Rudolf |s2cid=1012582 |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=104 |issue=3 |pmid=7589305 |pages=534–40}}{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/cercor/1.2.173 |title=The Visual Map in the Corpus Callosum of the Cat |year=1991 |last1=Payne |first1=B. R. |last2=Siwek |first2=D. F. |journal=Cerebral Cortex |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=173–88 |pmid=1822731}} anterior commissure,{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/cne.901240306 |title=Distribution of corpus callosum and anterior commissure in cat and raccoon |year=1965 |last1=Ebner |first1=Ford F. |last2=Myers |first2=Ronald E. |journal=The Journal of Comparative Neurology |volume=124 |issue=3 |pages=353–65 |pmid=5861718|s2cid=21865349 }} pineal gland,{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1600-079X.1995.tb00148.x |title=Structure of the pineal gland in the adult cat |year=1995 |last1=Boya |first1=Jesús |last2=Calvo |first2=Jose Luis |last3=Rancano |first3=Dolores |journal=Journal of Pineal Research |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=112–8 |pmid=7629690|s2cid=28451760 }} caudate nucleus, septal nuclei and midbrain.{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1471-4159.1968.tb05924.x |title=The Distribution of Tryptophan Hydroxylase in Cat Brain |year=1968 |last1=Peters |first1=D. A. V. |last2=McGeer |first2=P. L. |last3=McGeer |first3=E. G. |journal=Journal of Neurochemistry |volume=15 |issue=12 |pages=1431–5 |pmid=5305846|s2cid=28847876 }}

Grouse et al. (1979) ascertained the neuroplasticity of kittens' brains, with respect to control of visual stimulus correlated with changes in RNA structures.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0014-4886(79)90275-9 |title=Effect of visual experience on gene expression during the development of stimulus specificity in cat brain |year=1979 |last1=Grouse |first1=Lawrence D. |last2=Schrier |first2=Bruce K. |last3=Nelson |first3=Phillip G. |s2cid=29837042 |journal=Experimental Neurology |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=354–64 |pmid=428511}} In a later study, it was found that cats possess visual-recognition memory,{{cite journal |first1=Vazha |last1=Okujav |first2=Teimuraz |last2=Natishvili |first3=Ketevan |last3=Gogeshvili |first4=Thea |last4=Gurashvili |first5=Senera |last5=Chipashvili |first6=Tamila |last6=Bagashvili |first7=George |last7=Andronikashvili |first8=Natela |last8=Okujava |year=2009 |title=Visual Recognition Memory in Cats: Effects of Massed vs. Distributed Trials |journal=Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=168–72 |url=http://www.science.org.ge/moambe/3-2/Okujava.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906103925/http://www.science.org.ge/moambe/3-2/Okujava.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2015-09-06 }}{{cite journal |first1=Vazha |last1=Okujava |first2=Teimuraz |last2=Natishvili |first3=Mortime |last3=Mishkin |first4=Thea |last4=Gurashvili |first5=Senera |last5=Chipashvili |first6=Tamil |last6=Bagashvili |first7=George |last7=Andronikashvili |first8=George |last8=Kvernadze |year=2005 |title=One-trial visual recognition in cats |journal=Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=205–11 |doi=10.55782/ane-2005-1557 |pmid=15960308 |doi-access=free }} and have flexibility of cerebral encoding from visual information.{{cite journal |doi=10.1037/0097-7403.22.4.420 |title=Spatial encoding in domestic cats (Felis catus) |year=1996 |last1=Fiset |first1=Sylvain |last2=Doré |first2=François Y. |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=420–37 |pmid=8865610}}

Diet

A cognitive support diet for felines is a food that is formulated with the aim of improving mental processes like attention, short and long-term memory, learning, and problem solving. There is currently no strong evidence that such diets are effective in improving cognitive function. Claims for cognitive support appear on a number of kitten formulations to help with brain development, as well as diets aimed at seniors to help prevent cognitive disorders. These diets typically focus on supplying omega-3 fatty acids, omega-6 fatty acids, taurine, vitamins, and other supporting supplements that are considered to have positive effects on cognition.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}}

The omega-3 fatty acids are a key nutrient in cognition for felines. They are essential for felines as they cannot be synthesized naturally and must be obtained from the diet.{{Cite journal|last=Covington|first=MB.|date=2004|title=Omega-3 Fatty Acids|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/2004/0701/p133.html#|journal=American Family Physician|volume=70|issue=1|pages=133–140|pmid=15259529}} Omega-3 fatty acids that support brain development and function are alpha-linolenic acid, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Fish oils, fish and other marine sources provide a very rich source of DHA and EPA. Alpha-linolenic acid can be acquired from oils and seeds.

