Chinese irredentism#Taiwan

Under various dynasties or empires in the past, China acquired and lost territories that overlap with Burma, India, Korea, Mongolia, Russia, and Vietnam today. Some were tributary states.{{Cite book |last=Tseng |first=Hui-Yi |title=Revolution, State Succession, International Treaties and the Diaoyu/Diaoyutai Islands |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |year=2017 |isbn=9781443893688 |page=66}}

During the 20th century, the Republic of China claimed that numerous neighboring countries and regions used to be parts of China, including Outer Mongolia.{{Cite book |last=Kim |first=Samuel S. |url=https://archive.org/details/chinaunitednatio0000kims/page/43 |title=China, the United Nations, and World Order |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1979 |isbn=9780691100760 |page=[https://archive.org/details/chinaunitednatio0000kims/page/43 43]}} According to Sun Yat-sen, the reasons for their loss were unequal treaties, forceful occupation and annexation, and foreign interference. Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong were supportive of these claims.{{cite book |last=Tzou |first=Byron N. |title=China and International Law: The Boundary Disputes |publisher=Praeger |year=1990 |isbn=9780275934620 |page=77}}

In 1925, the Kuomintang issued a map that showed large areas outside China as belonging to China, including: large portions of Soviet central Asia, a portion of Ladakh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam, Indochina, the Sulu Archipelago, Taiwan, the Ryukyus, the Philippines, Korea, and Sakhalin. A similar map was produced in 1954 by the Chinese Communist Party.{{cite journal |last=Cleland |first=John R. D. |year=1967 |title=Chinese Rimland Strategy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQPmBCrLNeoC&pg=PA4 |journal=Military Review |volume=XLVII |issue=1 |page=4 |access-date=2023-07-15 |archive-date=2023-07-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715044851/https://books.google.com/books?id=OQPmBCrLNeoC&pg=PA4 |url-status=live }}

With the rise of Xi Jinping and increasing territorial conflicts, it is generally believed that China continues to adhere to irredentist claims.{{cite web |title=Irredentism and Chinese Foreign Policy with regard to East and South China Sea |url=https://www.ipsa.org/wc/paper/irredentism-and-chinese-foreign-policy-regard-east-and-south-china-sea |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210324113316/https://www.ipsa.org/wc/paper/irredentism-and-chinese-foreign-policy-regard-east-and-south-china-sea |archive-date=24 March 2021 |access-date=6 September 2020 |website=www.ipsa.org}}{{cite web |title=Assertive China: Irredentism or Expansionism? |url=https://www.iiss.org/publications/survival/2019/survival-global-politics-and-strategy-februarymarch-2019/611-04-roy |website=IISS}} A 2023 map by PRC's Ministry of Natural Resources showed a ten-dash line in the South China Sea and depicted territories in dispute with India and Russia as Chinese. Although these claims were not new, a host of countries voiced their objections.{{Cite web |last=Lavery |first=Charles |date=2023-08-30 |title=China's new map claims swathes of neighboring territory |url=https://www.newsweek.com/china-map-borders-territory-dispute-claims-1823439 |website=Newsweek |access-date=2023-09-05 |archive-date=2023-09-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905180001/https://www.newsweek.com/china-map-borders-territory-dispute-claims-1823439 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=Bal Krishna Sah |date=2023-09-01 |title=China 2023 map leaves out new map of Nepal |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/china-2023-map-leaves-out-new-map-of-nepal |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=The Himalayan Times |archive-date=2023-09-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905183609/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/china-2023-map-leaves-out-new-map-of-nepal |url-status=live }}{{efn|name=list|Brunei, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, the United States, and Vietnam}}

