Childbirth#Management

The most prominent sign of labour is strong repetitive uterine contractions. Pain in contractions has been described as feeling similar to very strong menstrual cramps. Crowning, when the baby's head becomes visible, may be experienced as an intense stretching and burning.

Back labour is a complication that occurs during childbirth when the feet or the bottom of the baby is visible first (bottom-first presentation), instead of the being born head down (head-first presentation).{{Cite web |title=What is back labor? Signs, pain relief, and more |url=https://www.babycenter.com/pregnancy/your-body/back-labor_1451580 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925101207/https://www.babycenter.com/pregnancy/your-body/back-labor_1451580 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=25 September 2020 |access-date=2024-03-17 |website=BabyCenter |language=en}} This leads to more intense contractions, and causes pain in the lower back that persists between contractions as the back of the fetus’ head exerts pressure on the mother's sacrum.{{Cite web|date=2020-04-27 |title=Back Labor |url=https://americanpregnancy.org/healthy-pregnancy/labor-and-birth/back-labor/ |access-date=2024-03-17 |website=American Pregnancy Association |language=en-US}}

Another prominent sign of labour is the rupture of membranes, commonly known as "water breaking". During pregnancy, a baby is surrounded and cushioned by a fluid-filled sac (the amniotic sac). Usually the sac ruptures at the beginning of or during labour. It may cause a gush of fluid or leak in an intermittent or constant flow of small amounts from a woman's vagina. The fluid is clear or pale yellow. If the amniotic sac has not yet broken during labour the health care provider may break it in a technique called an amniotomy. In an amniotomy a thin plastic hook is used to make a small opening in the sac, causing the water to break.{{cite web |title=Labor and delivery, postpartum care |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/labor-and-delivery/in-depth/water-breaking/art-20044142 |website=Mayo Clinic |access-date=16 March 2023 |archive-date=2 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102225815/https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/labor-and-delivery/in-depth/water-breaking/art-20044142 |url-status=live }} If the sac breaks before labour starts, it's called a prelabour rupture of membranes. Contractions will typically start within 24 hours after the water breaks. If not, the care provider will generally begin labour induction within 24 to 48 hours. If the baby is preterm (less than 37 weeks of pregnancy), the healthcare provider may use a medication to delay delivery.{{cite web |title=Water Breaking |url=https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/24382-water-breaking |website=Cleveland Clinic |access-date=16 March 2023 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317034514/https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/24382-water-breaking |url-status=live }}

{{See also|Pain management during childbirth}}

Labor pains have both visceral and somatic components.{{Cite journal |last1=Labor |first1=Simona |last2=Maguire |first2=Simon |date=2008-12-01 |title=The Pain of Labour |journal=Reviews in Pain |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=15–19 |doi=10.1177/204946370800200205 |issn=2042-1249 |pmc=4589939 |pmid=26526404}} During the first and second stages of labour, uterine contractions cause stretching and opening of the cervix. This in turn triggers visceral pain in the inner cervix and lower segment of the spine.{{Cite journal |last=Lowe |first=Nancy K. |date=1996 |title=The Pain and Discomfort of Labor and Birth |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1552-6909.1996.tb02517.x |journal=Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, & Neonatal Nursing |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=82–92 |doi=10.1111/j.1552-6909.1996.tb02517.x |pmid=8627407 |issn=1552-6909|url-access=subscription }} Somatic pain is triggered at the end of the first and second stages of labour by pain receptors that supply the nerves on the vaginal surface of the cervix, resulting from stretching, distention, and tearing of the vagina, perineum, and pelvic floor. Compared to visceral pain, somatic pain is more resistant to opioid pain medication. Nitrous oxide may be used in hospitals and birthing centers for this reason.{{Cite journal |last=Rooks |first=Judith P. |date=2012 |title=Labor Pain Management Other Than Neuraxial: What Do We Know and Where Do We Go Next? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/birt.12009 |journal=Birth |language=en |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=318–322 |doi=10.1111/birt.12009 |pmid=23281953 |issn=1523-536X}}

Beyond physical pain, there are also well-documented biocultural and psychosocial aspects of labour pain and pain management.{{Cite journal |last1=Alehagen |first1=Siw |last2=Wijma |first2=Klaas |last3=Wijma |first3=Barbro |date=2001 |title=Fear during labor |url=https://obgyn.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1034/j.1600-0412.2001.080004315.x |journal=Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica |language=en |volume=80 |issue=4 |pages=315–320 |doi=10.1034/j.1600-0412.2001.080004315.x |pmid=11264605 |issn=1600-0412|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last=Rooks |first=Judith P. |date=2012 |title=Labor Pain Management Other Than Neuraxial: What Do We Know and Where Do We Go Next? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/birt.12009 |journal=Birth |language=en |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=318–322 |doi=10.1111/birt.12009 |pmid=23281953 |issn=1523-536X}}{{Cite journal |last=Lowe |first=Nancy K. |date=1996 |title=The Pain and Discomfort of Labor and Birth |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1552-6909.1996.tb02517.x |journal=Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, & Neonatal Nursing |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=82–92 |doi=10.1111/j.1552-6909.1996.tb02517.x |pmid=8627407 |issn=1552-6909|url-access=subscription }} Pain is experienced distinctly by different cultures and there are various culturally-relevant interventions than can lessen labour pain, such as having extended female family members present during childbirth.{{Cite journal |last1=Callister |first1=Lynn Clark |last2=Khalaf |first2=Inaam |last3=Semenic |first3=Sonia |last4=Kartchner |first4=Robin |last5=Vehvilainen-Julkunen |first5=Katri |date=2003-12-01 |title=The pain of childbirth: perceptions of culturally diverse women |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1524904203000286 |journal=Pain Management Nursing |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=145–154 |doi=10.1016/S1524-9042(03)00028-6 |pmid=14663792 |issn=1524-9042|url-access=subscription }} Labour might be less painful in subsequent births, and this has been associated with lessened fear.{{Cite journal |last=Lowe |first=N. K. |date=1992-01-01 |title=Differences in first and second stage labor pain between nulliparous and multiparous women |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/01674829209009197 |journal=Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=243–253 |doi=10.3109/01674829209009197 |issn=0167-482X|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Yue |last2=Zhong |first2=Yuehua |last3=Chen |first3=Qiaozhu |last4=Zhou |first4=Jun |last5=Fu |first5=Bailing |last6=Deng |first6=Yongfang |last7=Tu |first7=Xianfang |last8=Wu |first8=Yingfang |date=2024-05-31 |title=A comparison of childbirth self-efficacy, fear of childbirth, and labor pain intensity between primiparas and multiparas during the latent phase of labor: a cross-sectional study |journal=BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth |language=en |volume=24 |issue=1 |page=400 |doi=10.1186/s12884-024-06571-3 |doi-access=free |issn=1471-2393 |pmc=11143632 |pmid=38822235}}

Pain management techniques during labour can include pain relief with medication (such as an epidural injection) or coping techniques (such as the Lamaze breathing).{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Caroline A |last2=Levett |first2=Kate M |last3=Collins |first3=Carmel T |last4=Armour |first4=Mike |last5=Dahlen |first5=Hannah G |last6=Suganuma |first6=Machiko |date=2018-03-28 |title=Relaxation techniques for pain management in labour |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |language=en |volume=2018 |issue=3 |pages=CD009514 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009514.pub2 |pmc=6494625 |pmid=29589650}}{{Cite journal |last1=Thomson |first1=Gill |last2=Feeley |first2=Claire |last3=Moran |first3=Victoria Hall |last4=Downe |first4=Soo |last5=Oladapo |first5=Olufemi T. |date=30 May 2019 |title=Women's experiences of pharmacological and non-pharmacological pain relief methods for labour and childbirth: a qualitative systematic review |journal=Reproductive Health |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |page=71 |doi=10.1186/s12978-019-0735-4 |doi-access=free |issn=1742-4755 |pmc=6543627 |pmid=31146759}}

During the later stages of gestation, there is an increase in abundance of oxytocin, a hormone that is known to evoke feelings of contentment, reductions in anxiety, and feelings of calmness.{{Cite journal |last1=Uvnäs-Moberg |first1=Kerstin |last2=Ekström-Bergström |first2=Anette |last3=Berg |first3=Marie |last4=Buckley |first4=Sarah |last5=Pajalic |first5=Zada |last6=Hadjigeorgiou |first6=Eleni |last7=Kotłowska |first7=Alicja |last8=Lengler |first8=Luise |last9=Kielbratowska |first9=Bogumila |last10=Leon-Larios |first10=Fatima |last11=Magistretti |first11=Claudia Meier |last12=Downe |first12=Soo |last13=Lindström |first13=Bengt |last14=Dencker |first14=Anna |date=9 August 2019 |title=Maternal plasma levels of oxytocin during physiological childbirth – a systematic review with implications for uterine contractions and central actions of oxytocin |journal=BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |page=285 |doi=10.1186/s12884-019-2365-9 |doi-access=free |issn=1471-2393 |pmc=6688382 |pmid=31399062}} Oxytocin is further released during labour when the fetus stimulates the cervix and vagina, and it is believed that it plays a major role in the bonding of a mother to her infant and in the establishment of maternal behaviour. The father of the child also has an increase in oxytocin levels following contact with the infant and parents with higher oxytocin levels show being more responsivene and "in synch" in their interactions with their infant. The act of nursing a child also causes a release of oxytocin to help the baby get milk more easily from the nipple.{{cite web |url= http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/hypopit/oxytocin.html |title= Oxytocin | vauthors = Bowen R |date= 12 July 2010 |work= Hypertexts for Biomedical Sciences |access-date= 18 August 2013 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140829220747/http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/hypopit/oxytocin.html |archive-date= 29 August 2014 }}{{cite journal |title=Oxytocin and early parent-infant interactions: A systematic review |journal=International Journal of Nursing Sciences |year=2019 |pmid=31728399 |last1=Scatliffe |first1=N. |last2=Casavant |first2=S. |last3=Vittner |first3=D. |last4=Cong |first4=X. |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1016/j.ijnss.2019.09.009 |pmc=6838998 }}

{{Further|Vaginal delivery}}

File:2920 Stages of Childbirth-en.svg

Station refers to the relationship of the fetal presenting part to the level of the ischial spines. When the presenting part is at the ischial spines the station is 0 (synonymous with engagement). If the presenting fetal part is above the spines, the distance is measured and described as minus stations, which range from −1 to −4 cm. If the presenting part is below the ischial spines, the distance is stated as plus stations ( +1 to +4 cm). At +3 and +4 the presenting part is at the perineum and can be seen.{{cite book| vauthors = Pillitteri A |title=Maternal & Child Health Nursing: Care of the Childbearing & Childrearing Family|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=apeLf0mPx1QC&pg=PA350|access-date=18 August 2013|year=2010|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Hagerstown, Maryland|isbn=978-1-58255-999-5|page=350|chapter=Chapter 15: Nursing Care of a Family During Labor and Birth|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140628043145/http://books.google.com/books?id=apeLf0mPx1QC&pg=PA350|archive-date=28 June 2014}}

The baby's head may temporarily change shape (becoming more elongated or cone shaped) as it moves through the birth canal. This change in the shape of the fetal head is called molding and is much more prominent in women having their first vaginal delivery.{{cite web |title=Baby's head shape: Cause for concern? |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/infant-and-toddler-health/in-depth/healthy-baby/art-20045964 |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=9 July 2023 |date=10 March 2022}}

Cervical ripening is the physical and chemical changes in the cervix to prepare it for the stretching that will take place as the fetus moves out of the uterus and into the birth canal. A scoring system called a Bishop score can be used to judge the degree of cervical ripening to predict the timing of labour and delivery of the infant or for women at risk for preterm labour. It is also used to judge when a woman will respond to induction of labour for a postterm pregnancy or other medical reasons. There are several methods of inducing cervical ripening which will allow the uterine contractions to effectively dilate the cervix.{{cite journal|first=Aaron E|last=Goldberg|name-list-style=vanc|title=Cervical Ripening|url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/263311-overview|website=Medscape|access-date=10 May 2018|date=2 March 2018|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807104204/https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/263311-overview|url-status=live}}

Vaginal delivery involves four stages of labour: the shortening and opening of the cervix during the first stage, descent and birth of the baby during the second, the delivery of the placenta during the third, and the fourth stage of recovery which lasts until two hours after the delivery. The first stage is characterised by abdominal cramping or back pain that typically lasts around half a minute and occurs every 10 to 30 minutes. The contractions (and pain) gradually becomes stronger and closer together. The second stage ends when the infant is fully expelled. In the third stage, the delivery of the placenta. The fourth stage of labour involves recovery, the uterus beginning to contract to pre-pregnancy state, delayed clamping of the umbilical cord, and monitoring of the neonatal tone and vitals. All major health organisations advise that immediately following a live birth, regardless of the delivery method, that the infant be placed on the mother's chest, termed skin-to-skin contact, and delaying routine procedures for at least one to two hours or until the baby has had its first breastfeeding.

File:2919 Hormones Initiating Labor-02.jpg

Definitions of the onset of labour include:

• Regular uterine contractions at least every six minutes with evidence of change in cervical dilation or cervical effacement between consecutive digital examinations.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kupferminc M, Lessing JB, Yaron Y, Peyser MR | title = Nifedipine versus ritodrine for suppression of preterm labour | journal = British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology | volume = 100 | issue = 12 | pages = 1090–94 | date = December 1993 | pmid = 8297841 | doi = 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1993.tb15171.x | s2cid = 24521943 }}
• Regular contractions occurring less than 10 minutes apart and progressive cervical dilation or cervical effacement.{{cite journal | vauthors = Jokic M, Guillois B, Cauquelin B, Giroux JD, Bessis JL, Morello R, Levy G, Ballet JJ | title = Fetal distress increases interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 and decreases tumour necrosis factor-alpha cord blood levels in noninfected full-term neonates | journal = BJOG | volume = 107 | issue = 3 | pages = 420–25 | date = March 2000 | pmid = 10740342 | doi = 10.1111/j.1471-0528.2000.tb13241.x | doi-access = free }}
• At least three painful regular uterine contractions during a 10-minute period, each lasting more than 45 seconds.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lyrenäs S, Clason I, Ulmsten U | title = In vivo controlled release of PGE2 from a vaginal insert (0.8 mm, 10 mg) during induction of labour | journal = BJOG | volume = 108 | issue = 2 | pages = 169–78 | date = February 2001 | pmid = 11236117 | doi = 10.1111/j.1471-0528.2001.00039.x | s2cid = 45247771 }}

Common signs that labour is about to begin may include what is known as lightening, which is the process of the baby moving down from the rib cage with the head of the baby engaging deep in the pelvis. The pregnant woman may then find breathing easier, since her lungs have more room for expansion, but pressure on her bladder may cause more frequent need to urinate. Lightening may occur a few weeks or a few hours before labour begins, or even not until labour has begun.{{cite web|title=Labor and delivery, postpartum care|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/labor-and-delivery/in-depth/signs-of-labor/art-20046184|website=Mayo Clinic|access-date=7 May 2018|archive-date=7 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180507222539/https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/labor-and-delivery/in-depth/signs-of-labor/art-20046184|url-status=live}} Some women also experience an increase in vaginal discharge several days before labour begins when the "mucus plug", a thick plug of mucus that blocks the opening to the uterus, is pushed out into the vagina. The mucus plug may become dislodged days before labour begins or not until the start of labour.

While inside the uterus the baby is enclosed in a fluid-filled membrane called the amniotic sac. Shortly before, at the beginning of, or during labour the sac ruptures, commonly known as the "water breaking". Once the sac ruptures the baby is at risk for infection and the mother's medical team will assess the need to induce labour if it has not started within the time they believe to be safe for the infant.

