intelligence

{{Short description|Ability to perceive, infer, retain or apply information}}

{{About||the human faculty of thinking and understanding|Intellect|human intelligence|Human intelligence|other uses}}

Intelligence has been defined in many ways: the capacity for abstraction, logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving. It can be described as the ability to perceive or infer information; and to retain it as knowledge to be applied to adaptive behaviors within an environment or context.Sharma, Radha R. (2008). Emotional Intelligence from 17th Century to 21st Century: Perspectives and Directions for Future Research. Sage Journals. Vol. 12.

The term rose to prominence during the early 1900s.{{vague|date=March 2025|reason=early 1900s decade or early 20th century?}}White, Margaret B. & Hall, Alfred E. (1980). An overview of intelligence testing. Phi Delta Kappa International. Vol. 58, No. 4, pp. 210-216Buxton, Claude E. (1985). Influences in Psychology: Points of View in the Modern History of Psychology. Academic Press. Most psychologists believe that intelligence can be divided into various domains or competencies.

Intelligence has been long-studied in humans, and across numerous disciplines. It has also been observed in the cognition of non-human animals.{{cite book |title=Cognition, Evolution and Behavior |vauthors=Shettleworth SJ |publisher=Oxford Press |year=2010 |edition=2ND |location=New York}} Some researchers have suggested that plants exhibit forms of intelligence, though this remains controversial.{{Cite journal |last1=Parise |first1=André Geremia |last2=Gaglianob |first2=Monica |last3=Souza |first3=Gustavo Maia |date=3 January 2020 |title=Extended cognition in plants: is it possible? |journal=Plant Signaling & Behavior |volume=15 |issue=2|doi=10.1080/15592324.2019.1710661 |pmid=31900033 |pmc=7053971 |bibcode=2020PlSiB..1510661P }}

Intelligence in computers or other machines is called artificial intelligence.

Etymology

The word intelligence derives from the Latin nouns intelligentia or intellēctus, which in turn stem from the verb intelligere, to comprehend or perceive. In the Middle Ages, the word intellectus became the scholarly technical term for understanding and a translation for the Greek philosophical term nous. This term, however, was strongly linked to the metaphysical and cosmological theories of teleological scholasticism, including theories of the immortality of the soul, and the concept of the active intellect (also known as the active intelligence). This approach to the study of nature was strongly rejected by early modern philosophers such as Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and David Hume, all of whom preferred "understanding" (in place of "intellectus" or "intelligence") in their English philosophical works.{{Cite book |last=Maich|page=305|title=A Hobbes Dictionary|first=Aloysius|publisher=Blackwell|year=1995}}{{Cite book|last=Nidditch|first=Peter|chapter=Foreword|page=xxii|publisher=Oxford University Press|title=An Essay Concerning Human Understanding}} Hobbes for example, in his Latin De Corpore, used "intellectus intelligit", translated in the English version as "the understanding understandeth", as a typical example of a logical absurdity.{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/thomhobbesmalme03molegoog|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105204954/http://www.archive.org/stream/thomhobbesmalme03molegoog|url-status=dead|title=Opera philosophica quæ latine scripsit omnia, in unum corpus nunc primum collecta studio et labore Gulielmi Molesworth ..|first1=Thomas|last1=Hobbes|first2=William|last2=Molesworth|date=15 February 1839|archive-date=5 November 2013|publisher=Londoni, apud Joannem Bohn|via=Internet Archive}} "Intelligence" has therefore become less common in English language philosophy, but it has later been taken up (with the scholastic theories that it now implies) in more contemporary psychology.This paragraph almost verbatim from {{cite book|editor-last1=Goldstein|editor-first1=Sam|editor-last2=Princiotta|editor-first2=Dana|editor-last3=Naglieri|editor-first3=Jack A.|title=Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts|date=2015|publisher=Springer|location=New York, Heidelberg, Dordrecht, London|isbn=978-1-4939-1561-3|page=3}}

Definitions

There is controversy over how to define intelligence. Scholars describe its constituent abilities in various ways, and differ in the degree to which they conceive of intelligence as quantifiable.{{cite book

|author1=S. Legg |author2=M. Hutter | chapter = A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence

| title = Advances in Artificial General Intelligence: Concepts, Architectures and Algorithms

| volume = 157

| pages = 17–24

| url = http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1565458

|isbn=978-1586037581 |year=2007 |publisher=IOS Press }}

A consensus report called Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns, published in 1995 by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological Association, states:

{{Blockquote|Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent: a given person's intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions, and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen, somewhat different, definitions.{{cite journal |last1=Neisser |first1=Ulrich |last2=Boodoo |first2=Gwyneth |last3=Bouchard |first3=Thomas J. |last4=Boykin |first4=A. Wade |last5=Brody |first5=Nathan |last6=Ceci |first6=Stephen J. |last7=Halpern |first7=Diane F. |last8=Loehlin |first8=John C. |last9=Perloff |first9=Robert |last10=Sternberg |first10=Robert J. |last11=Urbina |first11=Susana |author-link1=Ulrich Neisser |author-link10=Robert Sternberg |title=Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns |journal=American Psychologist |issn=0003-066X |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=77–101 |year=1996 |url=http://psych.colorado.edu/~carey/pdfFiles/IQ_Neisser2.pdf |access-date=9 October 2014 |doi=10.1037/0003-066x.51.2.77 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328064747/http://psych.colorado.edu/~carey/pdfFiles/IQ_Neisser2.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}}}

Psychologists and learning researchers also have suggested definitions of intelligence such as the following:

{| class="wikitable"

! style="width:140px;"| Researcher

! Quotation

| Alfred Binet

| Judgment, otherwise called "good sense", "practical sense", "initiative", the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances ... auto-critique.{{Cite book |last=Binet |first=Alfred |chapter=New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level of subnormals |title=The development of intelligence in children: The Binet-Simon Scale |others=E.S. Kite (Trans.) |location=Baltimore |publisher=Williams & Wilkins |year=1916 |orig-date=1905 |pages=37–90 |chapter-url=http://psychclassics.asu.edu/Binet/binet1.htm |quote=originally published as Méthodes nouvelles pour le diagnostic du niveau intellectuel des anormaux. L'Année Psychologique, 11, 191–244 |access-date=14 August 2010 |archive-date=19 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619145626/http://psychclassics.asu.edu/Binet/binet1.htm |url-status=dead }}

| David Wechsler

| The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.{{Cite book |last=Wechsler |first=D |author-link=David Wechsler |title=The measurement of adult intelligence |publisher=Williams & Wilkins |location=Baltimore |year=1944 |isbn=978-0-19-502296-4 |oclc=219871557}}

| Lloyd Humphreys

| "...the resultant of the process of acquiring, storing in memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills".{{Cite journal |author=Humphreys, L. G. |year=1979 |title=The construct of general intelligence |journal=Intelligence |volume=3 |pages=105–120 |doi=10.1016/0160-2896(79)90009-6 |issue=2}}

|Howard Gardner

|To my mind, a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of problem solving—enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product—and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems—and thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.{{Cite book |title=Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-465-02510-7 |oclc=221932479 |url=https://archive.org/details/framesofmindtheo00gard }}

|Robert Sternberg & William Salter

|Goal-directed adaptive behavior.{{Cite book |author=Sternberg RJ |author-link=Robert Sternberg |author2=Salter W |title=Handbook of human intelligence |publisher= Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-521-29687-8 |oclc=11226466}}

|Reuven Feuerstein

|The theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability describes intelligence as "the unique propensity of human beings to change or modify the structure of their cognitive functioning to adapt to the changing demands of a life situation".Feuerstein, R., Feuerstein, S., Falik, L & Rand, Y. (1979; 2002). Dynamic assessments of cognitive modifiability. ICELP Press, Jerusalem: Israel; Feuerstein, R. (1990). The theory of structural modifiability. In B. Presseisen (Ed.), Learning and thinking styles: Classroom interaction. Washington, DC: National Education Associations

|Shane Legg & Marcus Hutter

| A synthesis of 70+ definitions from psychology, philosophy, and AI researchers: "Intelligence measures an agent's ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments", which has been mathematically formalized.{{cite journal

|author1=S. Legg |author2=M. Hutter | title = Universal Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence

| volume = 17

| number = 4

| journal = Minds and Machines

| pages = 391–444

| year = 2007

| doi = 10.1007/s11023-007-9079-x

| arxiv =0712.3329|bibcode=2007arXiv0712.3329L |s2cid=847021 }}

|Alexander Wissner-Gross

| F = T ∇ S $_\tau$ {{cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/alex_wissner_gross_a_new_equation_for_intelligence |title=TED Speaker: Alex Wissner-Gross: A new equation for intelligence |date=6 February 2014 |publisher=TED.com |access-date=2016-09-07 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160904234706/http://www.ted.com/talks/alex_wissner_gross_a_new_equation_for_intelligence |archive-date=4 September 2016 }}

"Intelligence is a force, F, that acts so as to maximize future freedom of action. It acts to maximize future freedom of action, or keep options open, with some strength T, with the diversity of possible accessible futures, S, up to some future time horizon, τ. In short, intelligence doesn't like to get trapped".

Human

Human intelligence is the intellectual power of humans, which is marked by complex cognitive feats and high levels of motivation and self-awareness.{{cite book|last1=Tirri, Nokelainen|title=Measuring Multiple Intelligences and Moral Sensitivities in Education|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-94-6091-758-5|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9789460917585|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802041535/http://www.springer.com/gp/book/9789460917585|archive-date=2 August 2017|year=2011|series=Moral Development and Citizenship Education}}{{cite journal |last1=Colom |first1=Roberto |date=Dec 2010 |title=Human intelligence and brain networks |journal=Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=489–501 |doi=10.31887/DCNS.2010.12.4/rcolom |pmc=3181994 |pmid=21319494}} Intelligence enables humans to remember descriptions of things and use those descriptions in future behaviors. It gives humans the cognitive abilities to learn, form concepts, understand, and reason, including the capacities to recognize patterns, innovate, plan, solve problems, and employ language to communicate. These cognitive abilities can be organized into frameworks like fluid vs. crystallized and the Unified Cattell-Horn-Carroll model,{{Citation |last1=Stanek |first1=Kevin C. |title=Taxonomies and Compendia of Cognitive Ability and Personality Constructs and Measures Relevant to Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology |date=2018 |url=http://sk.sagepub.com/reference/the-sage-handbook-of-industrial-work-and-org-psychology-vol1/i3345.xml |work=The SAGE Handbook of Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology: Personnel Psychology and Employee Performance |pages=366–407 |access-date=2024-01-08 |place=1 Oliver's Yard, 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP |publisher=SAGE Publications Ltd |doi=10.4135/9781473914940.n14 |isbn=978-1-4462-0721-5 |last2=Ones |first2=Deniz S.}} which contains abilities like fluid reasoning, perceptual speed, verbal abilities, and others.

Intelligence is different from learning. Learning refers to the act of retaining facts and information or abilities and being able to recall them for future use. Intelligence, on the other hand, is the cognitive ability of someone to perform these and other processes.

= Intelligence quotient (IQ) =

There have been various attempts to quantify intelligence via psychometric testing. Prominent among these are the various Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests, which were first developed in the early 20th century to screen children for intellectual disability.{{Cite book |last=Kaufman |first=Alan S. |title=IQ Testing 101 |publisher=Springer |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8261-0629-2}} Over time, IQ tests became more pervasive, being used to screen immigrants, military recruits, and job applicants.{{cite journal |last1=Richardson |first1=John T. E. |year=2003 |title=Howard Andrew Knox and the origins of performance testing on Ellis Island, 1912-1916 |journal=History of Psychology |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=143–70 |doi=10.1037/1093-4510.6.2.143 |pmid=12822554}} As the tests became more popular, belief that IQ tests measure a fundamental and unchanging attribute that all humans possess became widespread.

An influential theory that promoted the idea that IQ measures a fundamental quality possessed by every person is the theory of General Intelligence, or g factor.{{Cite journal |last=Schlinger |first=Henry D. |date=2003 |title=The myth of intelligence |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2003-01443-003 |journal=The Psychological Record |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=15–32}} The g factor is a construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual's scores on a range of cognitive tests.