{{Further|2017 China–India border standoff}}

On June 29, 2017, Bhutan protested to China against the construction of a road in the disputed territory of Doklam.{{Cite web |date=Jun 30, 2017 |title=Bhutan protests against China's road construction |url=http://www.straitstimes.com/asia/bhutan-protests-against-chinas-road-construction |access-date=2017-06-30 |work=The Straits Times |archive-date=2017-07-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729010351/http://www.straitstimes.com/asia/bhutan-protests-against-chinas-road-construction |url-status=live }} On the same day, the Bhutanese border was put on high alert and border security was tightened as a result of the growing tensions.{{Cite web |date=Jun 30, 2017 |title=Bhutan issues scathing statement against China, claims Beijing violated border agreements of 1988, 1998 |url=http://www.firstpost.com/india/bhutan-issues-scathing-statement-against-china-claims-beijing-violated-border-agreements-of-1988-1998-3760587.html |access-date=2017-06-30 |work=Firstpost |archive-date=2017-07-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702075512/http://www.firstpost.com/india/bhutan-issues-scathing-statement-against-china-claims-beijing-violated-border-agreements-of-1988-1998-3760587.html |url-status=live }} In 2020, China claimed that the Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary was also part of the territory in dispute.{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2020 |title=No Sanctuary: China's New Territorial Dispute with Bhutan |url=https://www.fpri.org/article/2020/07/china-territorial-dispute-bhutan/ |website=Foreign Policy Research Institute |access-date=August 23, 2020 |archive-date=December 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202165630/https://www.fpri.org/article/2020/07/china-territorial-dispute-bhutan/ |url-status=live }}

{{Further|East China Sea EEZ disputes}}The PRC has frequently deployed ships since the 2010s to contest Japanese claim over the Senkaku Islands.{{Cite web |title=Japan's Effective Control of the Senkaku Islands | Research |url=https://www.spf.org/islandstudies/research/a00005.html |website=Review of Island Studies |access-date=2020-08-23 |archive-date=2021-09-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928195736/https://www.spf.org/islandstudies/research/a00005.html |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Japan reports a record number of Chinese ships near contested Senkaku Islands |url=https://www.stripes.com/news/pacific/japan-reports-a-record-number-of-chinese-ships-near-contested-senkaku-islands-1.609574 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916132220/https://www.stripes.com/news/pacific/japan-reports-a-record-number-of-chinese-ships-near-contested-senkaku-islands-1.609574 |archive-date=2020-09-16 |access-date=2020-08-23 |website=Stars and Stripes}}{{Cite web |author=Brad Lendon and Yoko Wakatsuki |date=6 July 2020 |title=Japan says Chinese ships spend record time violating its territorial waters |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/07/06/asia/japan-china-island-dispute-intl-hnk-scli/index.html |website=CNN |access-date=27 August 2020 |archive-date=1 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901222751/https://www.cnn.com/2020/07/06/asia/japan-china-island-dispute-intl-hnk-scli/index.html |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Sino-Indian border dispute}}

File:India Arunachal Pradesh locator map.svg, part of which is claimed by China as South Tibet.]]

China maintains territorial disputes with India with regard to Aksai Chin and the McMahon Line. The Chinese government claims the Aksai Chin as part of Xinjiang and Tibet, while the government of India claims the territory as part of Ladakh. The 1914 Simla Convention, which the Chinese government does not recognize, negotiated the McMahon Line between India and Tibet.{{Cite web |last=guruswamy |first=mohan |title=China and Arunachal Pradesh: Time to Understand the History |url=https://www.thecitizen.in/index.php/en/NewsDetail/index/4/19107/China-and-Arunachal-Pradesh-Time-to-Understand-the-History |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818080235/https://www.thecitizen.in//index.php/en/newsdetail/index/4/19107/china-and-arunachal-pradesh-time-to-understand-the-history |archive-date=2020-08-18 |access-date=2020-08-23 |website=The Citizen}} Tensions between India and China have erupted several times, with the largest being the Sino-Indian War of 1962 in which China was victorious and gained control over Aksai Chin, and the 1967 conflict in which India won.{{Cite web |date=2 June 2020 |title=Sino Indian war of 1962 - Manifest IAS |url=https://www.manifestias.com/2020/06/02/sino-indian-war-of-1962/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924011613/https://www.manifestias.com/2020/06/02/sino-indian-war-of-1962/ |archive-date=24 September 2020 |access-date=23 August 2020}}{{Cite web |date=October 1, 2018 |title=Remembering the war we forgot: 51 years ago, how India gave China a bloody nose |website=ThePrint |url=https://theprint.in/defence/remembering-the-war-we-forgot-51-years-ago-how-india-gave-china-a-bloody-nose/127356/ |access-date=September 6, 2020 |archive-date=August 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818044721/https://theprint.in/defence/remembering-the-war-we-forgot-51-years-ago-how-india-gave-china-a-bloody-nose/127356/ |url-status=live }} The 2020 border clashes, which caused casualties for both sides, further strained Sino–Indian relations.{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=Marcelo Duhalde, Dennis Wong, Kaliz |title=Why did an India-China border clash turn into a deadly scuffle? |url=https://multimedia.scmp.com/infographics/news/world/article/3091480/China-India-border-dispute/index.html?src=social |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=2020-08-27 |archive-date=2020-07-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200703101835/https://multimedia.scmp.com/infographics/news/world/article/3091480/China-India-border-dispute/index.html?src=social |url-status=live }}