Omega-6 fatty acids are also often included in feline cognition diets.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}} The important omega-6 fatty acid that plays a role in brain support and cognition is arachidonic acid.{{Cite journal|last=Bauer EB.|date=2006|title=Metabolic basis for the essential nature of fatty acids and the unique dietary fatty acid requirement of cats.|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=229 | issue = 11 |pages=1729–32|doi=10.2460/javma.229.11.1729|pmid=17144816|doi-access=free}} Arachidonic acid, or AA, is found in animal sources such as meat and eggs. AA is required in cat diets, as felines convert insignificant amounts of it from linoleic acid due to the limited enzyme delta-6 desaturase.{{Cite journal|vauthors=Biagi G, Moedenti A, Cocchi M|date=2004|title=The role of dietary omega-3 and omega-6 essential fatty acids in the nutrition of dogs and cat: A review.|journal=Progress in Nutrition|volume=6 | issue = 2 |pages=1–13}} Like DHA, arachidonic acid is often found in the brain tissues of cats and seems to have a supporting role in brain function. In a 2000 study completed by Contreras et al., it was found that DHA and AA made up 20% of the fatty acids in the mammalian brain.{{Cite journal|vauthors=Coutreras MA, Greiner RS, Chang MC, Myers CS, Salem N Jr, Rapoport SI|date=2000|title=Nutritional deprivation of alpha-linolenic acid decreases but does not abolish turnover and availability of unacylated docosahexaenoic acid and docosahexaenoyl-CoA in rat brain.|journal=Journal of Neurochemistry|volume=75|issue=6|pages=2392–400|doi=10.1046/j.1471-4159.2000.0752392.x|pmid=11080190|s2cid=32982443|doi-access=free}} Arachidonic acid makes up high amounts in the membrane of most cells and has many pro-inflammatory actions.

Taurine is an amino acid, which is essential in cat diets due to their low capacity to synthesize it. Taurine has the ability to cross the blood–brain barrier in the brain, it plays a role in many neurological functions, especially in the visual development.{{Cite book|vauthors=Sturman JA, Lu P, Xu Y, Imaki H |chapter=Feline maternal taurine deficiency: Effects on visual cortex of the offspring. A morphometric and immunohistochemical study|date=1994|title=Taurine in Health & Disease |pages=369–84|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-1471-2_38|pmid=7887277|series=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=359 |isbn=978-1-4899-1473-6}} Without taurine, felines can have an abnormal morphology in the cerebellum and visual cortex. When cats were fed a diet deficient in taurine, this led to a decrease in the concentration of taurine in the retina of the eye. This resulted in deterioration of the photoreceptors, followed by complete blindness.{{Cite journal|vauthors=Sturman JA, Rassin DK, Gaull GE|date=1977|title=Taurine in development.|journal=Life Sciences|volume=21 |issue=1|pages=1–21|doi=10.1016/0024-3205(77)90420-9|pmid=329037}}

Choline is a water-soluble nutrient that prevents and improves epilepsy and cognitive disorders.{{Cite book|title=Nutritional supplements for the veterinary practice : a pocket guide|last=Shawn.|first=Messonnier|date=2012|publisher=AAHA Press|others=American Animal Hospital Association.|isbn=9781583261743|location=Lakewood, Colo.|oclc=794670587}} Supplementation is part of therapy for cats with seizures and feline cognitive dysfunction, despite this treatment being mostly based on anecdotal evidence and research done on dogs.{{Cite book|title=Natural health bible for dogs & cats : your A-Z guide to over 200 conditions, herbs, vitamins, and supplements|last=Shawn.|first=Messonnier|date=2001|publisher=Prima|isbn=9780761526735|edition= 1st |location=Roseville, Calif.|oclc=45320627}} It is the precursor to nerve chemicals like dopamine and acetylcholine, making it important for proper functioning of the nervous system.