Today, most psychologists agree that IQ measures at least some aspects of human intelligence, particularly the ability to thrive in an academic context. However, many psychologists question the validity of IQ tests as a measure of intelligence as a whole.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALkaCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT331 |title=Psychology: Themes and Variations |vauthors=Weiten W |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2016 |isbn=978-1305856127 |page=281 |quote=IQ tests are valid measures of the kind of intelligence necessary to do well in academic work. But if the purpose is to assess intelligence in a broader sense, the validity of IQ tests is questionable.}}{{Cite journal|last=Bouchard|first=Thomas J.|date=1982|title=Review of The Intelligence Controversy|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1422481|journal=The American Journal of Psychology|volume=95|issue=2|pages=346–349|doi=10.2307/1422481|jstor=1422481|issn=0002-9556}}

There is debate about the heritability of IQ, that is, what proportion of differences in IQ test performance between individuals are explained by genetic or environmental factors.{{cite journal|last1=Bouchard|first1=Thomas J.|date=7 August 2013|title=The Wilson Effect: The Increase in Heritability of IQ With Age|journal=Twin Research and Human Genetics|volume=16|issue=5|pages=923–930|doi=10.1017/thg.2013.54|pmid=23919982|s2cid=13747480|doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |last1=Bouchard |first1=Thomas J. |last2=McGue |first2=Matt |title=Genetic and environmental influences on human psychological differences |journal=Journal of Neurobiology |date=January 2003 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=4–45 |doi=10.1002/neu.10160 |pmid=12486697 |doi-access=free }} The scientific consensus is that genetics does not explain average differences in IQ test performance between racial groups.{{Cite journal |last1=Bird |first1=Kevin |last2=Jackson |first2=John P. |last3=Winston |first3=Andrew S. |date=2024 |title=Confronting Scientific Racism in Psychology: Lessons from Evolutionary Biology and Genetics |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Famp0001228 |journal=American Psychologist |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=497–508 |doi=10.1037/amp0001228 |pmid=39037836 |quote=Recent articles claim that the folk categories of race are genetically meaningful divisions, and that evolved genetic differences among races and nations are important for explaining immutable differences in cognitive ability, educational attainment, crime, sexual behavior, and wealth; all claims that are opposed by a strong scientific consensus to the contrary.}}{{cite journal |last1=Nisbett |first1=Richard E. |author-link1=Richard E. Nisbett |last2=Aronson |first2=Joshua |last3=Blair |first3=Clancy |last4=Dickens |first4=William |last5=Flynn |first5=James |author-link5=Jim Flynn (academic) |last6=Halpern |first6=Diane F. |author-link6=Diane F. Halpern |last7=Turkheimer |first7=Eric |date=2012 |title=Group differences in IQ are best understood as environmental in origin |url=http://people.virginia.edu/~ent3c/papers2/Articles%20for%20Online%20CV/Nisbett%20(2012)%20Group.pdf |url-status=live |journal=American Psychologist |volume=67 |pages=503–504 |doi=10.1037/a0029772 |issn=0003-066X |pmid=22963427 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150123114230/http://people.virginia.edu/~ent3c/papers2/Articles%20for%20Online%20CV/Nisbett%20(2012)%20Group.pdf |archive-date=23 January 2015 |access-date=22 July 2013 |number=6}}{{Cite journal |last1=Ceci |first1=Stephen |last2=Williams |first2=Wendy M. |date=1 February 2009 |title=Should scientists study race and IQ? YES: The scientific truth must be pursued |journal=Nature |volume=457 |issue=7231 |pages=788–789 |bibcode=2009Natur.457..788C |doi=10.1038/457788a |pmid=19212385 |s2cid=205044224 |quote=There is an emerging consensus about racial and gender equality in genetic determinants of intelligence; most researchers, including ourselves, agree that genes do not explain between-group differences. |doi-access=free}}