China has reinforced its claim by publishing maps depicting South Tibet as Chinese territory.{{Cite web |date=April 21, 2020 |title=China includes parts of Arunachal Pradesh in its newly updated map |url=http://www.phayul.com/2020/04/21/43163/ |access-date=August 23, 2020 |archive-date=October 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201006141542/https://www.phayul.com/2020/04/21/43163/ |url-status=live }} China also pushed forward to reinforce its claim over Sikkim and Ladakh, and consolidating border control in Aksai Chin.{{Cite web |date=August 16, 2017 |title=Indian and Chinese troops clash in disputed Himalayan border region |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/aug/16/indian-chinese-troops-clash-disputed-himalayan-border-region |website=the Guardian |agency=Agence France-Presse |access-date=August 23, 2020 |archive-date=August 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821095958/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/aug/16/indian-chinese-troops-clash-disputed-himalayan-border-region |url-status=live }}{{Cite journal |last=Shafiq |first=Nadeem |date=December 31, 2011 |title=India versus China: A review of the Aksai Chin border dispute |url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&issn=19941080&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA278486573&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs |journal=Journal of Political Studies |via=go.gale.com}}

{{Main|Goguryeo controversies}}

In 2002, the Northeast Project conducted by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) claimed Goguryeo as a local ethnic minority state in Northeast China. This sparked a major academic and diplomatic controversy, as Korean experts on Goguryeo history accused the Chinese government of manipulating history for political purposes. Both North Korea and South Korea expressed opposition of this move towards the Chinese government.{{cite book |last1=Jin |first1=Linbo |editor1-last=Rozman |editor1-first=Gilbert |title=U.S. Leadership, History, and Bilateral Relations in Northeast Asia |date=21 October 2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49203-4 |page=184 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B3M-DhGYtF4C&pg=PA184 |chapter=Sino–South Korean Differences over Koguryo and the U.S. Role}}

{{Further|Territorial disputes in the South China Sea|Nine-dash line}}

File:9 dotted line.png represents China's irredentist claims in the South China Sea.]]

Territorial claims of the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) in the South China Sea overlap with the claims of Vietnam, the Philippines, Brunei and Malaysia.{{Cite journal |last1=Gao |first1=Zhiguo |last2=Jia |first2=Bing Bing |date=January 23, 2013 |title=The Nine-Dash Line in the South China Sea: History, Status, and Implications |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-journal-of-international-law/article/ninedash-line-in-the-south-china-sea-history-status-and-implications/1567B80D8BD284499F704496278DFF9D |journal=American Journal of International Law |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=98–123 |doi=10.5305/amerjintelaw.107.1.0098 |s2cid=140885993 |via=Cambridge Core |access-date=August 23, 2020 |archive-date=July 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718224320/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-journal-of-international-law/article/ninedash-line-in-the-south-china-sea-history-status-and-implications/1567B80D8BD284499F704496278DFF9D |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}{{Cite web |title=US rejects China's 'nine-dash line' in South China Sea |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/South-China-Sea/US-rejects-China-s-nine-dash-line-in-South-China-Sea |website=Nikkei Asian Review |access-date=2020-08-23 |archive-date=2020-08-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823052518/https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/South-China-Sea/US-rejects-China-s-nine-dash-line-in-South-China-Sea |url-status=live }} In 2020, the PRC announced the establishment of Sansha City, which included the entirety of the Paracel Islands and Spratly Islands.{{Cite news |date=May 12, 2020 |title=Sansha and the Expansion of China's South China Sea Administration |website=Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative |url=https://amti.csis.org/sansha-and-the-expansion-of-chinas-south-china-sea-administration/ |access-date=August 23, 2020 |archive-date=August 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806192519/https://amti.csis.org/sansha-and-the-expansion-of-chinas-south-china-sea-administration/ |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Chinese unification}}