The first stage of labour is divided into latent and active phases, where the latent phase is sometimes included in the definition of labour,{{cite journal | vauthors = Giacalone PL, Vignal J, Daures JP, Boulot P, Hedon B, Laffargue F | title = A randomised evaluation of two techniques of management of the third stage of labour in women at low risk of postpartum haemorrhage | journal = BJOG | volume = 107 | issue = 3 | pages = 396–400 | date = March 2000 | pmid = 10740337 | doi = 10.1111/j.1471-0528.2000.tb13236.x | doi-access = free }} and sometimes not.{{cite journal | vauthors = Hantoushzadeh S, Alhusseini N, Lebaschi AH | title = The effects of acupuncture during labour on nulliparous women: a randomised controlled trial | journal = The Australian & New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology | volume = 47 | issue = 1 | pages = 26–30 | date = February 2007 | pmid = 17261096 | doi = 10.1111/j.1479-828X.2006.00674.x | s2cid = 23495692 }}

The latent phase is generally defined as beginning at the point at which the woman perceives regular uterine contractions.{{cite web |title= Latent phase of labor |url= http://www.uptodate.com/contents/latent-phase-of-labor | vauthors = Satin AJ |work= UpToDate |publisher= Wolters Kluwer |date= 1 July 2013 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160303224621/http://www.uptodate.com/contents/latent-phase-of-labor |archive-date= 3 March 2016 }}{{subscription required}} In contrast, Braxton Hicks contractions, which are contractions that may start around 26 weeks gestation and are sometimes called "false labour", are infrequent, irregular, and involve only mild cramping.{{cite book | vauthors = Murray LJ, Hennen L, Scott J |title=The BabyCenter Essential Guide to Pregnancy and Birth: Expert Advice and Real-World Wisdom from the Top Pregnancy and Parenting Resource|publisher=Rodale Books|location=Emmaus, Pennsylvania|year=2005|isbn=978-1-59486-211-3|url=https://archive.org/details/babycenteressentmurr| url-access = registration |pages= [https://archive.org/details/babycenteressentmurr/page/294 294]–295 |access-date=18 August 2013}} Braxton Hicks contractions are the uterine muscles preparing to deliver the infant.

Cervical effacement, which is the thinning and stretching of the cervix, and cervical dilation occur during the closing weeks of pregnancy. Effacement is usually complete or near-complete and dilation is about 5 cm by the end of the latent phase.{{cite web | url=http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/labor-and-delivery/multimedia/cervical-effacement-and-dilation/img-20006991 | title=Cervical effacement and dilation | publisher=Mayo Clinic | access-date=31 January 2017 | author=Mayo clinic staff | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204112729/http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/labor-and-delivery/multimedia/cervical-effacement-and-dilation/img-20006991 | archive-date=4 December 2016 }} The degree of cervical effacement and dilation may be felt during a vaginal examination.

File:Bumm 158 lg.jpg

The active phase of labour has geographically differing definitions. The World Health Organization describes the active first stage as "a period of time characterised by regular painful uterine contractions, a substantial degree of cervical effacement and more rapid cervical dilatation from 5 cm until full dilatation for first and subsequent labours”.{{cite web|title=WHO recommendations Intrapartum care for a positive childbirth experience (Recommendation 5)|url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/260178/9789241550215-eng.pdf?sequence=1|website=World Health Organization|access-date=6 May 2018|archive-date=29 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329081924/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/260178/9789241550215-eng.pdf?sequence=1|url-status=live}} In the US, the definition of active labour was changed from 3 to 4 cm, to 5 cm of cervical dilation for mothers who had given birth previously, and at 6 cm for those who had not given birth before.[http://www.acog.org/About_ACOG/ACOG_Departments/Patient_Safety_and_Quality_Improvement/~/media/Departments/Patient%20Safety%20and%20Quality%20Improvement/201213IssuesandRationale-Labor.pdf Obstetric Data Definitions Issues and Rationale for Change] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106064308/http://www.acog.org/About_ACOG/ACOG_Departments/Patient_Safety_and_Quality_Improvement/~/media/Departments/Patient%20Safety%20and%20Quality%20Improvement/201213IssuesandRationale-Labor.pdf |date=6 November 2013 }}, 2012 by ACOG. This was done in an effort to increase the rates of vaginal delivery.{{cite journal | vauthors = Boyle A, Reddy UM, Landy HJ, Huang CC, Driggers RW, Laughon SK | title = Primary cesarean delivery in the United States | journal = Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 122 | issue = 1 | pages = 33–40 | date = July 2013 | pmid = 23743454 | pmc = 3713634 | doi = 10.1097/AOG.0b013e3182952242 }}

Health care providers may assess the mother's progress in labour by performing a cervical exam to evaluate the cervical dilation, effacement, and station. These factors form the Bishop score. The Bishop score can also be used as a means to predict the success of an induction of labour.

During effacement, the cervix becomes incorporated into the lower segment of the uterus. During a contraction, uterine muscles contract causing shortening of the upper segment and drawing upwards of the lower segment, in a gradual expulsive motion.{{Cite web|title=Birth (Parturition) {{!}} Boundless Anatomy and Physiology|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/birth-parturition/|access-date=26 February 2021|website=courses.lumenlearning.com|archive-date=11 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811012109/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/birth-parturition/|url-status=live}} The presenting fetal part then is permitted to descend. Full dilation is reached when the cervix has widened enough to allow passage of the baby's head, around 10 cm dilation for a term baby.

A standard duration of the latent first stage has not been established and can vary widely from one woman to another. However, the duration of active first stage (from 5 cm until full cervical dilatation) usually does not extend beyond 12 hours in the labour of first-time mothers, and usually does not extend beyond 10 hours in subsequent pregnancies.{{cite web|title=WHO recommendations Intrapartum care for a positive childbirth experience (item #3.2.2.)|url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/260178/9789241550215-eng.pdf?sequence=1|website=World Health Organization|access-date=6 May 2018|archive-date=29 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329081924/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/260178/9789241550215-eng.pdf?sequence=1|url-status=live}}

The second stage begins when the cervix is fully dilated, and ends when the baby is born. As pressure on the cervix increases, a sensation of pelvic pressure is experienced, and, with it, an urge to begin pushing. At the beginning of the normal second stage, the head is fully engaged in the pelvis; the widest diameter of the head has passed below the level of the pelvic inlet. The fetal head then continues descent into the pelvis, below the pubic arch and out through the vaginal opening. This is assisted by the additional maternal efforts of pushing, or bearing down, similar to defecation. The appearance of the fetal head at the vaginal opening is termed crowning. At this point, the mother will feel an intense burning or stinging sensation.

When the amniotic sac has not ruptured during labour or pushing, the infant can be born with the membranes intact. This is referred to as "delivery en caul".

Complete expulsion of the baby signals the successful completion of the second stage of labour. Some babies, especially preterm infants, are born covered with a waxy or cheese-like white substance called vernix. It is thought to have some protective roles during fetal development and for a few hours after birth.

The second stage varies from one woman to another. In first labours, birth is usually completed within three hours whereas in subsequent

labours, birth is usually completed within two hours.{{cite web|title=WHO recommendations Intrapartum care for a positive childbirth experience (item #33)|url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/260178/9789241550215-eng.pdf?sequence=1|website=World Health Organization|access-date=6 May 2018|archive-date=29 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329081924/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/260178/9789241550215-eng.pdf?sequence=1|url-status=live}} Second-stage labours longer than three hours are associated with declining rates of spontaneous vaginal delivery and increasing rates of infection, perineal tears, and obstetric haemorrhage, as well as the need for intensive care of the neonate.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rouse DJ, Weiner SJ, Bloom SL, Varner MW, Spong CY, Ramin SM, Caritis SN, Peaceman AM, Sorokin Y, Sciscione A, Carpenter MW, Mercer BM, Thorp JM, Malone FD, Harper M, Iams JD, Anderson GD | title = Second-stage labor duration in nulliparous women: relationship to maternal and perinatal outcomes | journal = American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 201 | issue = 4 | pages = 357.e1–7 | date = October 2009 | pmid = 19788967 | pmc = 2768280 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajog.2009.08.003 | author18 = Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network | display-authors= 4 }}

{{Further|Umbilical cord|Placental expulsion}}

The period from just after the fetus is expelled until just after the placenta is expelled is called the third stage of labour or the involution stage. Placental expulsion begins as a physiological separation from the wall of the uterus. The average time from delivery of the baby until complete expulsion of the placenta is estimated to be 10–12 minutes dependent on whether active or expectant management is employed.{{cite journal | vauthors = Jangsten E, Mattsson LÅ, Lyckestam I, Hellström AL, Berg M | title = A comparison of active management and expectant management of the third stage of labour: a Swedish randomised controlled trial | journal = BJOG | volume = 118 | issue = 3 | pages = 362–69 | date = February 2011 | pmid = 21134105 | doi = 10.1111/j.1471-0528.2010.02800.x | display-authors= 4 | doi-access = free }} In as many as 3% of all vaginal deliveries, the duration of the third stage is longer than 30 minutes and raises concern for retained placenta.{{cite journal | vauthors = Weeks AD | title = The retained placenta | journal = Best Practice & Research. Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology | volume = 22 | issue = 6 | pages = 1103–17 | date = December 2008 | pmid = 18793876 | doi = 10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2008.07.005 }}

Placental expulsion can be managed actively or it can be managed expectantly, allowing the placenta to be expelled without medical assistance. Active management is the administration of a uterotonic drug within one minute of fetal delivery, controlled traction of the umbilical cord and fundal massage after delivery of the placenta, followed by performance of uterine massage every 15 minutes for two hours.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ball H |title= Active management of the third state of labour is rare in some developing countries |url= http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3510509.html |journal= International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health |volume= 35 |issue= 2 |date= June 2009 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053957/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3510509.html |archive-date= 4 March 2016 }} Active management of the third stage of labour in vaginal deliveries helps to prevent postpartum haemorrhage.{{cite journal | vauthors = Stanton C, Armbruster D, Knight R, Ariawan I, Gbangbade S, Getachew A, Portillo JA, Jarquin D, Marin F, Mfinanga S, Vallecillo J, Johnson H, Sintasath D | title = Use of active management of the third stage of labour in seven developing countries | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 87 | issue = 3 | pages = 207–15 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19377717 | pmc = 2654655 | doi = 10.2471/BLT.08.052597 | display-authors= 4 }}{{cite journal | title = Joint statement: management of the third stage of labour to prevent post-partum haemorrhage | journal = Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health | volume = 49 | issue = 1 | pages = 76–77 | year = 2004 | pmid = 14710151 | doi = 10.1016/j.jmwh.2003.11.005 | author-link1 = International Confederation of Midwives | author-link2 = International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics | author1 = International Confederation of Midwives | author2 = International Federation of Gynaecologists Obstetricians }}{{Cite report|title= WHO recommendations for the prevention of postpartum haemorrhage |year= 2007 |url= http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2007/WHO_MPS_07.06_eng.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090705031910/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2007/WHO_MPS_07.06_eng.pdf |archive-date= 5 July 2009 | vauthors = Mathai M, Gülmezoglu AM, Hill S |publisher= World Health Organization, Department of Making Pregnancy Safer |location= Geneva}}

Delaying the clamping of the umbilical cord for at least one minute or until it ceases to pulsate, which may take several minutes, improves outcomes as long as there is the ability to treat jaundice if it occurs. For many years it was believed that late cord cutting led to a mother's risk of experiencing significant bleeding after giving birth, called postpartum bleeding. However, delaying cord cutting in healthy full-term infants results in early haemoglobin concentration and higher birthweight and increased iron reserves up to six months after birth with no change in the rate of postpartum bleeding.{{cite journal | vauthors = McDonald SJ, Middleton P, Dowswell T, Morris PS | title = Effect of timing of umbilical cord clamping of term infants on maternal and neonatal outcomes | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 7 | issue = 7 | pages = CD004074 | date = July 2013 | pmid = 23843134 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD004074.pub3 | editor1-last = McDonald | editor1-first = Susan J | pmc = 6544813 }}{{Cite news |last1=Campbell |first1=Denis |name-list-style=vanc |title=Hospitals warned to delay cutting umbilical cords after birth |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2013/jul/11/hospitals-nhs-umbilical-cords-babies-delay-cutting |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=11 June 2018 |date=10 July 2013 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612145023/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2013/jul/11/hospitals-nhs-umbilical-cords-babies-delay-cutting |url-status=live }}

{{Further|Postpartum period|3=Postpartum physiological changes|4=Parental leave}}

File:Geburt 01.jpg

Postpartum, sometimes termed the fourth stage of labour, is the period beginning immediately after childbirth, and extends for about six weeks. The terms postpartum and postnatal are often used for this period.{{cite journal | vauthors = Gjerdingen DK, Froberg DG | title = The fourth stage of labor: the health of birth mothers and adoptive mothers at six-weeks postpartum | journal = Family Medicine | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 29–35 | date = January 1991 | pmid = 2001778 }} The woman's body, including hormone levels and uterus size, return to a non-pregnant state and the newborn adjusts to life outside the mother's body. The World Health Organization (WHO) describes the postnatal period as the most critical and yet the most neglected phase in the lives of mothers and babies; most deaths occur during the postnatal period.{{cite web | url=https://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/documents/postnatal-care-recommendations/en/ | title=WHO recommendations on postnatal care of the mother and newborn | publisher=World Health Organization | date=2013 | access-date=22 December 2014 | author=WHO | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222172315/http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/documents/postnatal-care-recommendations/en/ | archive-date=22 December 2014 }}

Following the birth, if the mother had an episiotomy or a tearing of the perineum, it is stitched. This is also an optimal time for uptake of long-acting reversible contraception (LARC), such as the contraceptive implant or intrauterine device (IUD), both of which can be inserted immediately after delivery while the woman is still in the delivery room.{{Cite journal|last1=Whitaker|first1=Amy K.|last2=Chen|first2=Beatrice A.|publication-date=January 2018|title=Society of Family Planning Guidelines: Postplacental insertion of intrauterine devices|journal=Contraception|volume=97|issue=1|pages=2–13|doi=10.1016/j.contraception.2017.09.014|issn=0010-7824|date=5 October 2017|pmid=28987293|doi-access=free}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.acog.org/en/Clinical/Clinical%20Guidance/Committee%20Opinion/Articles/2016/08/Immediate%20Postpartum%20Long-Acting%20Reversible%20Contraception|title=Immediate Postpartum Long-Acting Reversible Contraception|website=www.acog.org|language=en|access-date=20 April 2020|archive-date=22 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200722134522/https://www.acog.org/en/Clinical/Clinical%20Guidance/Committee%20Opinion/Articles/2016/08/Immediate%20Postpartum%20Long-Acting%20Reversible%20Contraception|url-status=live}} The mother has regular assessments for uterine contraction and fundal height,{{cite web | url=http://www.atitesting.com/ati_next_gen/skillsmodules/content/maternal-newborn/equipment/postpart_assessment.html | title=Postpartum Assessment | publisher=ATI Nursing Education | access-date=24 December 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224072821/http://www.atitesting.com/ati_next_gen/skillsmodules/content/maternal-newborn/equipment/postpart_assessment.html | archive-date=24 December 2014 | df=dmy-all }} vaginal bleeding, heart rate and blood pressure, and temperature, for the first 24 hours after birth. Some women may experience an uncontrolled episode of shivering or postpartum chills following the birth. The first passing of urine should be documented within six hours. Afterpains (pains similar to menstrual cramps), contractions of the uterus to prevent excessive blood flow, continue for several days. Vaginal discharge, termed "lochia", can be expected to continue for several weeks; initially bright red, it gradually becomes pink, changing to brown, and finally to yellow or white.{{cite web | url=http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/labor-and-delivery/in-depth/postpartum-care/art-20047233 | title=Postpartum care: What to expect after a vaginal delivery | publisher=Mayo Clinic | access-date=23 December 2014 | author=Mayo clinic staff | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221202550/http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/labor-and-delivery/in-depth/postpartum-care/art-20047233 | archive-date=21 December 2014 }}

At one time babies born in hospitals were removed from their mothers shortly after birth and brought to the mother only at feeding times.{{cite web |title=Rooming-in: An Essential Evolution in American Maternity Care |url=https://www.nichq.org/insight/rooming-essential-evolution-american-maternity-care |website=NICHO |date=28 April 2016 |access-date=7 June 2022 |archive-date=28 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528034609/https://nichq.org/insight/rooming-essential-evolution-american-maternity-care |url-status=live }} Mothers were told that their newborns would be safer in the nursery and that the separation would offer the mothers more time to rest. As attitudes began to change, some hospitals offered a "rooming in" option wherein after a period of routine hospital procedures and observation, the infant could be allowed to share the mother's room. As of 2020, rooming-in has increasingly become standard practice in maternity wards."Rooming-in: An Essential Evolution in American Maternity Care", By Jennifer Usianov. National Institute for Children's Health Quality. {{cite web|url=https://www.nichq.org/insight/rooming-essential-evolution-american-maternity-care |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417183052/https://www.nichq.org/insight/rooming-essential-evolution-american-maternity-care |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 April 2021 |title=Rooming-in: An Essential Evolution in American Maternity Care |date=28 April 2016 }} Retrieved 1 November 2021.