= Emotional =

Emotional intelligence is thought to be the ability to convey emotion to others in an understandable way as well as to read the emotions of others accurately.{{Cite journal|last1=Salovey|first1=Peter|last2=Mayer|first2=John D.|date=March 1990|title=Emotional Intelligence|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.2190/DUGG-P24E-52WK-6CDG|journal=Imagination, Cognition and Personality|language=en|volume=9|issue=3|pages=185–211|doi=10.2190/DUGG-P24E-52WK-6CDG|hdl=10654/36316|s2cid=219900460|issn=0276-2366|hdl-access=free}} Some theories imply that a heightened emotional intelligence could also lead to faster generating and processing of emotions in addition to the accuracy.{{Cite journal|last1=Mayer|first1=John D.|last2=Salovey|first2=Peter|date=1993-10-01|title=The intelligence of emotional intelligence|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0160-2896%2893%2990010-3|journal=Intelligence|language=en|volume=17|issue=4|pages=433–442|doi=10.1016/0160-2896(93)90010-3|issn=0160-2896}} In addition, higher emotional intelligence is thought to help us manage emotions, which is beneficial for our problem-solving skills. Emotional intelligence is important to our mental health and has ties to social intelligence.

= Social =

Social intelligence is the ability to understand the social cues and motivations of others and oneself in social situations. It is thought to be distinct from other types of intelligence, but has relations to emotional intelligence. Social intelligence has coincided with other studies that focus on how we make judgements of others, the accuracy with which we do so, and why people would be viewed as having positive or negative social character. There is debate as to whether or not these studies and social intelligence come from the same theories or if there is a distinction between them, and they are generally thought to be of two different schools of thought.{{Cite journal|last1=Walker|first1=Ronald E.|last2=Foley|first2=Jeanne M.|date=December 1973|title=Social Intelligence: Its History and Measurement|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.2466/pr0.1973.33.3.839|journal=Psychological Reports|language=en|volume=33|issue=3|pages=839–864|doi=10.2466/pr0.1973.33.3.839|s2cid=144839425|issn=0033-2941}}

= Moral =

Moral intelligence is the capacity to understand right from wrong and to behave based on the value that is believed to be right.[http://www.micheleborba.com/Pages/7virtues.htm The Step-By-Step Plan to Building Moral Intelligence][http://www.micheleborba.com/Pages/7virtues.htm .] Retrieved 28 April 2016. It is considered a distinct form of intelligence, independent to both emotional and cognitive intelligence.Beheshtifar, M., Esmaeli, Z., & Moghadam, M. N. (2011). Effect of moral intelligence on leadership. European Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Sciences, 43, 6-11.

= Book smart and street smart =

Concepts of "book smarts" and "street smart" are contrasting views based on the premise that some people have knowledge gained through academic study, but may lack the experience to sensibly apply that knowledge, while others have knowledge gained through practical experience, but may lack accurate information usually gained through study by which to effectively apply that knowledge. Artificial intelligence researcher Hector Levesque has noted that:

{{blockquote|Given the importance of learning through text in our own personal lives and in our culture, it is perhaps surprising how utterly dismissive we tend to be of it. It is sometimes derided as being merely "book knowledge", and having it is being "book smart". In contrast, knowledge acquired through direct experience and apprenticeship is called "street knowledge", and having it is being "street smart".Hector J. Levesque, Common Sense, the Turing Test, and the Quest for Real AI (2017), p. 80.}}

Nonhuman animal

File:Macaca fascicularis aurea using a stone tool - journal.pone.0072872.g002f.png using a stone]]

Although humans have been the primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular species, and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as numerical and verbal reasoning abilities. Some challenges include defining intelligence so it has the same meaning across species, and operationalizing a measure that accurately compares mental ability across species and contexts.{{cite book | chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-intelligence/animal-intelligence/82F839242F36A27D8B31D6AC0FE8B92F | doi=10.1017/9781108770422.018 | chapter=Animal Intelligence | title=The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence | date=2019 | last1=Zentall | first1=Thomas R. | pages=397–427 | isbn=978-1-108-75581-8 }}

Wolfgang Köhler's research on the intelligence of apes is an example of research in this area, as is Stanley Coren's book, The Intelligence of Dogs.{{Cite book |last=Coren |first=Stanley |title=The Intelligence of Dogs |publisher=Bantam Books |isbn=978-0-553-37452-0 |year=1995 |oclc=30700778 |url=https://archive.org/details/intelligenceofdo00core }} Non-human animals particularly noted and studied for their intelligence include chimpanzees, bonobos (notably the language-using Kanzi) and other great apes, dolphins, elephants and to some extent parrots, rats and ravens.{{cite web |last1=Childs |first1=Casper |title=Words With An Astronaut |url=https://valentitheme.com/classic/words-an-astronaut/ |website=Valenti |date=27 May 2020 |publisher=Codetipi |access-date=14 March 2021}}