{{See also|One-China policy|1992 Consensus}}

The Republic of China (ROC) was established in mainland China in 1912 following the conclusion of the 1911 Revolution which led to the collapse of the Qing dynasty. The Chinese Civil War that broke out in 1927 was fought between the Kuomintang-led Nationalist government and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).

Since the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, the de facto territories of the ROC are limited to the Taiwan Area which includes the island of Taiwan (ceded to the Empire of Japan in 1895 by the Qing dynasty of China; handover to the Republic of China in 1945) and several other islands.{{cite book|last1=Sarmento|first1=Clara|title=Eastwards / Westwards: Which Direction for Gender Studies in the 21st Century?|year=2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VvcYBwAAQBAJ&q=people%27s+republic+of+china+controls+mainland+china+hong+kong+macau&pg=PA127|page=127|publisher=Cambridge Scholars|isbn=9781443808682|access-date=2021-05-14|archive-date=2022-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531083936/https://books.google.com/books?id=VvcYBwAAQBAJ&q=people%27s+republic+of+china+controls+mainland+china+hong+kong+macau&pg=PA127|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last1=Henckaerts|first1=Jean-Marie|title=The International Status of Taiwan in the New World Order: Legal And Political Considerations|year=1996|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9kuVIayxDoC&q=roc+1949+taiwan+effective+control&pg=PA117|page=117|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=9789041109293}} Meanwhile, the People's Republic of China (PRC), established in 1949 by the CCP, controls mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau. Officially, both the ROC and the PRC claim de jure sovereignty over all of China (including Taiwan), and regard the other government as being in rebellion.{{cite book|last1=Hudson|first1=Christopher|title=The China Handbook|year=2014|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hm63AwAAQBAJ&q=prc+and+roc+legitimacy&pg=PA59|page=59|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134269662|access-date=2021-05-14|archive-date=2023-04-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410211623/https://books.google.com/books?id=hm63AwAAQBAJ&q=prc+and+roc+legitimacy&pg=PA59|url-status=live}}{{cite book|author1-link=Shelley Rigger|last1=Rigger|first1=Shelley|title=Politics in Taiwan: Voting for Reform|year=2002|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hiiEAgAAQBAJ&q=roc+limited+to+taiwan&pg=PA60|page=60|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134692972|access-date=2021-05-14|archive-date=2023-04-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410211621/https://books.google.com/books?id=hiiEAgAAQBAJ&q=roc+limited+to+taiwan&pg=PA60|url-status=live}}

Until 1971, the ROC was the representative of China at the United Nations (UN) and was a permanent member of the UN Security Council with veto power.{{cite book|last1=Froehlich|first1=Annette|last2=Seffinga|first2=Vincent|title=The United Nations and Space Security: Conflicting Mandates between UNCOPUOS and the CD|year=2019|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U42oDwAAQBAJ&q=roc+United+Nations+1971&pg=PA40|page=40|publisher=Springer|isbn=9783030060251|access-date=2021-05-14|archive-date=2024-03-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318225034/https://books.google.com/books?id=U42oDwAAQBAJ&q=roc+United+Nations+1971&pg=PA40#v=snippet&q=roc%20United%20Nations%201971&f=false|url-status=live}} In 1971, the PRC replaced the ROC as the representative of China at the UN.