File:La méthode kangourou Bébé Prématuré Laquinitinie Douala.jpg by father in Cameroon]]

Skin-to-skin contact (SSC), sometimes also called kangaroo care, is a technique of newborn care where babies are kept chest-to-chest and skin-to-skin with a parent, typically their mother or possibly the father. This means without the shirt or undergarments on the chest of both the baby and parent. Early skin-to-skin contact results in a decrease in infant crying, improves cardio-respiratory stability and blood glucose levels, and improves breastfeeding duration and effectiveness.{{cite web | url=http://apps.who.int/rhl/archives/hscom2/en/index.html | title=Early skin-to-skin contact for mothers and their healthy newborn infants | work=The WHO Reproductive Health Library | publisher=WHO | date=4 January 2008 | access-date=23 December 2014 | vauthors = Saloojee H | url-status=dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141221025957/http://apps.who.int/rhl/archives/hscom2/en/index.html | archive-date=21 December 2014 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Crenshaw J | title = Care practice #6: no separation of mother and baby, with unlimited opportunities for breastfeeding | journal = The Journal of Perinatal Education | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 39–43 | date = 2007 | pmid = 18566647 | pmc = 1948089 | doi = 10.1624/105812407X217147 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Moore ER, Bergman N, Anderson GC, Medley N | title = Early skin-to-skin contact for mothers and their healthy newborn infants | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2016 | pages = CD003519 | date = November 2016 | issue = 11 | pmid = 27885658 | pmc = 3979156 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD003519.pub4 }}

Early postpartum SSC is endorsed by all major organisations that are responsible for the well-being of infants. The World Health Organization (WHO) states that "the process of

childbirth is not finished until the baby has safely transferred from placental to mammary nutrition." It is advised that the newborn be placed skin-to-skin with the mother following vaginal birth, or as soon as the mother is alert and responsive after a Caesarean section, postponing any routine procedures for at least one to two hours or until the baby has had its first breastfeeding. The baby's father or other support person may also choose to hold the baby SSC until the mother recovers from the anaesthetic.{{cite web|title=Fathers and skin-to-skin contact|url=http://www.kangaroomothercare.com/fathers-skin-to-skin.aspx|publisher=Kangaroo Mother Care|access-date=30 April 2013|archive-date=26 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130426093714/http://www.kangaroomothercare.com/fathers-skin-to-skin.aspx|url-status=dead}}

The WHO suggests that any initial observations of the infant can be done while the infant remains close to the mother, saying that even a brief separation before the baby has had its first feed can disturb the bonding process. They further advise frequent skin-to-skin contact as much as possible during the first days after delivery, especially if it were interrupted for some reason after the delivery.{{cite web |title=Essential Antenatal, Perinatal and Postpartum Care |url=http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/131521/E79235.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924034812/http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/131521/E79235.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=21 December 2014 |work=Promoting Effective Perinatal Care |publisher=WHO}}

La Leche League advises women to have a delivery team which includes a support person who will advocate to assure that:

:* The mother and her baby are not separated unnecessarily

:*The baby will receive only her milk

:*The baby will receive no supplementation without a medical reason

:* All testing, bathing or other procedures are done in the parent's room{{cite web |title=Birth and Breastfeeding |url=https://www.llli.org/breastfeeding-info/birth-and-breastfeeding/ |website=La Leche League |access-date=27 April 2022 |archive-date=17 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517052016/https://www.llli.org/breastfeeding-info/birth-and-breastfeeding/ |url-status=live }}

It has long been known that a mother's level of the hormone oxytocin elevates when she interacts with her infant. The oxytocin level in fathers that engage in SSC is increased as well and SSC reduces stress and anxiety in parents after interaction."{{cite journal |title=Oxytocin and early parent-infant interactions: A systematic review |year=2019 |pmc=6838998 |last1=Scatliffe |first1=N. |last2=Casavant |first2=S. |last3=Vittner |first3=D. |last4=Cong |first4=X. |journal=International Journal of Nursing Sciences |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1016/j.ijnss.2019.09.009 |pmid=31728399 }}

{{See also|Early postnatal hospital discharge}}

For births that occur in hospitals the WHO recommends a hospital stay of at least 24 hours following an uncomplicated vaginal delivery and 96 hours for a Cesarean section. Looking at length of stay (in 2016) for an uncomplicated delivery around the world shows an average of less than 1 day in Egypt to 6 days in (pre-war) Ukraine. Averages for Australia are 2.8 days and 1.5 days in the UK.{{cite web |last1=Harrington |first1=Rebecca |title=American women giving birth leave the hospital as quickly as women in Haiti and Kenya |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/length-hospital-time-after-giving-birth-2016-3 |website=Insider |access-date=20 March 2022 |archive-date=21 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521024824/https://www.businessinsider.com/length-hospital-time-after-giving-birth-2016-3 |url-status=live }} While this number is low, two-thirds of women in the UK have midwife-assisted births and in some cases the mother may choose a hospital setting for birth to be closer to the wide range of assistance available for an emergency situation. However, women with midwife care may leave the hospital shortly after birth and her midwife will continue her care at her home.{{cite web |title=Where to give birth: the options |url=https://www.nhs.uk/pregnancy/labour-and-birth/preparing-for-the-birth/where-to-give-birth-the-options/ |website=NHS |date=December 2020 |access-date=20 May 2022 |archive-date=14 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214201435/https://www.nhs.uk/pregnancy/labour-and-birth/preparing-for-the-birth/where-to-give-birth-the-options/ |url-status=live }}

In the U.S. the average length of stay has gradually dropped from 4.1 days in 1970 to a current stay of 2 days. The CDC attributed the drop to the rise in health care costs, saying people could not afford to stay in the hospital any longer. To keep it from dropping any lower, in 1996 Congress passed the Newborns' and Mothers' Health Protection Act that requires insurers to cover at least 48 hours for uncomplicated delivery.

{{See also|Prenatal care}}

{{main|Natural childbirth}}

The reemergence of "natural childbirth" began in Europe and was adopted by some in the US as early as the late 1940s. Early supporters believed that the drugs used during deliveries interfered with "happy childbirth" and could negatively impact the newborn's "emotional wellbeing". By the 1970s, the call for natural childbirth was spread nationwide, in conjunction with the second-wave of the feminist movement.Hutter Epstein, M.D., Randi (2011). Get Me Out: A History of Childbirth from the Garden of Eden to the Sperm Bank. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. While it is still most common for American women to deliver in the hospital, supporters of natural birth still widely exist, especially in the UK where midwife-assisted home births have gained popularity.A natural process? Women, men and the medicalisation of childbirth". broughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk. Retrieved 3 December 2018.

Distress levels vary widely during pregnancy as well as during labour and delivery. They appear to be influenced by fear and anxiety levels, experience with prior childbirth, cultural ideas of childbirth pain, mobility during labour, and the support received during labour.{{cite journal |vauthors=Weber SE |date=January 1996 |title=Cultural aspects of pain in childbearing women |journal=Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=67–72 |doi=10.1111/j.1552-6909.1996.tb02515.x |pmid=8627405|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |display-authors=4 |vauthors=Callister LC, Khalaf I, Semenic S, Kartchner R, Vehvilainen-Julkunen K |date=December 2003 |title=The pain of childbirth: perceptions of culturally diverse women |journal=Pain Management Nursing |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=145–54 |doi=10.1016/S1524-9042(03)00028-6 |pmid=14663792}}

Personal expectations, the amount of support from caregivers, quality of the caregiver-patient relationship, and involvement in decision-making are more important in the mother's overall satisfaction with the birthing experience than are other influencing factors such as age, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, preparation, physical environment, pain, immobility, or medical interventions.{{cite journal |vauthors=Hodnett ED |date=May 2002 |title=Pain and women's satisfaction with the experience of childbirth: a systematic review |journal=American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology |volume=186 |issue=5 Suppl Nature |pages=S160-72 |doi=10.1016/S0002-9378(02)70189-0 |pmid=12011880 |s2cid=33672391}}

Obstetric care frequently subjects women to institutional routines, which may have adverse effects on the progress of labour. Supportive care during labour may involve emotional support, comfort measures, and information and advocacy which may promote the physical process of labour as well as women's feelings of control and competence, thus reducing the need for obstetric intervention. The continuous support may be provided either by hospital staff such as nurses or midwives, doulas, or by companions of the woman's choice from her social network.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}

Continuous labour support may help women to give birth spontaneously, that is, without caesarean or vacuum or forceps, with slightly shorter labours, and to have more positive feelings regarding their experience of giving birth. Continuous labour support may also reduce women's use of pain medication during labour and reduce the risk of babies having low five-minute Apgar scores.{{cite journal |last1=Bohren |first1=MA |last2=Hofmeyr |first2=GJ |last3=Sakala |first3=C |last4=Fukuzawa |first4=RK |last5=Cuthbert |first5=A |date=6 July 2017 |title=Continuous support for women during childbirth. |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=7 |issue=8 |pages=CD003766 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003766.pub6 |pmc=6483123 |pmid=28681500}}

The participation of the child's father in the birth contributes to a better birth experience for the mother, promotes paternal bonding and makes the transition to fatherhood easier.{{Cite journal |last1=Kothari |first1=Alka |last2=Khuu |first2=Alvin |last3=Dulhunty |first3=Joel |last4=Bruxner |first4=George |last5=Ballard |first5=Emma |last6=Callaway |first6=Leonie |date=5 May 2023 |title=Fathers attending the birth of their baby: Views, intentions and needs |journal=Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology |language=en |volume=63 |issue=5 |pages=689–695 |doi=10.1111/ajo.13692 |pmid=37145387 |issn=0004-8666|doi-access=free }}

Eating or drinking during labour is an area of ongoing debate. While some have argued that eating in labour has no harmful effects on outcomes,{{cite journal | vauthors = Tranmer JE, Hodnett ED, Hannah ME, Stevens BJ | title = The effect of unrestricted oral carbohydrate intake on labor progress | journal = Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing | volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 319–28 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15890830 | doi = 10.1177/0884217505276155 }} others continue to have concern regarding the increased possibility of an aspiration event (choking on recently eaten foods) in the event of an emergency delivery due to the increased relaxation of the oesophagus in pregnancy, upward pressure of the uterus on the stomach, and the possibility of general anaesthetic in the event of an emergency cesarean.{{cite journal | vauthors = O'Sullivan G, Scrutton M | title = NPO during labor. Is there any scientific validation? | journal = Anesthesiology Clinics of North America | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 87–98 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 12698834 | doi = 10.1016/S0889-8537(02)00029-9 }} However with good obstetrical anaesthesia there is no additional harm from allowing eating and drinking during labour in those who are unlikely to need surgery. Additionally, not eating does not necessarily mean that the mother's stomach is empty or that its contents are not as acidic.{{cite journal | vauthors = Singata M, Tranmer J, Gyte GM | title = Restricting oral fluid and food intake during labour | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2013 | issue = 8 | pages = CD003930 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 23966209 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD003930.pub3 | editor1-last = Singata | access-date = 22 August 2013 | url = http://summaries.cochrane.org/CD003930/eating-and-drinking-in-labour | editor1-first = Mandisa | others = Pregnancy and Childbirth Group | pmc = 4175539 | archive-date = 7 July 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140707225132/http://summaries.cochrane.org/CD003930/eating-and-drinking-in-labour | url-status = live }}

At one time shaving of the area around the vagina, was common practice due to the belief that hair removal reduced the risk of infection, made an episiotomy (a surgical cut to enlarge the vaginal entrance) easier, and helped with instrumental deliveries. It is currently less common, though it is still a routine procedure in some countries even though there is no scientific evidence to recommend shaving.{{cite journal | vauthors = Basevi V, Lavender T | title = Routine perineal shaving on admission in labour | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 11 | pages = CD001236 | date = November 2014 | volume = 2014 | pmid = 25398160 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD001236.pub2 | pmc = 7076285 }} Side effects appear later, including irritation, redness, and multiple superficial scratches from the razor. Another effort to prevent infection has been the use of the antiseptic chlorhexidine or providone-iodine solution in the vagina. However it is unclear if chlorhexidine offers any benefits in preventing infections.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lumbiganon P, Thinkhamrop J, Thinkhamrop B, Tolosa JE | title = Vaginal chlorhexidine during labour for preventing maternal and neonatal infections (excluding Group B Streptococcal and HIV) | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2014 | issue = 9 | pages = CD004070 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25218725 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD004070.pub3 | pmc = 7104295 }} Providone-iodine decreases the risk of infection when a cesarean section is to be performed.{{Cite journal|last1=Haas|first1=David M.|last2=Morgan|first2=Sarah|last3=Contreras|first3=Karenrose|last4=Kimball|first4=Savannah|date=26 April 2020|title=Vaginal preparation with antiseptic solution before cesarean section for preventing postoperative infections|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2020| issue=4 |pages=CD007892|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007892.pub7|issn=1469-493X|pmc=7195184|pmid=32335895}}

{{Main|Labour induction}}

Labor induction is the procedure where a medical professional starts the process of labor instead of letting it start on its own. Labor may be induced (started) if the health of the mother or the baby is at risk. Induction of labor can be accomplished with medication or mechanical methods.{{Cite web |title=Labor Induction |url=https://www.acog.org/womens-health/faqs/labor-induction |access-date=2025-02-12 |website=www.acog.org |language=en}}

Medical guidelines recommend a full evaluation of the maternal-fetal status, the status of the cervix, and at least a 39 completed weeks (full term) of gestation for optimal health of the newborn when considering elective induction of labour. Indications for induction may include:

• Problems with the placenta
• Health issues with the fetus
• Maternal conditions such as gestational diabetes or chronic kidney disease
• Preeclampsia, eclampsia or gestational hypertension
• Premature rupture of membranes
• Postterm pregnancy