Cephalopod intelligence provides an important comparative study. Cephalopods appear to exhibit characteristics of significant intelligence, yet their nervous systems differ radically from those of backboned animals. Vertebrates such as mammals, birds, reptiles and fish have shown a fairly high degree of intellect that varies according to each species. The same is true with arthropods.{{cite journal |last1=Roth |first1=Gerhard |title=Convergent evolution of complex brains and high intelligence |journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |date=19 December 2015 |volume=370 |issue=1684 |pages=20150049 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0049 |pmid=26554042|pmc=4650126 |doi-access=free }}

= ''g'' factor in non-humans =

Evidence of a general factor of intelligence has been observed in non-human animals. First described in humans, the g factor has since been identified in a number of non-human species.Reader, S. M., Hager, Y., & Laland, K. N. (2011). "The evolution of primate general and cultural intelligence". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 366(1567), 1017–1027.

Cognitive ability and intelligence cannot be measured using the same, largely verbally dependent, scales developed for humans. Instead, intelligence is measured using a variety of interactive and observational tools focusing on innovation, habit reversal, social learning, and responses to novelty. Studies have shown that g is responsible for 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability measures in primates and between 55% and 60% of the variance in mice (Locurto, Locurto). These values are similar to the accepted variance in IQ explained by g in humans (40–50%).Kamphaus, R. W. (2005). Clinical assessment of child and adolescent intelligence. Springer Science & Business Media.

Plant

{{Main|Plant perception (physiology)#Plant cognition|Plant cognition}}

It has been argued that plants should also be classified as intelligent based on their ability to sense and model external and internal environments and adjust their morphology, physiology and phenotype accordingly to ensure self-preservation and reproduction.{{Cite journal |last=Trewavas |first=Anthony |date = September 2005|title=Green plants as intelligent organisms |journal=Trends in Plant Science |pmid=16054860 |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=413–419 |doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2005.07.005|bibcode=2005TPS....10..413T }}{{Cite journal| page = 841| year = 2002| pmid = 11859344| doi = 10.1038/415841a| issue = 6874| volume = 415| title = Mindless mastery| journal = Nature| last1 = Trewavas | first1 = A.| bibcode = 2002Natur.415..841T| s2cid = 4350140| doi-access = free}}

A counter argument is that intelligence is commonly understood to involve the creation and use of persistent memories as opposed to computation that does not involve learning. If this is accepted as definitive of intelligence, then it includes the artificial intelligence of robots capable of "machine learning", but excludes those purely autonomic sense-reaction responses that can be observed in many plants. Plants are not limited to automated sensory-motor responses, however, they are capable of discriminating positive and negative experiences and of "learning" (registering memories) from their past experiences. They are also capable of communication, accurately computing their circumstances, using sophisticated cost–benefit analysis and taking tightly controlled actions to mitigate and control the diverse environmental stressors.{{Cite journal | last1 = Goh | first1 = C. H. | last2 = Nam | first2 = H. G. | last3 = Park | first3 = Y. S. | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-313X.2003.01872.x | title = Stress memory in plants: A negative regulation of stomatal response and transient induction of rd22 gene to light in abscisic acid-entrained Arabidopsis plants | journal = The Plant Journal | volume = 36 | issue = 2 | pages = 240–255 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14535888| doi-access = free }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Volkov | first1 = A. G. | last2 = Carrell | first2 = H. | last3 = Baldwin | first3 = A. | last4 = Markin | first4 = V. S. | title = Electrical memory in Venus flytrap | doi = 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2009.03.005 | journal = Bioelectrochemistry | volume = 75 | issue = 2 | pages = 142–147 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19356999}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Rensing | first1 = L. | last2 = Koch | first2 = M. | last3 = Becker | first3 = A. | doi = 10.1007/s00114-009-0591-0 | title = A comparative approach to the principal mechanisms of different memory systems | journal = Naturwissenschaften | volume = 96 | issue = 12 | pages = 1373–1384 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19680619|bibcode = 2009NW.....96.1373R | s2cid = 29195832 | doi-access = free }}