Learning capacities

Edward Thorndike conducted some key experiments on cats' learning capacity. In one of Thorndike's experiments, cats were placed in various boxes approximately {{cvt|20|x|15|x|12|in|cm}} with a door opened by pulling a weight attached to it. The cats were observed to free themselves from the boxes by "trial and error with accidental success".{{cite book |author1=D. Bernstein |author2=L. A. Penner |author3=A. Clarke-Stewart |author4=E. J. Roy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dHd7tacWS7oC&pg=PA205 |title=Psychology |publisher=Cengage Learning |access-date=24 December 2011 |isbn=978-0-618-87407-1 |date = October 2007 |page=205}} Though cats did perform worse on occasion, Thorndike generally found that as cats continued the trials, the time taken to escape the boxes decreased in most cases.{{cite book |last=Thorndike |first=Edward Lee |title=Animal Intelligence |jstor=1624411 |year=1898 |pages=38–42 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=9780722230831 |no-pp=yes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfJGAAAAYAAJ}}

Thorndike considered the cat to follow the law of effect, which states that responses followed by satisfaction (i.e. a reward) become more likely responses to the same stimulus in the future.{{cite book |first1=Edward Lee |last1=Thorndike |year=1911 |title=Animal Intelligence |url=https://archive.org/details/animalintellige00thorgoog |publisher=Macmillan Company |page=[https://archive.org/details/animalintellige00thorgoog/page/n162 150]}} Thorndike was generally skeptical of the presence of intelligence in cats, criticising sources of the contemporary writing of the sentience of animals as "partiality in deductions from facts and more especially in the choice of facts for investigation".{{cite book |last=Budiansky |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Go8XozILUJYC&pg=PA23 |title=If a Lion Could Talk: Animal Intelligence and the Evolution of Consciousness |isbn=978-0-684-83710-9 |access-date=16 April 2012 |year=1911 |publisher=Transaction Publishers }}

An experiment was done to identify possible observational learning in kittens. Kittens that were able to observe their mothers performing an experimentally organised act were able to perform the same act sooner than kittens that had observed a non-related adult cat, and sooner than the ones who, being placed in trial and error conditions, observed no other cat performing the act.{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.166.3907.901 |title=Maternal Influence in Learning by Observation in Kittens |year=1969 |last1=Chesler |first1=P. |journal=Science |volume=166 |issue=390 |pages=901–903 |pmid=5345208 |bibcode=1969Sci...166..901C |s2cid=683297}}{{cite book |last=Case |first=Linda P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mdg0R6nDWgoC&pg=PA123 |title=The cat: its behavior, nutrition, & health |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8138-0331-9}}{{cite book |first=D. C. |last=Turner |title=The domestic cat: the biology of its behaviour |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zBYi4NgVwCUC&pg=PR7 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-63648-3}}

An experiment was done to study detour problem solving skills in companion cats and dogs using a transparent fence. If cats recognize both sides of the obstacle represent as an equally solvable task, they freely change their spatial approach to solve the task.Shajid Pyari, M.; Vékony, K.; Uccheddu, S.; Pongrácz, P. (2023). "Companion Cats Show No Effect of Trial-and-Error Learning Compared to Dogs in a Transparent-Obstacle Detour Task". Animals, 13, 32. {{doi|10.3390/ani13010032|doi-access=free}}.

According to several feline behaviorists and child psychologists, an adult cat's intelligence is comparable to that of a two- to three-year-old child, since both species learn through imitating, observing, and experimenting.{{Cite web |title=How Smart Are Cats? |url=https://www.petmd.com/cat/general-health/how-smart-are-cats |access-date=2025-03-26 |website=www.petmd.com |language=en}} Simply by watching their owners, and mirroring their actions, cats are capable of learning human-like behaviors like opening doors and turning off lights.{{Cite web |title=The Intelligent Cat – Cats International |url=https://catsinternational.org/the-intelligent-cat/ |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=catsinternational.org}}

Domestication effects

Cat intelligence study is mostly from consideration of the domesticated cat. The process of domestication has allowed for closer observation of cat behaviour and in the increased incidence of interspecies communication,Boone 1956{{verify source|date=June 2013}}Fox 1980{{verify source|date=June 2013}} and the inherent plasticity of the cat's brain has become apparent as the number of studies in this have increased scientific insight.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}}