Induction may also be considered for logistical reasons, such as the distance from hospital or psychosocial conditions. In these instances gestational age confirmation must be done, and the maturity of the fetal lung must be confirmed by testing. The contraindications for induced labour are the same as for spontaneous vaginal delivery, including vasa previa, complete placenta praevia, umbilical cord prolapse or active genital herpes infection, in which cases a cesarean section is the safest delivery method.{{cite web |title= Oxytocin for Induction |work= Optimizing Protocols in Obstetrics |series= Series 1 |date= December 2011 |author= ACOG District II Patient Safety and Quality Improvement Committee |publisher= American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) |url= https://www.acog.org/About_ACOG/ACOG_Districts/District_II/~/media/Districts/District%20II/PDFs/OxytocinForInduction.pdf |access-date= 29 August 2013 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130621001053/https://www.acog.org/About_ACOG/ACOG_Districts/District_II/~/media/Districts/District%20II/PDFs/OxytocinForInduction.pdf |archive-date= 21 June 2013 }}

Women often do not receive clear and detailed information about the process of labor induction, its benefits and risks.{{Cite journal |date=27 March 2024 |title=Maternity services: research can improve safety and quality of care |url=https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/collection/maternity-services-research-can-improve-safety-and-quality-of-care/ |journal=NIHR Evidence |type=Plain language summary |publisher=National Institute for Health and Care Research |doi=10.3310/nihrevidence_62672|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Coates |first1=Rose |last2=Cupples |first2=Georgina |last3=Scamell |first3=Amanda |last4=McCourt |first4=Christine |date=1 November 2018 |title=Women's experiences of induction of labour: Qualitative systematic review and thematic synthesis |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0266613818303115 |journal=Midwifery |language=en |volume=69 |pages=17–28 |doi=10.1016/j.midw.2018.10.013 |pmid=30390463}} For example women might not know how long the process will last, how long they need to stay in the hospital and how strong the pain caused by the procedure would be. Providing up-to-date information about the procedure allows women to make an informed choice and give an informed consent or refuse the induction.{{Cite journal |last1=Coates |first1=Dominiek |last2=Makris |first2=Angela |last3=Catling |first3=Christine |last4=Henry |first4=Amanda |last5=Scarf |first5=Vanessa |last6=Watts |first6=Nicole |last7=Fox |first7=Deborah |last8=Thirukumar |first8=Purshaiyna |last9=Wong |first9=Vincent |last10=Russell |first10=Hamish |last11=Homer |first11=Caroline |date=2020-01-29 |editor-last=Mastrolia |editor-first=Salvatore Andrea |title=A systematic scoping review of clinical indications for induction of labour |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=e0228196 |bibcode=2020PLoSO..1528196C |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0228196 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=6988952 |pmid=31995603 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last1=Coates |first1=Dominiek |last2=Goodfellow |first2=Alison |last3=Sinclair |first3=Lynn |date=24 January 2020 |title=Induction of labour: Experiences of care and decision-making of women and clinicians |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1871519219302318 |journal=Women and Birth |language=en |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=e1–e14 |doi=10.1016/j.wombi.2019.06.002 |pmid=31208865|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Rydahl |first1=Eva |last2=Eriksen |first2=Lena |last3=Juhl |first3=Mette |date=February 2019 |title=Effects of induction of labor prior to post-term in low-risk pregnancies: a systematic review |journal=JBI Database of Systematic Reviews and Implementation Reports |language=en |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=170–208 |doi=10.11124/JBISRIR-2017-003587 |issn=2202-4433 |pmc=6382053 |pmid=30299344}}

{{main|Operative vaginal delivery}}

An assisted delivery is used in about 1 in 8 births, and may be needed if either mother or infant appears to be at risk during a vaginal delivery. The methods used are termed obstetrical forceps extraction and vacuum extraction, also called ventouse extraction. Done properly, they are both safe with some preference for forceps rather than vacuum, and both are seen as preferable to an unexpected C-section. While considered safe, some risks for the mother include vaginal tearing, including a higher chance of having a more major vaginal tear that involves the muscle or wall of the anus or rectum. For women undergoing operative vaginal delivery with vacuum extraction or forceps, there is strong evidence that prophylactic antibiotics help to reduce the risk of infection.{{cite journal |last1=Liabsuetrakul |first1=T |last2=Choobun |first2=T |last3=Peeyananjarassri |first3=K |last4=Islam |first4=QM |title=Antibiotic prophylaxis for operative vaginal delivery. |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |date=26 March 2020 |volume=2020 |issue=3 |pages=CD004455 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004455.pub5 |pmid=32215906|pmc=7096725 }} There is a higher risk of blood clots forming in the legs or pelvis – anti-clot stockings or medication may be ordered to avoid clots. Urinary incontinence is not unusual after childbirth but it is more common after an instrument delivery. Certain exercises and physiotherapy will help the condition to improve.{{cite web |title=Forceps or vacuum delivery |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pregnancy-and-baby/ventouse-forceps-delivery/ |website=NHS |access-date=15 November 2020 |archive-date=16 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116173331/https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pregnancy-and-baby/ventouse-forceps-delivery/ |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Pain management during childbirth}}

Some women prefer to avoid analgesic medication during childbirth. Psychological preparation may be beneficial. Relaxation techniques, immersion in water, massage, and acupuncture may provide pain relief. Acupuncture and relaxation were found to decrease the number of caesarean sections required.{{cite journal | vauthors = Jones L, Othman M, Dowswell T, Alfirevic Z, Gates S, Newburn M, Jordan S, Lavender T, Neilson JP | title = Pain management for women in labour: an overview of systematic reviews | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = CD009234 | date = March 2012 | pmid = 22419342 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD009234.pub2 | pmc = 7132546 }} Immersion in water has been found to relieve pain during the first stage of labour, reduce the need for anaesthesia, and shorten the duration of labour.{{cite journal | title = Immersion in water during labor and delivery | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 133 | issue = 4 | pages = 758–61 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 24652300 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2013-3794 | author1 = American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus Newborn | author2 = American College of Obstetricians Gynecologists Committee on Obstetric Practice | doi-access = free | hdl = 11573/1473752 | hdl-access = free }} Additionally, water birth is associated with a decreased risk of postpartum hemorrhaging, low Apgar scores, neonatal infections, requirement for neonatal resuscitation, and neonatal admission to intensive care. However, there is a higher chance of cord avulsion.{{cite journal |last1=McKinney |first1=Jordan |last2=Vilchez |first2=Gustavo |last3=Jowers |first3=Alicia |last4=Atchoo |first4=Amanda |last5=Lin |first5=Lifeng |last6=Kaunitz |first6=Andrew |last7=Lewis |first7=Kendall |last8=Sanchez-Ramos |first8=Luis |title=Water birth: a systematic review and meta-analysis of maternal and neonatal outcomes |journal=American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology |date=March 2024 |volume=230 |issue=3 |pages=S961–S979.e33 |doi=10.1016/j.ajog.2023.08.034 |pmid=38462266 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000293782300604X |access-date=14 March 2024|url-access=subscription }}

Most women like to have someone to support them during labour and birth; such as a midwife, nurse, or doula; or a lay person such as the father of the baby, a family member, or a close friend. Studies have found that continuous support during labour and delivery reduce the need for medication and a caesarean or operative vaginal delivery, and result in an improved Apgar score for the infant.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bohren MA, Hofmeyr GJ, Sakala C, Fukuzawa RK, Cuthbert A | title = Continuous support for women during childbirth | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 7 | pages = CD003766 | date = July 2017 | issue = 8 | pmid = 28681500 |pmc=6483123 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD003766.pub6 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Caughey AB, Cahill AG, Guise JM, Rouse DJ | title = Safe prevention of the primary cesarean delivery | journal = American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 210 | issue = 3 | pages = 179–93 | date = March 2014 | pmid = 24565430 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajog.2014.01.026 }}

Different measures for pain control have varying degrees of success and side effects to the woman and her baby. In some countries of Europe, doctors commonly prescribe inhaled nitrous oxide gas for pain control, especially as 53% nitrous oxide, 47% oxygen, known as Entonox; in the UK, midwives may use this gas without a doctor's prescription.{{Cite web|url=http://www.nnuh.nhs.uk/publication/download/medicine-administration-for-midwives-mid21v6-1/|title=Medicine Administration for Midwives|last=Lancashire|first=Liz|date=9 July 2018|website=Norfolk and Norwich University Hospitals|access-date=16 June 2019|archive-date=16 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616201305/http://www.nnuh.nhs.uk/publication/download/medicine-administration-for-midwives-mid21v6-1/|url-status=dead}} Opioids such as fentanyl may be used, but if given too close to birth there is a risk of respiratory depression in the infant.{{update after|2021|3|16}}{{Cite journal|last1=Kumar|first1=Manoj|last2=Paes|first2=Bosco|date=July 2003|title=Epidural Opioid Analgesia and Neonatal Respiratory Depression|journal=Journal of Perinatology|language=en|volume=23|issue=5|pages=425–27|doi=10.1038/sj.jp.7210905|pmid=12847541|issn=1476-5543|url=https://rdcu.be/dFdEd|url-access=subscription}}

Popular medical pain control in hospitals include the regional anaesthetics epidurals (EDA), and spinal anaesthesia. Epidural analgesia is a generally safe and effective method of relieving pain in labour, but has been associated with longer labour, more operative intervention (particularly instrument delivery), and increases in cost.{{cite journal | vauthors = Thorp JA, Breedlove G | title = Epidural analgesia in labor: an evaluation of risks and benefits | journal = Birth | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 63–83 | date = June 1996 | pmid = 8826170 | doi = 10.1111/j.1523-536X.1996.tb00833.x }} However, a more recent (2017) Cochrane review suggests that the new epidural techniques have no effect on labour time and the use of instruments or the need for C-section deliveries. Generally, pain and stress hormones rise throughout labour for women without epidurals, while pain, fear, and stress hormones decrease upon administration of epidural analgesia, but rise again later.{{cite journal | vauthors = Alehagen S, Wijma B, Lundberg U, Wijma K | title = Fear, pain and stress hormones during childbirth | journal = Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 153–65 | date = September 2005 | pmid = 16295513 | doi = 10.1080/01443610400023072 | s2cid = 44646591 }}

Medicine administered via epidural can cross the placenta and enter the bloodstream of the fetus.{{cite journal | vauthors = Loftus JR, Hill H, Cohen SE | title = Placental transfer and neonatal effects of epidural sufentanil and fentanyl administered with bupivacaine during labor | journal = Anesthesiology | volume = 83 | issue = 2 | pages = 300–08 | date = August 1995 | pmid = 7631952 | doi = 10.1097/00000542-199508000-00010 | doi-access = free }} Epidural analgesia has no statistically significant impact on the risk of caesarean section, and does not appear to have an immediate effect on neonatal status as determined by Apgar scores.{{cite journal | vauthors = Anim-Somuah M, Smyth RM, Cyna AM, Cuthbert A | title = Epidural versus non-epidural or no analgesia for pain management in labour | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2018 | pages = CD000331 | date = May 2018 | issue = 5 | pmid = 29781504 | pmc = 6494646 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD000331.pub4 }}

File:106 Pregnancy-Positive Feedback.jpg loop.]]

Augmentation is the process of stimulating the uterus to increase the intensity and duration of contractions after labour has begun. Several methods of augmentation are commonly been used to treat slow progress of labour (dystocia) when uterine contractions are assessed to be too weak. Oxytocin is the most common method used to increase the rate of vaginal delivery.{{cite journal | vauthors = Wei SQ, Luo ZC, Xu H, Fraser WD | s2cid = 29571476 | title = The effect of early oxytocin augmentation in labor: a meta-analysis | journal = Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 114 | issue = 3 | pages = 641–49 | date = September 2009 | pmid = 19701046 | doi = 10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181b11cb8 }} The World Health Organization recommends its use either alone or with amniotomy (rupture of the amniotic membrane) but advises that it must be used only after it has been correctly confirmed that labour is not proceeding properly if harm is to be avoided. The WHO does not recommend the use of antispasmodic agents for prevention of delay in labour.{{cite web|title=Recommendations for Augmentation of Labour|url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/174001/WHO_RHR_15.05_eng.pdf?sequence=1|website=World Health Organization|access-date=9 May 2018|archive-date=8 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180508131859/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/174001/WHO_RHR_15.05_eng.pdf?sequence=1|url-status=live}}

{{Further|Episiotomy}}

For years an episiotomy was thought to help prevent more extensive vaginal tears and heal better than a natural tear. Perineal tears can occur at the vaginal opening as the baby's head passes through, especially if the baby descends quickly. Tears can involve the perineal skin or extend to the muscles and the anal sphincter and anus. Once common, they are now recognised as generally not needed. When needed, the midwife or obstetrician makes a surgical cut in the perineum to prevent severe tears that can be difficult to repair. Conducting episiotomy when necessary (restrictive episiotomy) appears to give a number of benefits compared to using routine episiotomy. Women experience less severe perineal trauma, less posterior perineal trauma, less suturing and fewer healing complications at seven days. Furthermore it does not cause a higher occurrence of pain, urinary incontinence, painful sex or severe vaginal/perineal trauma after birth.{{cite journal | vauthors = Jiang H, Qian X, Carroli G, Garner P | title = Selective versus routine use of episiotomy for vaginal birth | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2017 | pages = CD000081 | date = February 2017 | issue = 2 | pmid = 28176333 | pmc = 5449575 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD000081.pub3 }}

{{Main|Multiple birth}}

In cases of a head first-presenting first twin, twins can often be delivered vaginally. In some cases twin delivery is done in a larger delivery room or in an operating theatre, in the event of complication e.g.

• Both twins born vaginally – this can occur both presented head first or where one comes head first and the other is breech and/or helped by a forceps/ventouse delivery
• One twin born vaginally and the other by caesarean section.
• If the twins are joined at any part of the body – called conjoined twins, delivery is mostly by caesarean section.

For external monitoring of the fetus during childbirth, a simple pinard stethoscope or doppler fetal monitor ("doptone") can be used.

A method of external (noninvasive) fetal monitoring (EFM) during childbirth is cardiotocography (CTG), using a cardiotocograph that consists of two sensors: The heart (cardio) sensor is an ultrasonic sensor, similar to a Doppler fetal monitor, that continuously emits ultrasound and detects motion of the fetal heart by the characteristic of the reflected sound. The pressure-sensitive contraction transducer, called a tocodynamometer (toco) has a flat area that is fixated to the skin by a band around the belly. The pressure required to flatten a section of the wall correlates with the internal pressure, thereby providing an estimate of contraction.{{cite book |title= The Medical Equipment Dictionary | vauthors = Hammond P, Johnson A | veditors = Brown M |publisher= Chapman & Hall |location= London |isbn= 978-0-412-28290-4 |chapter-url= http://home.btconnect.com/MalcolmBrown/entries/TOCODYNAMOMETER.html |chapter= Tocodynamometer |access-date= 23 August 2013 |year= 1986 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304044244/http://home.btconnect.com/MalcolmBrown/entries/TOCODYNAMOMETER.html |archive-date= 4 March 2016 }} Online version accessed.