Artificial

Scholars studying artificial intelligence have proposed definitions of intelligence that include the intelligence demonstrated by machines. Some of these definitions are meant to be general enough to encompass human and other animal intelligence as well. An intelligent agent can be defined as a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success.{{Cite book |author1=Russell, Stuart J. |author2=Norvig, Peter |title=Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach |publisher=Prentice Hall |location= Englewood Cliffs, N.J. |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-13-790395-5 |oclc=51325314}} Kaplan and Haenlein define artificial intelligence as "a system's ability to correctly interpret external data, to learn from such data, and to use those learnings to achieve specific goals and tasks through flexible adaptation".{{cite web|title=Kaplan Andreas and Haelein Michael (2019) Siri, Siri, in my hand: Who's the fairest in the land? On the interpretations, illustrations, and implications of artificial intelligence, Business Horizons, 62(1)|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com}} Progress in artificial intelligence can be demonstrated in benchmarks ranging from games to practical tasks such as protein folding.{{cite news |title=How did a company best known for playing games just crack one of science's toughest puzzles? |url=https://fortune.com/2020/11/30/deepmind-solved-protein-folding-alphafold/ |access-date=21 February 2021 |work=Fortune |date=2020 |language=en}} Existing AI lags humans in terms of general intelligence, which is sometimes defined as the "capacity to learn how to carry out a huge range of tasks".{{cite news |last1=Heath |first1=Nick |title=What is artificial general intelligence? |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/what-is-artificial-general-intelligence/ |access-date=21 February 2021 |work=ZDNet |date=2018 |language=en}}

Mathematician Olle Häggström defines intelligence in terms of "optimization power", an agent's capacity for efficient cross-domain optimization of the world according to the agent's preferences, or more simply the ability to "steer the future into regions of possibility ranked high in a preference ordering". In this optimization framework, Deep Blue has the power to "steer a chessboard's future into a subspace of possibility which it labels as 'winning', despite attempts by Garry Kasparov to steer the future elsewhere."{{cite book |last1=Häggström |first1=Olle |author1-link=Olle Häggström |title=Here be dragons: science, technology and the future of humanity |date=2016 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0191035395 |pages=103, 104}} Hutter and Legg, after surveying the literature, define intelligence as "an agent's ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments".{{cite news |author1=Gary Lea |title=The Struggle To Define What Artificial Intelligence Actually Means |url=https://www.popsci.com/why-we-need-legal-definition-artificial-intelligence/ |access-date=21 February 2021 |work=Popular Science |date=2015 |language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=Legg |first1=Shane |last2=Hutter |first2=Marcus |title=Universal Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence |journal=Minds and Machines |date=30 November 2007 |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=391–444 |doi=10.1007/s11023-007-9079-x|arxiv=0712.3329 |s2cid=847021 }} While cognitive ability is sometimes measured as a one-dimensional parameter, it could also be represented as a "hypersurface in a multidimensional space" to compare systems that are good at different intellectual tasks.{{cite book |last1=Bostrom |first1=Nick |title=Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies |date=2014 |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-967811-2 |at="Chapter 4: The Kinetics of an Intelligence Explosion", footnote 9 |publisher=Oxford University Press}} Some skeptics believe that there is no meaningful way to define intelligence, aside from "just pointing to ourselves".{{cite web |title=Superintelligence: The Idea That Eats Smart People |url=https://idlewords.com/talks/superintelligence.htm |website=idlewords.com |access-date=21 February 2021}}

References

External links

{{In Our Time|Intelligence|p00545l3|Intelligence}}
[http://www.indiana.edu/%7Eintell/map.shtml History of Influences in the Development of Intelligence Theory and Testing]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111042550/http://www.indiana.edu/%7Eintell/map.shtml |date=11 November 2007 }}. Developed by Jonathan Plucker at Indiana University.
[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-limits-of-intelligence The Limits of Intelligence: The laws of physics may well prevent the human brain from evolving into an ever more powerful thinking machine]. By Douglas Fox in Scientific American, 14 June 2011.
[https://arxiv.org/abs/0706.3639 A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence]

Category:Developmental psychology

Category:Psychological testing

Category:Differential psychology