Changes in the genetic structure of a number of cats have been identified.{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1139518 |title=The Near Eastern Origin of Cat Domestication |year=2007 |last1=Driscoll |first1=C. A. |last2=Menotti-Raymond |first2=M. |last3=Roca |first3=A. L. |last4=Hupe |first4=K. |last5=Johnson |first5=W. E. |last6=Geffen |first6=E. |last7=Harley |first7=E. H. |last8=Delibes |first8=M. |last9=Pontier |first9=D. |last10=Kitchener |first10=A. C. |last11=Yamaguchi |first11=N. |last12=O'Brien |first12=S. J. |last13=MacDonald |first13=D. W. |journal=Science |volume=317 |issue=5837 |pages=519–23 |pmid=17600185|bibcode = 2007Sci...317..519D |display-authors=8 |pmc=5612713}}{{cite web |publisher=The Feline Advisory Bureau |url=http://www.fabcats.org/behaviour/understanding/evolution.html |title=Evolution of the cat}} This is as a consequence of both domestication practises and the activity of breeding, so that the species has undergone genetic evolutionary change due to human selection. This human selection has been coupled with an initial, naturally occurring selective set of cats, possessing characteristics desirable for the sharing of human habitation and living in Neolithic urban environments.{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.0901586106 |title=Colloquium Papers: From wild animals to domestic pets, an evolutionary view of domestication |year=2009 |last1=Driscoll |first1=Carlos A. |last2=MacDonald |first2=David W. |last3=O'Brien |first3=Stephen J. |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=106 |pages=9971–8 |pmid=19528637 |pmc=2702791 |issue=Suppl 1 |jstor=40428411 |bibcode=2009PNAS..106.9971D|doi-access=free }}

Cats' intelligence may have increased during their semi-domestication: urban living may have provided an enriched and stimulating environment requiring novel adaptive behaviours. This scavenging behaviour{{cite web |publisher=BBCWorldwide |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I-PIjQRYQZ0 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/I-PIjQRYQZ0 |archive-date=2021-12-19 |url-status=live|title=Rare scavenging wild cat – Jaguar |work=Stalking the Jaguar |access-date=24 December 2011}}{{cbignore}} would only have produced slow changes in evolutionary terms, but such changes would have been comparable to the changes to the brain{{cite book |editor1-first=Craig B. |editor1-last=Stanford |editor2-first=Henry T. |editor2-last=Bunn |year=2001 |title=Meat-Eating and Human Evolution |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-535129-3}}{{page needed|date=June 2013}} of early primitive hominids who co-existed with primitive cats (like, for example, Machairodontinae, Megantereon and Homotherium) and adapted to savannah conditions.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2007.02.019 |title=Evidence for early cat taming in Egypt |year=2007 |last1=Linseele |first1=Veerle |last2=Van Neer |first2=Wim |last3=Hendrickx |first3=Stan |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=34 |issue=12 |pages=2081–90|bibcode=2007JArSc..34.2081L }}{{cite book |first1=Philip V. |last1=Tobias |year=1992 |chapter=Paleoecology of Hominid Emergence |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=py01HMuAIh4C&pg=PA147 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/majoreventsinhis0000unse/page/147 147–58] |editor1-first=J. William |editor1-last=Schopf |title=Major Events in the History of Life |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |isbn=978-0-86720-268-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/majoreventsinhis0000unse/page/147 }}{{cite web |last=Croitor |first=Roman |date=17 March 2010 |title=On supposed ecological relationship of the early representatives of the genus Homo and saber-toothed cats |work=SciTopics |access-date=26 June 2013 |url=http://www.scitopics.com/On_supposed_ecological_relationship_of_the_early_representatives_of_the_genus_Homo_and_saber_toothed_cats.html}}{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-9520-9_3 |chapter=The Influence of Predation on Primate and Early Human Evolution: Impetus for Cooperation |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMEC1AAKsP8C&pg=PA19 |title=Origins of Altruism and Cooperation |year=2011 |last1=Hart |first1=Donna |last2=Sussman |first2=Robert W. |isbn=978-1-4419-9519-3 |pages=19–40 |editor1-first=Robert W. |editor1-last=Sussman |editor2-first=C. Robert |editor2-last=Cloninger}}

References

External links

[https://web.archive.org/web/20120102065538/http://biology.clc.uc.edu/fankhauser/labs/anatomy_%26_physiology/A%26P202/Brain_dissection/CAT_BRAIN.htm Removal and study of the cat brain]
[https://web.archive.org/web/20120102070309/http://biology.clc.uc.edu/fankhauser/Labs/Anatomy_%26_Physiology/A%26P202/Brain_Dissection/CAT_cranial_nerves.htm Cranial nerves in the cat]

Category:Animal intelligence

Category:Cat behavior

Category:Cognitive psychology

Category:Neuropsychology

Category:Felinology

Category:Intelligence

Category:Cognitive neuroscience

Category:Animal nervous system