Monitoring with a cardiotocograph can either be intermittent or continuous.{{cite journal|title=Continuous cardiotocography (CTG) as a form of electronic fetal monitoring (EFM) for fetal assessment during labour|url=http://www.cochrane.org/CD006066/PREG_continuous-cardiotocography-ctg-form-electronic-fetal-monitoring-efm-fetal-assessment-during-labour|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2|pages=CD006066|access-date=6 May 2018|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006066.pub3|pmid=28157275|pmc=6464257|year=2017|last1=Alfirevic|first1=Zarko|last2=Gyte|first2=Gillian ML|last3=Cuthbert|first3=Anna|last4=Devane|first4=Declan|issue=5|archive-date=7 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180507221407/http://www.cochrane.org/CD006066/PREG_continuous-cardiotocography-ctg-form-electronic-fetal-monitoring-efm-fetal-assessment-during-labour|url-status=live}} The World Health Organization (WHO) advises that for healthy women undergoing spontaneous labour continuous cardiotocography is not recommended for assessment of fetal well-being. The WHO states: "In countries and settings where continuous CTG is used defensively to protect against litigation, all stakeholders should be made aware that this practice is not evidence-based and does not improve birth outcomes."{{cite web|title=WHO recommendations Intrapartum care for a positive childbirth experience (Recommendation 17)|url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/260178/9789241550215-eng.pdf?sequence=1|website=World Health Organization|access-date=7 May 2018|archive-date=29 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329081924/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/260178/9789241550215-eng.pdf?sequence=1|url-status=live}}

A mother's water has to break before internal (invasive) monitoring can be used. More invasive monitoring can involve a fetal scalp electrode to give an additional measure of fetal heart activity, and/or intrauterine pressure catheter (IUPC). It can also involve fetal scalp pH testing.{{medical citation needed|date=March 2021}}

{{Main|Caesarean section|delivery after previous caesarean section}}

Caesarean section is the removal of the neonate through a surgical incision in the abdomen, rather than through vaginal birth. During the procedure the patient is usually numbed with an epidural or a spinal block, but general anaesthesia can be used as well. A cut is made in the patient's abdomen and then in the uterus to remove the baby.{{cite web |title= Rates for total cesarean section, primary cesarean section, and vaginal birth after cesarean (VBAC), United States, 1989–2010 |url= http://www.childbirthconnection.org/pdfs/cesarean-section-trends.pdf |series= Relentless Rise in Cesarian Rate |work= Childbirth Connection website |date= August 2012 |publisher= |author= |access-date= 29 August 2013 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130217122109/http://www.childbirthconnection.org/pdfs/cesarean-section-trends.pdf |archive-date= 17 February 2013 }} Before the 1970s, once a woman delivered one baby via C-section, it was recommended that all of her future babies be delivered by C-section, but that recommendation has changed. Unless there is some other indication, mothers can attempt a trial of labour and most are able to have a vaginal birth after C-section (VBAC).{{Cite journal |last1=Trojano |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Damiani |first2=Gianluca Raffaello |last3=Olivieri |first3=Claudiana |last4=Villa |first4=Mario |last5=Malvasi |first5=Antonio |last6=Alfonso |first6=Raffaello |last7=Loverro |first7=Matteo |last8=Cicinelli |first8=Ettore |date=6 September 2019 |title=VBAC: antenatal predictors of success |journal=Acta Bio-Medica: Atenei Parmensis |volume=90 |issue=3 |pages=300–309 |doi=10.23750/abm.v90i3.7623 |issn=2531-6745 |pmc=7233729 |pmid=31580319}} Induced births and elective cesarean before 39 weeks can be harmful to the neonate as well as harmful or without benefit to the mother. Therefore, many guidelines recommend against non-medically required induced births and elective cesarean before 39 weeks.{{Cite web |title=Elimination of Non-medically Indicated (Elective) Deliveries Before 39 Weeks Gestational Age |edition=1st |website=Patient Safety Council |publisher=March of Dimes |vauthors=Main E, Oshiro B, Chagolla B, Bingham D, Dang-Kilduff L, Kowalewski L |date=July 2010 |access-date=29 August 2013 |url=http://www.patientsafetycouncil.org/uploads/MOD_39_Weeks_Toolkit.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121120003529/http://www.patientsafetycouncil.org/uploads/MOD_39_Weeks_Toolkit.pdf |archive-date=20 November 2012 }}

The WHO recommends a C-section rate of between 10 and 15% because C-sections rates higher than 10% are not associated with a decrease in morbidity and mortality.{{Cite journal |date=January 2015 |title=WHO Statement on caesarean section rates |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rhm.2015.07.007 |journal=Reproductive Health Matters |volume=23 |issue=45 |pages=149–150 |doi=10.1016/j.rhm.2015.07.007 |pmid=26278843 |issn=0968-8080|last1=World Health Organization Human Reproduction Programme |first1=10 April 2015 |hdl=11343/249912 |s2cid=40829330 |hdl-access=free }} In 2018, a group of medical professionals called the rates of increase around the world "alarming". In a Lancet report, C-sections were found to have more than tripled from about 6% of all births to 21%. In a statement by the maternal and child health organisation, the March of Dimes, the increase is largely due to an increase of elective C-sections rather than when it is really necessary or indicated.{{cite web |title=Rate Of C-Sections Is Rising At An 'Alarming' Rate, Report Says |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2018/10/12/656198429/rate-of-c-sections-is-rising-at-an-alarming-rate |website=NPR |date=12 October 2018 |access-date=16 March 2023 |archive-date=16 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316180601/https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2018/10/12/656198429/rate-of-c-sections-is-rising-at-an-alarming-rate |url-status=live |last1=Doucleff |first1=Michaeleen }}

{{Main articles|Complications of pregnancy}}

{{See also|Pre-existing disease in pregnancy|High-risk pregnancy}}

{{Main|Obstetric labour complication}}

{{Main|Obstructed labour}}

Obstructed labour also called "dysfunctional labour" or "labour dystocia", is difficult labour or abnormally slow progress of labour, involving progressive cervical dilatation or lack of descent of the fetus. The second stage of labour may be delayed or lengthy due to poor or uncoordinated uterine action, an abnormal uterine position such as breech or shoulder dystocia, and cephalopelvic disproportion (a small pelvis or large infant). Prolonged labour may result in maternal exhaustion, fetal distress, and other complications including obstetric fistula.{{cite book|title=Education material for teachers of midwifery: midwifery education modules|date=2008|publisher=World Health Organisation|location=Geneva |isbn=978-9241546669|pages=38–44|edition=2nd|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2008/9789241546669_4_eng.pdf?ua=1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221002801/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2008/9789241546669_4_eng.pdf?ua=1|archive-date=21 February 2015}}

{{Main|Eclampsia}}

Eclampsia is the onset of seizures (convulsions) in a woman with pre-eclampsia. Pre-eclampsia is a disorder of pregnancy in which there is high blood pressure and either large amounts of protein in the urine or other organ dysfunction. Pre-eclampsia is routinely screened for during prenatal care. Onset may be before, during, or rarely, after delivery. Around 1% of women with eclampsia die.{{medical citation needed|date=March 2021}}

{{Main|Puerperal disorder}}

A puerperal disorder or postpartum disorder is a complication which presents primarily during the puerperium, or postpartum period. The postpartum period can be divided into three distinct stages; the initial or acute phase, six to 12 hours after childbirth; subacute postpartum period, which lasts two to six weeks, and the delayed postpartum period, which can last up to six months. In the subacute postpartum period, 87% to 94% of women report at least one health problem.{{cite journal | vauthors = Glazener CM, Abdalla M, Stroud P, Naji S, Templeton A, Russell IT | title = Postnatal maternal morbidity: extent, causes, prevention and treatment | journal = British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology | volume = 102 | issue = 4 | pages = 282–87 | date = April 1995 | pmid = 7612509 | doi = 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1995.tb09132.x | s2cid = 38872754 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Thompson JF, Roberts CL, Currie M, Ellwood DA | title = Prevalence and persistence of health problems after childbirth: associations with parity and method of birth | journal = Birth | volume = 29 | issue = 2 | pages = 83–94 | date = June 2002 | pmid = 12051189 | doi = 10.1046/j.1523-536X.2002.00167.x }} Long-term health problems (persisting after the delayed postpartum period) are reported by 31% of women.{{cite journal | vauthors = Borders N | title = After the afterbirth: a critical review of postpartum health relative to method of delivery | journal = Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health | volume = 51 | issue = 4 | pages = 242–48 | date = 2006 | pmid = 16814217 | doi = 10.1016/j.jmwh.2005.10.014 }}

{{Main|Postpartum bleeding}}

Bleeding (haemorrhage) is the leading cause of maternal death worldwide accounting for approximately 27.1% of maternal deaths.{{Cite journal |last1=Say |first1=Lale |last2=Chou |first2=Doris |last3=Gemmill |first3=Alison |last4=Tunçalp |first4=Özge |last5=Moller |first5=Ann-Beth |last6=Daniels |first6=Jane |last7=Gülmezoglu |first7=A. Metin |last8=Temmerman |first8=Marleen |last9=Alkema |first9=Leontine |date=1 June 2014 |title=Global causes of maternal death: a WHO systematic analysis |journal=The Lancet Global Health |language=English |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=e323–e333 |doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70227-X |issn=2214-109X |pmid=25103301|s2cid=8706769 |doi-access=free |hdl=1854/LU-5796925 |hdl-access=free }} Within maternal deaths due to haemorrhage, two-thirds are caused by postpartum haemorrhage. The causes of postpartum haemorrhage can be separated into four main categories: tone, trauma, tissue, and thrombin. Tone represents uterine atony, the failure of the uterus to contract adequately following delivery. Trauma includes lacerations or uterine rupture. Tissue includes conditions that can lead to a retained placenta. Thrombin, which is a molecule used in the human body's blood clotting system, represents all coagulopathies.{{Cite journal |last1=Bienstock |first1=Jessica L. |last2=Eke |first2=Ahizechukwu C. |last3=Hueppchen |first3=Nancy A. |date=29 April 2021 |title=Postpartum Hemorrhage |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=384 |issue=17 |pages=1635–1645 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1513247 |issn=1533-4406 |pmid=33913640 |pmc=10181876 |s2cid=233447661 }}

{{Main|Postpartum infections}}

Postpartum infections, also historically known as childbed fever and medically as puerperal fever, are any bacterial infections of the reproductive tract following childbirth or miscarriage. Signs and symptoms usually include a fever greater than 38.0 °C (100.4 °F), chills, lower abdominal pain, and possibly bad-smelling vaginal discharge. The infection usually occurs after the first 24 hours and within the first ten days following delivery. Infection remains a major cause of maternal deaths and morbidity in the developing world.{{cite book |title=Williams Obstetrics |date=2014 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional |isbn=978-0-07-179893-8 |edition=24th |pages=Chapter 37 |chapter=37}}

{{Main|Psychiatric disorders of childbirth|Postpartum psychosis|Postpartum depression|Childbirth-related posttraumatic stress disorder|Maternity blues}}

Childbirth can be an intense event and strong emotions, both positive and negative, can be brought to the surface. Abnormal and persistent fear of childbirth is known as tokophobia. The prevalence of fear of childbirth around the world ranges between 4–25%, with 3–7% of pregnant women having clinical fear of childbirth.{{cite journal | vauthors = Jaju S, Al Kharusi L, Gowri V | title = Antenatal prevalence of fear associated with childbirth and depressed mood in primigravid women | journal = Indian Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 57 | issue = 2 | pages = 158–61 | date = 2015 | pmid = 26124521 | pmc = 4462784 | doi = 10.4103/0019-5545.158152 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Lukasse M, Schei B, Ryding EL | title = Prevalence and associated factors of fear of childbirth in six European countries | journal = Sexual & Reproductive Healthcare | volume = 5 | issue = 3 | pages = 99–106 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 25200969 | doi = 10.1016/j.srhc.2014.06.007 | hdl = 10642/2246 | hdl-access = free }}

Although pain may be seen as a self-evident and indisputable fact, in reality pain is only one sensation of childbirth. There are many other sensations such as bliss, joy and satisfaction which can be more powerful than pain. Negative expectations can actually increase sensitivity to pain through the process of nocebo hyperalgesia. At the same time positive expectations can reduce pain through placebo analgesia.{{cite journal |last1=Carlino |first1=Elisa |last2=Frisaldi |first2=Elisa |last3=Benedetti |first3=Fabrizio |title=Pain and the Context |journal=Nature Reviews Rheumatology |date=June 2014 |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=348–355 |doi=10.1038/nrrheum.2014.17 |pmid=24567065 |url=https://rdcu.be/dFdFi|url-access=subscription }}

Most new mothers may experience mild feelings of unhappiness and worry after giving birth. Babies require a lot of care, so it is normal for mothers to be worried about, or tired from, providing that care. The feelings, often termed the "baby blues", affect up to 80% of mothers. They are somewhat mild, last a week or two, and usually go away on their own.{{cite web|title=Postpartum Depression Facts|url=https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/postpartum-depression-facts/index.shtml|website=National Institute of Mental Health|access-date=4 May 2018|archive-date=21 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621200731/https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/postpartum-depression-facts/index.shtml|url-status=live}}

Postpartum depression is different from the "baby blues". With postpartum depression, feelings of sadness and anxiety can be extreme and might interfere with a woman's ability to care for herself or her family. Because of the severity of the symptoms, postpartum depression usually requires treatment. The condition, which occurs in nearly 15% of births, may begin shortly before or any time after childbirth, but commonly begins between a week and a month after delivery.

Childbirth-related post-traumatic stress disorder is a psychological disorder that can develop in women who have recently given birth.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lapp LK, Agbokou C, Peretti CS, Ferreri F | title = Management of post traumatic stress disorder after childbirth: a review | journal = Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 113–22 | date = September 2010 | pmid = 20653342 | doi = 10.3109/0167482X.2010.503330 | s2cid = 23594561 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Condon J | title = Women's mental health: a "wish-list" for the DSM V | journal = Archives of Women's Mental Health | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 5–10 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 20127444 | doi = 10.1007/s00737-009-0114-1 | s2cid = 1102994 }}{{cite book | last = Martin | first = Colin | name-list-style = vanc | title = Perinatal Mental Health: a Clinical Guide | publisher = M & K Pub | location = Cumbria England | year = 2012 | isbn = 978-1907830495 | page = 26}} Causes include issues such as an emergency C-section, preterm labour, inadequate care during labour,

lack of social support following childbirth, and others. Examples of symptoms include intrusive symptoms, flashbacks and nightmares, as well as symptoms of avoidance (including amnesia for the whole or parts of the event), problems in developing a mother-child attachment, and others similar to those commonly experienced in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Many women who are experiencing symptoms of PTSD after childbirth are misdiagnosed with postpartum depression or adjustment disorders. These diagnoses can lead to inadequate treatment.{{cite journal | vauthors = Alder J, Stadlmayr W, Tschudin S, Bitzer J | title = Post-traumatic symptoms after childbirth: what should we offer? | journal = Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology | volume = 27 | issue = 2 | pages = 107–12 | date = June 2006 | pmid = 16808085 | doi = 10.1080/01674820600714632 | s2cid = 21859634 }}

Postpartum psychosis is a rare psychiatric emergency in which symptoms of high mood and racing thoughts (mania), depression, severe confusion, loss of inhibition, paranoia, hallucinations and delusions set in, beginning suddenly in the first two weeks after childbirth. The symptoms vary and can change quickly.{{cite journal | vauthors = Jones I, Chandra PS, Dazzan P, Howard LM | title = Bipolar disorder, affective psychosis, and schizophrenia in pregnancy and the post-partum period | journal = Lancet | volume = 384 | issue = 9956 | pages = 1789–99 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25455249 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61278-2 | s2cid = 44481055 }} It usually requires hospitalisation. The most severe symptoms last from two to 12 weeks, and recovery takes six months to a year.

File:Bumm 84 lg.jpg

Five causes make up about 80% of newborn deaths globally: prematurity, low-birth-weight, infections, lack of oxygen at birth, and trauma during birth.

{{Main|Stillbirth}}

Stillbirth is typically defined as fetal death at or after 20 to 28 weeks of pregnancy.{{cite web|title=Stillbirth: Overview|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/stillbirth/Pages/default.aspx|website=NICHD|access-date=4 October 2016|date=23 September 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005085055/https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/stillbirth/Pages/default.aspx|archive-date=5 October 2016}}{{Cite web |title=Stillbirths |url=https://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/epidemiology/stillbirth/en/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002035346/http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/epidemiology/stillbirth/en/ |archive-date=2 October 2016 |access-date=29 September 2016 |website=World Health Organization |language=en-GB}} It results in a baby born without signs of life.