Skepticism from Taiwanese toward the PRC has intensified as a result of growing Chinese nationalist threat to attack the island if an independent Taiwanese state was to be created.{{Cite web|url=https://sentinel.tw/real-reasons-behind-chinese-expansionism/|title=The Real Reasons Behind Chinese Expansionism|date=July 25, 2017|access-date=August 23, 2020|archive-date=August 7, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807090637/https://sentinel.tw/real-reasons-behind-chinese-expansionism/|url-status=live}} Since the election of the independence-leaning Tsai Ing-wen, the PRC has conducted numerous military drills preparing for possible armed conflict with the ROC.{{Cite web|url=https://www.efe.com/efe/english/portada/chinese-expansionism-is-a-problem-for-democracy-taiwanese-foreign-minister/50000260-3952036|title=Chinese expansionism is a problem for democracy: Taiwanese foreign minister|website=www.efe.com|access-date=2020-08-23|archive-date=2021-07-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716201709/https://www.efe.com/efe/english/portada/chinese-expansionism-is-a-problem-for-democracy-taiwanese-foreign-minister/50000260-3952036|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://thediplomatinspain.com/2020/08/taiwan-proximo-objetivo-de-la-expansion-hegemonica-de-china/|title=Taiwan, next target of China's hegemonic expansion|date=August 6, 2020|access-date=August 23, 2020|archive-date=September 19, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919032043/https://thediplomatinspain.com/2020/08/taiwan-proximo-objetivo-de-la-expansion-hegemonica-de-china/|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China}}

Tibet came under the control of the Qing dynasty of China in 1720{{cite book |last=Lin |title=Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier |date=2011 |pages=7–8}} and remained under Qing suzerainty (or protectorate) until 1912.{{sfnp|Lin|2011|p=9}} The succeeding Republic of China claimed inheritance of all territories held by the Qing dynasty, including Tibet.{{cite book |last1=Tanner |first1=Harold |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&q=republic+of+china+inherit+all+territories+qing+dynasty&pg=PA419 |title=China: A History |publisher=Hackett |year=2009 |isbn=978-0872209152 |page=419}} After the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, most of the area comprising the present-day Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) became a de facto independent polityShakya 1999 p.4{{cite book |last=Goldstein |title=A History of Modern Tibet, Vol. 1 |date=1989 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=k3BijVR0dVcC&pg=PA815 815] |quote=Tibet unquestionably controlled its own internal and external affairs during the period from 1913 to 1951 and repeatedly attempted to secure recognition and validation of its de facto autonomy/independence.}} except for border regions such as Amdo and Eastern Kham.Shakya 1999 p.6,27. Feigon 1996 p.28

After defeating the Kuomintang in the Chinese Civil War, the People's Republic of China (PRC) gained control of Tibet through a series of events that involved negotiations with the Government of Tibet, a military conflict in the Chamdo area of western Kham in October 1950, and the Seventeen Point Agreement, which was ratified by the 14th Dalai Lama in October 1951{{cite book |author=A. Tom Grunfeld |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odyxWQGD2eoC&pg=PA107 |title=The Making of Modern Tibet |date=30 July 1996 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn=978-0-7656-3455-9 |pages=107–}} but later repudiated.{{cite web |date=18 April 1959 |title=The Dalai Lama's Press Statements - Statement issued at Tezpur |url=http://www.archieve.claudearpi.net/maintenance/uploaded_pics/590418_Tezpur_Statement.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221029012204/http://www.archieve.claudearpi.net/maintenance/uploaded_pics/590418_Tezpur_Statement.pdf |archive-date=29 October 2022}}{{cite book |author1=Anne-Marie Blondeau |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B6_FKtkYhdgC&pg=PA61 |title=Authenticating Tibet: Answers to China's 100 Questions |author2=Katia Buffetrille |publisher=University of California Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-520-24464-1 |page=61 |quote=It was evident that the Chinese were not prepared to accept any compromises and that the Tibetans were compelled, under the threat of immediate armed invasion, to sign the Chinese proposal. |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623213207/https://books.google.com/books?id=B6_FKtkYhdgC&pg=PA61 |archive-date=23 June 2016 |url-status=live}}{{cite book |author=Tsepon Wangchuk Deden Shakabpa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lGyrymfDdI0C&pg=PA955 |title=One Hundred Thousand Moons: An Advanced Political History of Tibet |date=October 2009 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-17732-1 |pages=953, 955}}

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