Worldwide prevention of most stillbirths is possible with improved health systems.{{cite journal|title=Ending preventable stillbirths An Executive Summary for The Lancet's Series|journal=The Lancet|date=Jan 2016|url=http://www.thelancet.com/pb/assets/raw/Lancet/stories/series/stillbirths2016-exec-summ.pdf|access-date=31 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712154237/http://www.thelancet.com/pb/assets/raw/Lancet/stories/series/stillbirths2016-exec-summ.pdf|archive-date=12 July 2018|url-status=dead}} About half of stillbirths occur during childbirth, and stillbirth is more common in the developing than developed world. Otherwise depending on how far along the pregnancy is, medications may be used to start labour or a type of surgery known as dilation and evacuation may be carried out.{{cite web|title=How do health care providers manage stillbirth?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/stillbirth/topicinfo/Pages/managed.aspx|website=NICHD|access-date=4 October 2016|date=23 September 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005133645/https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/stillbirth/topicinfo/Pages/managed.aspx|archive-date=5 October 2016}} Following a stillbirth, women are at higher risk of another one; however, most subsequent pregnancies do not have similar problems.{{cite web|title=Stillbirth: Other FAQs|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/stillbirth/topicinfo/Pages/questions.aspx|website=NICHD|access-date=4 October 2016|date=23 September 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005133552/https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/stillbirth/topicinfo/Pages/questions.aspx|archive-date=5 October 2016}}

Worldwide in 2019 there were about 2 million stillbirths that occurred after 28 weeks of pregnancy, this equates to 1 in 72 total births or one every 16 seconds.{{Cite web |title=Stillbirths and stillbirth rates |url=https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-survival/stillbirths/ |access-date=24 June 2022 |website=UNICEF DATA |language=en-US |archive-date=9 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210909023831/https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-survival/stillbirths/ |url-status=live }} Still births are more common in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Stillbirth rates have declined, though more slowly since the 2000s.{{Cite journal|last1=Draper|first1=Elizabeth S.|last2=Manktelow|first2=Bradley N.|last3=Smith|first3=Lucy|last4=Rubayet|first4=Sayed|last5=Hirst|first5=Jane|last6=Neuman|first6=Melissa|last7=King|first7=Carina|last8=Osrin|first8=David|last9=Prost|first9=Audrey|date=6 February 2016|title=Stillbirths: rates, risk factors, and acceleration towards 2030|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=387|issue=10018|pages=587–603|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00837-5|issn=0140-6736|pmid=26794078|doi-access=free}}

{{Main|Preterm birth}}

Preterm birth is the birth of an infant at fewer than 37 weeks gestational age. Globally, about 15 million infants were born before 37 weeks of gestation.{{cite web |date=November 2015 |title=Preterm birth Fact sheet N°363 |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs363/en/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307050438/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs363/en/ |archive-date=7 March 2015 |access-date=30 July 2016 |website=WHO}} Premature birth is the leading cause of death in children under five years of age though many that survive experience disabilities including learning defects and visual and hearing problems. Causes for early birth may be unknown or may be related to certain chronic conditions such as diabetes, infections, and other known causes. The World Health Organization has developed guidelines with recommendations to improve the chances of survival and health outcomes for preterm infants.{{cite web|title=Preterm Birth|url=https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/preterm-birth|website=World Health Organization|access-date=26 April 2018|archive-date=7 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307050438/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs363/en/|url-status=live}}{{Cite journal |last1=Tsatsaris |first1=Vassilis |last2=Cabrol |first2=Dominique |last3=Carbonne |first3=Bruno |date=2004 |title=Pharmacokinetics of tocolytic agents |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15509182 |journal=Clinical Pharmacokinetics |volume=43 |issue=13 |pages=833–844 |doi=10.2165/00003088-200443130-00001 |issn=0312-5963 |pmid=15509182 |s2cid=43377674 |access-date=12 September 2022 |archive-date=12 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220912174616/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15509182/ |url-status=live }}

If a pregnant woman enters preterm labour, delivery can be delayed by giving medications called tocolytics. Tocolytics delay labour by inhibiting contractions of the uterine muscles that progress labour. The most widely used tocolytics include beta agonists, calcium channel blockers, and magnesium sulfate. The goal of administering tocolytics is not to delay delivery to the point that the child can be delivered at term, but instead to postponing delivery long enough for the administration of glucocorticoids which can help the fetal lungs to mature enough to reduce morbidity and mortality from infant respiratory distress syndrome.

{{Main|Postterm pregnancy}}

The term postterm pregnancy is used to describe a condition in which a woman has not yet delivered her baby after 42 weeks of gestation, two weeks beyond the usual 40-week duration of pregnancy.{{cite web |url=http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec19/ch272/ch272f.html |title=Postmature Infant |access-date=6 October 2008 |last=Kendig |first=James W |date=March 2007 |work=The Merck Manuals Online Medical Library |archive-date=20 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120820014059/http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/sec19/ch272/ch272f.html |url-status=live }} Postmature births carry risks for both the mother and the baby, including meconium aspiration syndrome, fetal malnutrition, and stillbirths.{{cite journal |last1=Muglu |first1=J |last2=Rather |first2=H |last3=Arroyo-Manzano |first3=D |last4=Bhattacharya |first4=S |last5=Balchin |first5=I |last6=Khalil |first6=A |last7=Thilaganathan |first7=B |last8=Khan |first8=KS |last9=Zamora |first9=J |last10=Thangaratinam |first10=S |title=Risks of stillbirth and neonatal death with advancing gestation at term: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies of 15 million pregnancies. |journal=PLOS Medicine |date=July 2019 |volume=16 |issue=7 |pages=e1002838 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1002838 |pmid=31265456|pmc=6605635 |doi-access=free }} The placenta, which supplies the baby with oxygen and nutrients, begins to age and will eventually fail after the 42nd week of gestation. Induced labour is indicated for postterm pregnancy.{{Cite journal |date=August 2014 |title=Practice Bulletin No. 146: Management of Late-Term and Postterm Pregnancies |url=https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/Abstract/2014/08000/Practice_Bulletin_No__146__Management_of_Late_Term.34.aspx |journal=Obstetrics & Gynecology |language=en-US |volume=124 |issue=2 PART 1 |pages=390–396 |doi=10.1097/01.AOG.0000452744.06088.48 |pmid=25050770 |s2cid=7149045 |issn=0029-7844 |access-date=12 September 2022 |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911182548/https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/Abstract/2014/08000/Practice_Bulletin_No__146__Management_of_Late_Term.34.aspx |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last=Neff |first=Matthew J. |date=1 December 2004 |title=ACOG Releases Guidelines on Management of Post-term Pregnancy |url=https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2004/1201/p2221.html |journal=American Family Physician |language=en-US |volume=70 |issue=11 |pages=2221–2225 |access-date=12 September 2022 |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911182540/https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2004/1201/p2221.html |url-status=live }}{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Mary |last2=Fontaine |first2=Patricia |date=1 August 2014 |title=Common Questions About Late-Term and Postterm Pregnancy |url=https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2014/0801/p160.html |journal=American Family Physician |language=en-US |volume=90 |issue=3 |pages=160–165 |pmid=25077721 |access-date=12 September 2022 |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911182537/https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2014/0801/p160.html |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Neonatal infection}}

File:Neonatal infections and other (perinatal) conditions world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg for neonatal infections and other (perinatal) conditions per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004. Excludes prematurity and low birth weight, birth asphyxia and birth trauma which have their own maps/data.{{cite web |title= Mortality and Burden of Disease Estimates for WHO Member States in 2004 |url= https://www.who.int/entity/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/gbddeathdalycountryestimates2004.xls |format= xls |publisher= Department of Measurement and Health Information, World Health Organization |date= February 2009 |access-date= 4 October 2020 |archive-date= 28 August 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210828123901/https://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/gbddeathdalycountryestimates2004.xls |url-status= live }}{{Div col|small=yes|colwidth=10em}}

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Newborns are prone to infection in the first month of life. The pathogenic bacterium Streptococcus agalactiae (a group B streptococcus) is most often the cause of these occasionally fatal infections. The baby contracts the infection from the mother during labour. In 2014 it was estimated that about one in 2000 newborn babies had a group B streptococcus infection within the first week of life, usually evident as respiratory disease, general sepsis, or meningitis.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ohlsson A, Shah VS | title = Intrapartum antibiotics for known maternal Group B streptococcal colonization | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 6 | pages = CD007467 | date = June 2014 | volume = 2016 | pmid = 24915629 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD007467.pub4 | s2cid = 205189572 }}

Untreated sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are associated with birth defects, and infections in newborn babies, particularly in the areas where rates of infection remain high. The majority of STIs have no symptoms or only mild symptoms that may not be recognised. Mortality rates resulting from some infections may be high, for example the overall perinatal mortality rate associated with untreated syphilis is 30%.{{cite web |title= Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs110/en/ |volume= Fact sheet 110 |date= May 2013 |access-date= 30 August 2013 |publisher= World Health Organization |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141125133056/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs110/en/ |archive-date= 25 November 2014 }}

{{Main|Perinatal asphyxia}}

Perinatal asphyxia is the medical condition resulting from deprivation of oxygen to a newborn infant that lasts long enough during the birth process to cause physical harm. Hypoxic damage can also occur to most of the infant's organs (heart, lungs, liver, gut, kidneys), but brain damage is of most concern and perhaps the least likely to quickly or completely heal.{{cite journal | vauthors = van Handel M, Swaab H, de Vries LS, Jongmans MJ | title = Long-term cognitive and behavioral consequences of neonatal encephalopathy following perinatal asphyxia: a review | journal = European Journal of Pediatrics | volume = 166 | issue = 7 | pages = 645–54 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 17426984 | pmc = 1914268 | doi = 10.1007/s00431-007-0437-8 }} Oxygen deprivation can lead to permanent disabilities in the child, such as cerebral palsy.{{Citation |last1=Marret |first1=Stéphane |title=Chapter 16 - Pathophysiology of cerebral palsy |date=1 January 2013 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444528919000166 |journal=Handbook of Clinical Neurology |volume=111 |pages=169–176 |editor-last=Dulac |editor-first=Olivier |series=Pediatric Neurology Part I |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |access-date=28 July 2022 |last2=Vanhulle |first2=Catherine |last3=Laquerriere |first3=Annie |doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-52891-9.00016-6 |pmid=23622161 |isbn=9780444528919 |editor2-last=Lassonde |editor2-first=Maryse |editor3-last=Sarnat |editor3-first=Harvey B.|url-access=subscription }}

{{Main|Birth trauma (physical)}}

Risk factors for fetal birth injury include fetal macrosomia (big baby), maternal obesity, the need for instrumental delivery, and an inexperienced attendant. Specific situations that can contribute to birth injury include breech presentation and shoulder dystocia. Most fetal birth injuries resolve without long term harm, but brachial plexus injury may lead to Erb's palsy or Klumpke's paralysis.{{cite book| title=Gray's Anatomy | veditors = Warwick R, Williams PL | edition=35th British| publisher= Longman |location=London|year=1973 |page=1046 |isbn=978-0443010118 | title-link=Gray's Anatomy }}

{{further|Home birth}}

Childbirth routinely occurs in hospitals in many developed countries. Before the 20th century and in some countries to the present day, such as the Netherlands, it has more typically occurred at home.{{cite book |title= Encyclopedia of Social History |volume= V. 780 |series= Garland Reference Library of Social Sciences |publisher= Taylor & Francis | veditors = Stearns PN |isbn= 978-0-8153-0342-8 |location= London |page= 144 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=kkIeyCEedrsC&pg=PA144 |year= 1993 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160102154830/https://books.google.com/books?id=kkIeyCEedrsC&pg=PA144 |archive-date= 2 January 2016 }}

In rural and remote communities of many countries, hospitalised childbirth may not be readily available or the best option. Maternal evacuation is the predominant risk management method for assisting mothers in these communities.{{Cite book|title=Indigenous experiences of pregnancy and birth| first1 = Hannah Neufeld | last1 = Tait | first2 = Jaime | last2 = Cidro | name-list-style = vanc |isbn=978-1772581355|oclc=1012401274|year= 2018| publisher = Demeter Press }} Maternal evacuation is the process of relocating pregnant women in remote communities to deliver their babies in a nearby urban hospital setting. This practice is common in Indigenous Inuit and Northern Manitoban communities in Canada as well as Australian aboriginal communities. Maternal evacuation, due to a lack of social support provided to these women, can have negative effects on mothers. These negative effects include an increase in maternal newborn complications and postpartum depression, and decreased breastfeeding rates.

The exact location in which childbirth takes place is an important factor in determining nationality, in particular for birth aboard aircraft and ships.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}

In 1991 the World Health Organization (WHO) launched a global programme, the Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI), that urges birthing centres and hospitals to institute procedures that encourage mother/baby bonding and breastfeeding. The Johns Hopkins Hospital describes the process of receiving the Baby Friendly designation:

{{blockquote|It involves changing long-standing policies, protocols and behaviors. The Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative includes a very rigorous credentialing process that includes a two-day site visit, where assessors evaluate policies, community partnerships and education plans, as well as interview patients, physicians and staff members.{{cite web |title=The Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative |url=https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/gynecology_obstetrics/specialty_areas/birthing-services/johns-hopkins-hospital/baby-friendly.html#:~:text=The%20Baby-Friendly%20Hospital%20Initiative%20%28BFHI%29%2C%20a%20global%20program,of%20care%20for%20infant%20feeding%20and%20mother-baby%20bonding. |website=Johns Hopkins Medicine |access-date=January 9, 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109222941/https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/gynecology_obstetrics/specialty_areas/birthing-services/johns-hopkins-hospital/baby-friendly.html#:~:text=The%20Baby-Friendly%20Hospital%20Initiative%20%28BFHI%29%2C%20a%20global%20program,of%20care%20for%20infant%20feeding%20and%20mother-baby%20bonding. |url-status=live }}}}

Every major health organisation, such as the CDC, supports the BFHI. As of 2019, 28% of hospitals in the US have been accredited by the WHO.{{cite web |title=The CDC Guide to Breastfeeding Interventions |url=https://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/pdf/bf_guide_1.pdf |website=CDC |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121014658/https://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/pdf/bf_guide_1.pdf |url-status=live }}

File:The Foreign Workers in Britain, 1914-1918 Q27752.jpg

Facilities for childbirth include:

• A maternity ward, also called maternity unit, labour ward or delivery ward, is generally a hospital department that provides health care to women and their children during childbirth. It is generally closely linked to the hospital's neonatal intensive care unit and/or obstetric surgery unit if present. It usually includes facilities both for childbirth and for postpartum rest and observation of mothers in normal as well as complicated cases.
• A maternity hospital is a hospital that specialises in caring for women while they are pregnant and during childbirth and provide care for newborn babies,
• A birthing centre is a midwife-led unit that generally presents a more home-like environment. Birthing centres may be located on hospital grounds or "free standing" (that is, not affiliated with a hospital).
• A home birth is usually accomplished with the assistance of a midwife. Some women choose to give birth at home without any professionals present, termed an unassisted childbirth.

File:Modelo-de-quadril.jpg, Brazil]]

Medical doctors who practise in the field of childbirth include categorically specialised obstetricians, family practitioners and general practitioners whose training, skills and practices include obstetrics, and in some contexts general surgeons. These physicians and surgeons variously provide care across the whole spectrum of normal and abnormal births and pathological labour conditions. Categorically specialised obstetricians are qualified surgeons, so they can undertake surgical procedures relating to childbirth. Some family practitioners or general practitioners also perform obstetrical surgery. Obstetrical procedures include cesarean sections, episiotomies, and assisted delivery. Categorical specialists in obstetrics are commonly trained in both obstetrics and gynaecology (OB/GYN), and may provide other medical and surgical gynaecological care, and may incorporate more general, well-woman, primary care elements in their practices. Maternal–fetal medicine specialists are obstetrician/gynecologists subspecialised in managing and treating high-risk pregnancy and delivery.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}

Anaesthetists or anaesthetists are medical doctors who specialise in pain relief and the use of drugs to facilitate surgery and other painful procedures. They may contribute to the care of a woman in labour by performing an epidural or by providing anaesthesia (often spinal anaesthesia) for Cesarean section or forceps delivery. They are experts in pain management during childbirth.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}

Obstetric nurses assist midwives, doctors, women, and babies before, during, and after the birth process, in the hospital system. They hold various nursing certifications and typically undergo additional obstetric training in addition to standard nursing training.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}

Paramedics are healthcare providers that are able to provide emergency care to both the mother and infant during and after delivery using a wide range of medications and tools on an ambulance. They are capable of delivering babies but can do very little for infants that become "stuck" and are unable to be delivered vaginally.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}

Lactation consultants assist the mother and newborn to breastfeed successfully. A health visitor comes to see the mother and baby at home, usually within 24 hours of discharge, and checks the infant's adaptation to extrauterine life and the mother's postpartum physiological changes.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}

Different categories of birth attendants may provide support and care during pregnancy and childbirth, although there are important differences across categories based on professional training and skills, practice regulations, and the nature of care delivered. Many of these occupations are highly professionalised, but other roles exist on a less formal basis.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}

Midwives are autonomous practitioners who provide basic and emergency health care before, during and after pregnancy and childbirth, generally to women with low-risk pregnancies. Midwives are trained to assist during labour and birth, either through direct-entry or nurse-midwifery education programmes. Jurisdictions where midwifery is a regulated profession will typically have a registering and disciplinary body for quality control, such as the American Midwifery Certification Board in the United States,{{cite web |title=About AMCB |url=http://www.amcbmidwife.org/about-amcb |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223000426/http://www.amcbmidwife.org/about-amcb |archive-date=23 February 2014 |access-date=20 February 2014}} the College of Midwives of British Columbia in Canada{{cite web |author= |title=Welcome to the College of Midwives of British Columbia |url=http://www.cmbc.bc.ca/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917090243/http://www.cmbc.bc.ca/ |archive-date=17 September 2013 |access-date=30 August 2013 |work=College of Midwives of British Columbia website |publisher=}}{{cite web |author=Province of British Columbia |date=21 August 2013 |title=Health Professions Act |url=http://www.bclaws.ca/EPLibraries/bclaws_new/document/ID/freeside/00_96183_01 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825071500/http://www.bclaws.ca/EPLibraries/bclaws_new/document/ID/freeside/00_96183_01 |archive-date=25 August 2013 |access-date=30 August 2013 |work=Statues and Regulations of British Columbia internet version |publisher=Queens Printer |volume=Chapter 183 |location=Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada |orig-year=Revised Statues of British Columbia 1996}} or the Nursing and Midwifery Council in the United Kingdom.{{cite web |author= |date=31 August 2011 |title=Our role |url=http://www.nmc-uk.org/About-us/Our-role/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905035801/http://www.nmc-uk.org/About-us/Our-role/ |archive-date=5 September 2013 |access-date=30 August 2013 |work=Nursing & Midwifery Council website |publisher= |orig-year=Created 2010-02-24 |location=London, England}}{{cite web |year=2002 |title=The Nursing and Midwifery Order 2001 |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2002/253/contents/made |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808173537/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2002/253/contents/made |archive-date=8 August 2013 |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office, The National Archives, Ministry of Justice, Her Majesty's Government |volume=No. 253 |location=London, England}}

In the past, midwifery played a crucial role in childbirth throughout most indigenous societies. Although western civilisations attempted to assimilate their birthing technologies into certain indigenous societies, like Turtle Island, and get rid of the midwifery, the National Aboriginal Council of Midwives brought back the cultural ideas and midwifery that were once associated with indigenous birthing.{{Cite book |last=Burton |first=Nadya |title=Natal signs: cultural representations of pregnancy, birth and parenting |date=2015 |publisher=Demeter Press |isbn=978-1926452326 |oclc=949328683 |name-list-style=vanc}}

In jurisdictions where midwifery is not a regulated profession, traditional birth attendants, also known as traditional or lay midwives, may assist women during childbirth, although they do not typically receive formal health care education and training.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}

Childbirth educators are instructors who aim to teach pregnant women and their partners about the nature of pregnancy, labour signs and stages, techniques for giving birth, breastfeeding and newborn baby care. Training for this role can be found in hospital settings or through independent certifying organisations. Each organisation teaches its own curriculum and each emphasises different techniques. The Lamaze technique is one well-known example.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}

Doulas are assistants who support mothers during pregnancy, labour, birth, and postpartum. They are not medical attendants; rather, they provide emotional support and non-medical pain relief for women during labour. Like childbirth educators and other unlicensed assistive personnel, certification to become a doula is not compulsory, thus, anyone can call themself a doula or a childbirth educator.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

Confinement nannies are individuals who are employed to provide assistance and stay with the mothers at their home after childbirth. They are usually experienced mothers who took courses on how to take care of mothers and newborn babies.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

{{See also|Men's role in childbirth}}

Both preterm and full term infants benefit from skin to skin contact, sometimes called kangaroo care, immediately following birth and for the first few weeks of life. Some fathers have begun to hold their newborns skin to skin; the new baby is familiar with the father's voice and it is believed that contact with the father helps the infant to stabilise and promotes father to infant bonding. Looking at recent studies, a 2019 review found that the level of oxytocin was found to increase not only in mothers who had experienced early skin to skin attachment with their infants but in the fathers as well, suggesting a neurobiological connection. If the infant's mother had a caesarean birth, the father can hold their baby in skin-to-skin contact while the mother recovers from the anaesthetic.

File:Share of births attended by skilled health staff, OWID.svg

File:Cost of Childbirth.jpg

The cost of childbirth varies dramatically by country.

According to a 2013 analysis, in the United States the average amount actually paid by insurance companies or other payers in 2012 averaged $9,775 for an uncomplicated conventional delivery and $15,041 for a caesarean birth. A 2013 study found varying costs by facility for childbirth expenses in California, varying from $3,296 to $37,227 for a vaginal birth and from $8,312 to $70,908 for a caesarean birth.{{cite journal | vauthors = Hsia RY, Akosa Antwi Y, Weber E | title = Analysis of variation in charges and prices paid for vaginal and caesarean section births: a cross-sectional study | journal = BMJ Open | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = e004017 | date = January 2014 | pmid = 24435892 | pmc = 3902513 | doi = 10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004017 }} {{open access}}

Reporting on costs in 2023, Forbes gave an average cost of $18,865 ($14,768 for vaginal and

$26,280 for cesarean) which included pregnancy, delivery and postpartum care. However, many factors determined the costs, including where the woman lived, the type of birth, and whether or not they had insurance. Even with insurance, average out of the pocket expenses for a vaginal delivery were $2,655 and $3,214 for a cesarean birth. Variables which determined charges included length of hospital stay, which averaged 48 hours for vaginal birth and 96 hours for a cesarean. There could be charges for any complications before or after the birth, for example an induced labour costs more than a spontaneous birth. Babies that had a difficult birth may need special tests and monitoring, adding to the costs of childbirth.{{cite web |last1=Rivelli |first1=Elizabeth |title=How Much Does It Cost To Have A Baby? 2023 Averages |url=https://www.forbes.com/advisor/health-insurance/average-childbirth-cost/#:~:text=Giving%20birth%20costs%20%2418%2C865%20on%20average%2C%20including%20pregnancy%2C,insurance%3F%20You%20can%20expect%20a%20hefty%20hospital%20bill. |website=Forbes |date=10 October 2022 |access-date=10 March 2023 |archive-date=10 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310134058/https://www.forbes.com/advisor/health-insurance/average-childbirth-cost/#:~:text=Giving%20birth%20costs%20%2418%2C865%20on%20average%2C%20including%20pregnancy%2C,insurance%3F%20You%20can%20expect%20a%20hefty%20hospital%20bill. |url-status=live }}

Beginning in 2014, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence began recommending that women with low-risk pregnancies give birth at home under the care of a midwife rather than an obstetrician, citing lower expenses and better healthcare outcomes.{{cite book |author=National Collaborating Centre for Women's and Children's Health |title=Intrapartum Care: Care of Healthy Women and Their Babies During Childbirth |location=London |publisher=RCOG |year=2007 |series=NICE Clinical Guidelines, No. 55 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK49388/ |pmid=21250397 |isbn=9781904752363 |access-date=22 October 2019 |archive-date=15 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715213338/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK49388/ |url-status=live }}{{page needed|date=October 2019}}{{cite web |title=Recommendations: Intrapartum care for healthy women and babies |url=https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg190/chapter/Recommendations#place-of-birth |website=National Institute for Health and Care Excellence |date=3 December 2014 |access-date=6 December 2020 |archive-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202225019/https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg190/chapter/Recommendations#place-of-birth |url-status=live }} The median cost associated with home birth was estimated to be about $1,500 vs. about $2,500 in hospital.{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/04/world/british-regulator-urges-home-births-over-hospitals-for-uncomplicated-pregnancies.html|title=British Regulator Urges Home Births Over Hospitals for Uncomplicated Pregnancies - NYTimes.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328080317/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/04/world/british-regulator-urges-home-births-over-hospitals-for-uncomplicated-pregnancies.html?_r=0|archive-date=28 March 2017|newspaper=The New York Times|date=3 December 2014|last1=Bennhold|first1=Katrin|last2=Louis|first2=Catherine Saint | name-list-style = vanc }}

{{main|Maternal mortality}}

File:Share of women that are expected to die from pregnancy-related causes, OWID.svg

Causes for maternal mortality range from severe bleeding to obstructed labour,{{cite journal|date=January 2015|title=Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013|journal=Lancet|volume=385|issue=9963|pages=117–71|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2|pmc=4340604|pmid=25530442 |last1=Murray |first1=Christopher JL |last2=Lopez |first2=Alan D |last3=Vos |first3=Theo|collaboration=GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators }} for which there are highly effective interventions.

File:810 women die every day from preventable causes related to pregnancy and childbirth, 94% occur in low and lower middle-income countries.png

In 2008 at least seven million mothers experienced serious health problems while 50 million more had adverse health consequences after childbirth.

The United Nations Population Fund estimated that 303,000 women died of pregnancy or childbirth related causes in 2015.{{cite web|title=Maternal health|url=http://www.unfpa.org/maternal-health|access-date=29 January 2017|publisher=United Nations Population Fund|archive-date=29 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129122355/https://www.unfpa.org/maternal-health|url-status=live}}

Additionally postpartum infections, most often transmitted by the dirty hands and tools of doctors, used to be one of the main causes of maternal mortality until germ theory was accepted in the mid-1800s and adopted thereafter. Before that it was assumed that puerperal fever was caused by a variety of sources, including the leakage of breast milk into the body and anxiety. Still, home births facilitated by trained midwives produced the best outcomes from 1880 to 1930 in the US and Europe, whereas physician-facilitated hospital births produced the worst. When antibiotics were discovered in the 1930s, rates of puerperal fever started to decrease significantly.{{cite journal |vauthors=Loudon I |date=July 2000 |title=Maternal mortality in the past and its relevance to developing countries today |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=72 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=241S–246S |doi=10.1093/ajcn/72.1.241S |pmid=10871589 |doi-access=free}}

The change in trend of maternal mortality can be attributed with the widespread use of antibiotics along with the progression of medical technology, more extensive physician training, and less medical interference with normal deliveries.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has urged midwife training to strengthen maternal and newborn health services. To support the upgrading of midwifery skills the WHO established a midwife training programme, Action for Safe Motherhood.

There was a 44% decline in the maternal death rate between 1990 and 2015. However, 830 women died every day in 2015 from causes related to pregnancy or childbirth and for every woman who dies, 20 or 30 encounter injuries, infections or disabilities. Most of these deaths and injuries are preventable.{{cite web|title=Maternal health|url=http://www.unfpa.org/maternal-health|website=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=24 April 2018|archive-date=29 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129122355/https://www.unfpa.org/maternal-health|url-status=live}}{{cite book |vauthors= Van Lerberghe W, De Brouwere V |chapter= Of Blind Alleys and Things That Have Worked: History's Lessons on Reducing Maternal Mortality |veditors= De Brouwere V, Van Lerberghe W |title= Safe Motherhood Strategies: A Review of the Evidence |location= Antwerp |publisher= ITG Press |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-90-76070-19-3 |chapter-url= http://dspace.itg.be/bitstream/10390/1515/1/shsop17.pdf#page=15 |series= Studies in Health Services Organisation and Policy |volume= 17 |pages= 7–33 |quote= Where nothing effective is done to avert maternal death, "natural" mortality is probably of the order of magnitude of 1,500/100,000. |access-date= 29 August 2013 |archive-date= 28 August 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210828031201/http://dspace.itg.be/bitstream/handle/10390/1515/shsop17.pdf;jsessionid=01CB3701C881CA8BEF7ACD2A307311D7?sequence=1#page=15 |url-status= dead }} In the decades since 1990 the global maternal mortality ratio has fallen from 385 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births in 1990 to 216 deaths per 100,000 live births in 2015, and it was reported in 2017 that many countries had halved their maternal death rates in the last 10 years, as women have gained access to family planning and skilled birth attendants with backup emergency obstetric care.

{{Main articles|Maternal mortality in the United States|Black maternal mortality in the United States}}

Since the US began recording childbirth statistics in 1915, the US has had historically poor maternal mortality rates in comparison to other developed countries.

The rising maternal death rate in the US is of concern. In 1990 the US ranked 12th of the 14 developed countries that were analysed. However, since that time the rates of every country have steadily continued to improve while the US rate has spiked dramatically. While every other developed nation of the 14 analysed in 1990 shows a 2017 death rate of less than 10 deaths per every 100,000 live births, the US rate has risen to 26.4. By comparison, the United Kingdom ranks second highest at 9.2 and Finland is the safest at 3.8.{{cite web|title=U.S. Has The Worst Rate Of Maternal Deaths In The Developed World|url=https://www.npr.org/2017/05/12/528098789/u-s-has-the-worst-rate-of-maternal-deaths-in-the-developed-world|website=NPR|date=12 May 2017|access-date=25 April 2018|last1=Propublica|first1=Nina Martin|last2=Montagne|first2=Renee|archive-date=24 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424221005/https://www.npr.org/2017/05/12/528098789/u-s-has-the-worst-rate-of-maternal-deaths-in-the-developed-world|url-status=live}}

In 2022, the WHO reported that the US had the highest maternal death rate of any developed nation while other nations continued to experience declines. The death rate of black women has also continued to climb with a 2020 CDC report showing the maternal death rate at 55.3 deaths per 100,000 live births – 2.9 times the rate for white women.{{cite web |last1=Howard |first1=Jacqueline |title=US sees continued rise in maternal deaths – and ongoing inequities, CDC report shows |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/02/23/health/maternal-deaths-increase-us-report/index.html |website=CNN |date=23 February 2022 |access-date=13 February 2023 |archive-date=14 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214021006/https://www.cnn.com/2022/02/23/health/maternal-deaths-increase-us-report/index.html |url-status=live }} In 2023, a study reported that deaths among Native American women were even higher, at 3.5 times the rate for White women. The report attributed the high rate in part to the fact that Native American women are cared for under a poorly funded Federal Health Care System that is so stretched that the average monthly visit lasts only from three to seven minutes. Such a short visit allows neither time for performing an adequate health assessment nor time for the patient to discuss any problems she may be experiencing.{{cite web |title=Sharp rise in deaths among pregnant women and new mothers |url=https://video.azpbs.org/video/at-risk-1676327693/ |website=PBS Newshour |access-date=13 February 2023 |archive-date=14 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214030105/https://video.azpbs.org/video/at-risk-1676327693/ |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Neonatal death}}Looking at 168 countries around the world, a 2015 Save the Children's report found that each day about 8,000 newborns die during the first month of life. Worldwide, more than 1 million babies die during their first day even though simple measures such as antibiotics, hand-held breathing masks and other simple interventions could prevent the deaths of 70% of infants.{{cite web |last1=Castillo |first1=Michelle |date=7 May 2013 |title=U.S. has highest first-day infant mortality out of industrialized world, group reports |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/us-has-highest-first-day-infant-mortality-out-of-industrialized-world-group-reports/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214164007/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/us-has-highest-first-day-infant-mortality-out-of-industrialized-world-group-reports/ |archive-date=14 February 2023 |access-date=14 February 2023 |website=CBS News}}

The United States had the highest first-day infant death rate of all the industrialised nations in the world. In the US, each year about 11,300 newborns die within 24 hours of their birth, 50% more first-day deaths than all other industrialised countries combined.

Compared to other developed nations, the United States also has high infant mortality rates. The Trust for America's Health reports that as of 2011, about one-third of American births have some complications; many are directly related to the mother's health including increasing rates of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and physical inactivity. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has led an initiative to improve woman's health previous to conception in an effort to improve both neonatal and maternal death rates.{{cite web |title= Healthy Women, Healthy Babies: How health reform can improve the health of women and babies in America |url= http://healthyamericans.org/assets/files/TFAH%202011HealthyBabiesBrief.pdf | vauthors = Levi J, Kohn D, Johnson K |publisher= Trust for America's Health |location= Washington, D.C. |date= June 2011 |access-date= 29 August 2013 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120624230140/http://healthyamericans.org/assets/files/TFAH%202011HealthyBabiesBrief.pdf |archive-date= 24 June 2012 }}

File:Lurestan Fibula (4484325444).jpg fibula showing a woman giving birth between two antelopes, ornamented with flowers. From Iran, 1000 to 650 BC, at the Louvre museum.]]

File:Miniature Naissance Louis VIII.jpg (postpartum confinement). France, 14th century.]]Some communities rely heavily on religion for their birthing practices. It is believed that if certain acts are carried out, then it will allow the child for a healthier and happier future. One example of this is the belief in the Chillihuani that if a knife or scissors are used for cutting the umbilical cord, it will cause for the child to go through clothes very quickly. To prevent this, a jagged ceramic tile is used to cut the umbilical cord.{{Cite book |last=Inge |first=Bolin |title=Growing up in a culture of respect child rearing in highland Peru |date=2006 |publisher=University of Texas Press |oclc=748863692 |name-list-style=vanc}}{{page needed|date=October 2019}}

Comfort and proximity to extended family and social support systems may be a childbirth priority of many communities in developing countries, such as the Chillihuani in Peru and the Mayan town of San Pedro La Laguna.{{Cite book |last=Barbara |first=Rogoff |title=Developing destinies: a Mayan midwife and town |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-531990-3 |oclc=779676136 |name-list-style=vanc}}{{page needed|date=October 2019}} Home births can help women in these cultures feel more comfortable as they are in their own home with their family around them helping out in different ways. Traditionally, it has been rare in these cultures for the mother to lie down during childbirth, opting instead for standing, kneeling, or walking around prior to and during birthing.

In contemporary Mayan societies, ceremonial gifts are presented to the mother throughout pregnancy and childbirth to help her into the beginning of her child's life. Maya women who work in agricultural fields of some rural communities will usually continue to work in a similar function to how they normally would throughout pregnancy, in some cases working until labour begins.

In some cultures the placenta may be consumed as a nutritional boost, but it may also be seen as a special part of birth and eaten by the newborn's family ceremonially.{{cite book |title=Having a Great Birth in Australia: Twenty Stories of Triumph, Power, Love and Delight from the Women and Men who Brought New Life Into the World |title-link=Having a Great Birth in Australia |publisher=Australian College of Midwives |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-9751674-3-4 |editor-link=David Vernon (writer) |veditors=Vernon DM |location=Canberra, Australia |page=56}} In the developed world the placenta may be eaten believing that it reduces postpartum bleeding, increases milk supply, provides micronutrients such as iron, and improves mood and boosts energy. The CDC advises against this practice, saying it has not been shown to promote health but has been shown to possibly transmit disease organisms that were passed from the placenta into the mother's breastmilk and then infecting the baby.{{cite web |title=Labor and delivery, postpartum care |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/labor-and-delivery/expert-answers/eating-the-placenta/faq-20380880 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220629155636/https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/labor-and-delivery/expert-answers/eating-the-placenta/faq-20380880 |archive-date=29 June 2022 |access-date=29 June 2022 |website=Mayo Clinic}}

Cultural values, assumptions, and practices of pregnancy and childbirth vary across cultures and time.

See;

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|

• Childbirth in Benin
• Childbirth in China
• Childbirth in Ghana
• Childbirth in Haiti
• Childbirth in India
• Childbirth in Iraq
• Childbirth in Japan
• Childbirth in Mexico
• Childbirth in Nepal
• Childbirth in Sri Lanka
• Childbirth in Thailand
• Childbirth in Trinidad and Tobago
• Childbirth in Zambia

}}

It is currently possible to collect two types of stem cells during childbirth: amniotic stem cells and umbilical cord blood stem cells. They are being studied as possible treatments of a number of conditions.{{cite journal | vauthors = Dziadosz M, Basch RS, Young BK | title = Human amniotic fluid: a source of stem cells for possible therapeutic use | journal = American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 214 | issue = 3 | pages = 321–27 | date = March 2016 | pmid = 26767797 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajog.2015.12.061 }}

{{anchor|Hospital birth}}

Historically, most women gave birth at home without emergency medical care available. In the early days of hospitalisation for childbirth, a 17th-century maternity ward in Paris was incredibly congested, with up to five pregnant women sharing one bed. At this hospital, one in five women died during the birthing process. At the onset of the Industrial Revolution, giving birth at home became more difficult due to congested living spaces and dirty living conditions. That drove urban and lower-class women to newly available hospitals, while wealthy and middle-class women continued to labour at home.{{cite book |last=Cassidy |first=Tina |url=https://archive.org/details/birthsurprisingh00cass/page/54 |title=Birth |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-87113-938-2 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/birthsurprisingh00cass/page/54 54–55] |name-list-style=vanc}} Consequently, wealthier women experienced lower maternal mortality rates than those of a lower social class. Throughout the 1900s, there was an increasing availability of hospitals, and more women began going into the hospital for labour and delivery.{{cite journal |vauthors=Thompson CJ |year=2005 |title=Consumer Risk Perceptions in a Community of Reflexive Doubt |journal=Journal of Consumer Research |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=235–48 |doi=10.1086/432233}} In the United States, 5% of women gave birth in hospitals in 1900. By 1930, 50% of all women and 75% of urban-dwelling women delivered in hospitals. By 1960, this number increased to 96%.{{cite journal |last=Dye |first=Nancy Schrom |name-list-style=vanc |date=Autumn 1980 |title=History of Childbirth in America |journal=Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=97–108 |doi=10.1086/493779 |jstor=3173968 |pmid=21213655 |s2cid=144068193}} By the 1970s, home birth rates fell to approximately 1%. In the United States, the middle classes were especially receptive to the medicalisation of childbirth, which promised a safer and less painful labour.

Accompanied by the shift from home to hospital was the shift from midwife to physician. Male physicians began to replace female midwives in Europe and the United States in the 1700s. The rise in status and popularity of this new position was accompanied by a drop in status for midwives. By the 1800s, affluent families were primarily calling male doctors to assist with their deliveries, and female midwives were seen as a resource for women who could not afford better care. That completely removed women from assisting in labour, as only men were eligible to become doctors at the time. Additionally, it privatised the birthing process as family members and friends were often banned from the delivery room.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

There was opposition to the change from both progressive feminists and religious conservatives. The feminists were concerned about job security for a role that had traditionally been held by women. The conservatives argued that it was immoral for a woman to be exposed in such a way in front of a man. For that reason, many male obstetricians performed deliveries in dark rooms or with their patient fully covered with a drape.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

The use of pain medication in labour has been a controversial issue for hundreds of years. A Scottish woman was burned at the stake in 1591 for requesting pain relief in the delivery of twins. Medication became more acceptable in 1852, when Queen Victoria used chloroform as pain relief during labour. The use of morphine and scopolamine, also known as "twilight sleep", was first used in Germany and popularised by German physicians Bernard Kronig and Karl Gauss. This concoction offered minor pain relief but mostly allowed women to completely forget the entire delivery process. Under twilight sleep, mothers were often blindfolded and restrained as they experienced the immense pain of childbirth. The cocktail came with severe side effects, such as decreased uterine contractions and altered mental state. Additionally, babies delivered with the use of childbirth drugs often experienced temporarily-ceased breathing. The feminist movement in the United States openly and actively supported the use of twilight sleep, which was introduced to the country in 1914. Some physicians, many of whom had been using painkillers for the past fifty years, including opium, cocaine, and quinine, embraced the new drug. Others were hesitant.

The proportion of pregnancies delivered by C section between 1976 and 1996 in the U.S. increased from 6.7% in 1976 to 14.2% in 1996, with maternal choice the most frequent reason given.{{cite journal |last1=MacKenzie |first1=I. Z. |last2=Cooke |first2=Inez B |last3=Annan |first3=B. |year=2003 |title=Indications for caesarean section in a consultant obstetric unit over three decades |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0144361031000098316 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=233–238 |doi=10.1080/0144361031000098316 |pmid=12850849 |s2cid=25452611 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316163728/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0144361031000098316 |archive-date=16 March 2023 |access-date=16 March 2023|url-access=subscription }} By 2018 the rate had climbed to one-third of all births.{{cite journal |last1=Kozhimannil |first1=K. B. |last2=Graves |first2=A. J. |last3=Ecklund |first3=A. M. |last4=Shah |first4=N. |last5=Aggarwal |first5=R. |last6=Snowden |first6=J. M. |year=2018 |title=Cesarean Delivery Rates and Costs of Childbirth in a State Medicaid Program After Implementation of a Blended Payment Policy |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29912840/ |url-status=live |journal=Medical Care |volume=56 |issue=8 |pages=658–664 |doi=10.1097/MLR.0000000000000937 |pmid=29912840 |s2cid=49305610 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317150724/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29912840/ |archive-date=17 March 2023 |access-date=17 March 2023}}

Friedman's Curve, developed in 1955, was for many years used to determine obstructed labour. However, more recent medical research suggests that the Friedman curve may not be applicable any more.{{Cite journal |last=Watanabe |first=Kaori |date=1 December 2023 |title=Current status of the position on labor progress prediction for contemporary pregnant women using Friedman curves: An updated review |url=https://obgyn.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jog.15842 |journal=Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research |language=en |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=313–321 |doi=10.1111/jog.15842 |pmid=38037733 |issn=1341-8076|url-access=subscription }}{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhang J, Troendle JF, Yancey MK |date=October 2002 |title=Reassessing the labor curve in nulliparous women |url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/450311 |url-status=live |journal=American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology |volume=187 |issue=4 |pages=824–28 |doi=10.1067/mob.2002.127142 |pmid=12388957 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160118084934/http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/450311 |archive-date=18 January 2016|url-access=subscription }}{{cite web |title=Abnormal Labour |url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/273053-overview?pa=OT1PplDgX0%2FNFOi%2FLF24oxYPYIAGpQD5H4mEGMOCY3eJ3kdH%2F0UTMSMuoAql%2BvPUyo8%2Bbpl4R6EomboZA%2BCKsLOwhd8Mdk7tVO%2FdkscsGC4%3D |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208132244/https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/273053-overview?pa=OT1PplDgX0%2FNFOi%2FLF24oxYPYIAGpQD5H4mEGMOCY3eJ3kdH%2F0UTMSMuoAql%2BvPUyo8%2Bbpl4R6EomboZA%2BCKsLOwhd8Mdk7tVO%2FdkscsGC4%3D |archive-date=8 December 2019 |access-date=14 May 2018 |website=Medscape}}

Historically, women have been attended and supported by other women during labour and birth. Midwife training in European cities began in the 1400s, but rural women were usually assisted by female family or friends. However, it was not simply a ladies' social bonding event as some historians have portrayed – fear and pain often filled the atmosphere, as death during childbirth was a common occurrence. In the United States before the 1950s, a father would not be in the birthing room. It did not matter if it was a home birth; the father would be waiting downstairs or in another room in the home. If it was in a hospital, then the father would wait in the waiting room.{{cite book |last=Leavitt |first=Judith W. |title=Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750–1950 |date=1988 |publisher=University of Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-505690-7 |pages=90–91}} Fathers were only permitted in the room if the life of the mother or baby was severely at-risk. In 1522, a German physician was sentenced to death for sneaking into a delivery room dressed as a woman.

The majority of guidebooks related to pregnancy and childbirth were written by men who had never been involved in the birthing process.{{according to whom|date=March 2021}} A Greek physician, Soranus of Ephesus, wrote a book about obstetrics and gynaecology in the second century, which was referenced for the next thousand years. The book contained endless home remedies for pregnancy and childbirth, many of which would be considered heinous by modern women and medical professionals.

The work of Ignaz Semmelweis was seminal in the pathophysiology and treatment of childbed fever (postpartum infection) and his work saved many lives.{{cite journal |last1=Ataman |first1=A. D. |last2=Vatanoğlu-Lutz |first2=E. E. |last3=Yıldırım |first3=G. |year=2013 |title=Medicine in stamps-Ignaz Semmelweis and Puerperal Fever |journal=Journal of the Turkish German Gynecological Association |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=35–39 |doi=10.5152/jtgga.2013.08 |pmc=3881728 |pmid=24592068}}

{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|

• Abuse during childbirth
• Advanced maternal age, when a woman is of an older age at reproduction
• Antinatalism
• Asynclitic birth, an abnormal birth position
• Birth defect
• Childbirth positions
• Coffin birth
• Ferguson reflex
• Maternal health
• Multiple birth
• Obstetrical bleeding
• Naegele's rule, to calculate the due date for a pregnancy
• Natalism
• Obstetrical Dilemma
• Perineal massage
• Pre- and perinatal psychology
• Reproductive Health Supplies Coalition
• Unassisted childbirth
• Vernix caseosa

Natural birth topics:

• Bradley method of natural childbirth
• Lamaze
• Natural childbirth
• Water birth

}}

{{Reflist}}

{{Sister project links}}

• [https://players.brightcove.net/3850378299001/SyAEZ6ptl_default/index.html?videoId=4703722752001 Spontaneous Vaginal Delivery], Video by Merck Manual Professional Edition
• [https://opqic.org/maternal-morbidity-mortality-in-the-media/ Maternal Morbidity/Mortality in the Media] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220727193827/https://opqic.org/maternal-morbidity-mortality-in-the-media/ |date=27 July 2022 }}
• [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74224 Social Devices for Impelling Women to Bear and Rear Children] (1916) by Leta Stetter Hollingworth

{{Medical resources

| ICD11 = {{ICD11|JB2|973282267}}

| ICD10 = {{ICD10|O80-O84}}

}}

{{Women's health|state=collapsed}}

{{Human development}}

{{Reproductive health}}

{{Pregnancy|state=expanded}}

{{Pathology of pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium}}

{{Infants and their care}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Midwifery

Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate