City of Greater New York#Consolidation

New York City had been founded in the 1620s by the Dutch as New Amsterdam at the southern tip of the island of Manhattan. The English conquered the territory and established the original twelve counties of the province of New York in 1683; one of these was the City and County of New York. A 1691 law defined New York City to be the entirety of Manhattan, while Manning's Island (now Roosevelt Island), the Barn Islands (now Randalls and Wards Islands), and the Oyster Islands (now Liberty Island, Ellis Island and Black Tom) were New York County.{{cite book |title=Laws of New-York, From The Year 1691, to 1751, inclusive |year=1752 |publisher=James Parker |location=New York |chapter=An Act to divide the Province and Dependencies, into Shires and Counties, Pass'd the 1st of October, 1691 |page=7 |chapter-url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=sstatutes&handle=hein.nysstatutes/lofney0001&id=19 |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.nysstatutes/lofney0001&id=1&collection=sstatutes&index= |url-access=registration |access-date=March 18, 2020 |via=HeinOnline}} Towns had been established in the rest of the province by 1691, and were reincorporated after the American Revolution in 1788.{{cite book |title=Laws of the State of New York passed at the sessions of the legislature held in the years 1785, 1786, 1787 and 1788, inclusive, being the eighth, ninth, tenth and eleventh sessions |chapter=AN ACT for dividing the counties of this State into towns, Passed the 7th of March, 1788 |date=1886 |publisher=Weed Parsons and Company |location=Albany, New York |pages=748–762 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBWxAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA748}}

Brooklyn had been chartered by the Dutch in 1646; the Town of Brooklyn was one of the towns incorporated by 1691 and reestablished in 1788.{{cite book |title=Laws of the State of New York passed at the sessions of the legislature held in the years 1785, 1786, 1787 and 1788, inclusive, being the eighth, ninth, tenth and eleventh sessions |chapter=Kings County: Brooklyn |date=1886 |publisher=Weed Parsons and Company |location=Albany, New York |pages=749 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBWxAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA749}} It was located within Kings County, another county established by the English in 1683. It was incorporated as a village in 1814 and as a city in 1834. Originally comprising what is now Downtown Brooklyn, it annexed its surroundings through the 19th century and grew to encompass all of Kings County in 1895. By the 1890 United States census it had become the largest city in the United States.

Since the late 1820s, there had been some discussion of a unified city. In 1857, the New York State Legislature resolved that the region surrounding New York City should become one body, to improve harbor facilities and link the systems of trade.Kessner, Capital City, p.319 They attempted to do so by government vote, but distrust of large projects killed the plans.Kessner, Capital City p.60

The consolidation movement was the work of local, city, and state politicians, most prominently Andrew Haswell Green, the president of the "Greater New-York Commission"{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1894/10/16/archives/vote-for-greater-newyork-commissioners-offer-arguments-for-a-mighty.html |title=Vote For Greater New-York; Commissioners Offer Arguments For A Mighty City |work=The New York Times |url-access=subscription |date=October 16, 1894 |access-date=May 15, 2016}} and "The Father of Greater New York".{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/14/nyregion/nyc-ah-green-you-could-sit-on-it.html |title=NYC; A.H. Green? You could sit on It |last=Haberman |first=Clyde |date=May 14, 2004 |url-access=subscription |newspaper=New York Times |access-date=May 15, 2016}} Green was a member of the Board of Commissioners of Central Park, which provided him a platform to push his views.Kessner, Capital City, pp.62–67

File:UpWithTheFlag.jpg

The next challenge to the independence of the boroughs was a self-promoted and government-appointed commission. The commission led the "Vote for Greater New York" movement. Some opponents derided the effort as "Andy Green's hobby", but eventually they were proven wrong.Kessner, Capital City, p.63 The center of the plan was the consolidation of the twin cities of New York and Brooklyn, whose fire departments had been merged into a Metropolitan Fire District in 1865.{{Cite web |url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/fdny/html/history/fire_service.shtml |title=History of Fire Service |access-date=February 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071221105639/http://nyc.gov/html/fdny/html/history/fire_service.shtml |archive-date=December 21, 2007 |url-status=dead }} The addition of Long Island City and various rural areas anticipated future development of those areas. With Republicans historically more powerful in Brooklyn and Democrats elsewhere, partisan politics played a role: each major political party hoped to dominate the consolidated city.

File:Selfish objections to a good match.jpg

The plan required a referendum in all affected areas, though the organizers of the referendum clearly had a bias towards the consolidation. They even released a full-page advertisement in The New York Times before the vote took place, urging them to vote "For Consolidation". An argument for consolidation was that the unconsolidated city would soon be surpassed by Chicago as the most populous city in the United States.

Opposition, concentrated in Brooklyn and other outlying districts, focused on loss of local control and fears of ethnic and racial minorities. Independence-minded Brooklynites did not want their regional identity to be overtaken by New York.{{Cite web |last=Sokol |first=Samantha |date=January 1, 2014 |title=On This Day in NYC History, January 1st, 1898: New York City Became the 5 Boroughs |url=https://untappedcities.com/2014/01/01/on-this-day-in-nyc-history-january-1st-1898-new-york-city-became-the-5-boroughs/ |access-date=September 5, 2020 |website=Untapped New York |language=en-US}} Some newspapers such as the Brooklyn Daily Eagle argued that consolidation would destroy the mostly homogeneous, Protestant character of the city. Opposing newspapers were accused of seeking to retain the revenues of official advertising, while opposing politicians were accused of graft. Concerns over how Brooklyn's water supply would be maintained and how future financial backing would be possible were legitimate.{{cite journal |last1=Kroessler |first1=Jeffrey A. |title=Brooklyn's Thirst, Long Island's Water: Consolidation, Local Control, and the Aquifer |journal=Long Island History Journal |date=2011 |volume=22 |issue=1 |url=https://lihj.cc.stonybrook.edu/2011/articles/brooklyns-thirst-long-islands-water-consolidation-local-control-and-the-aquifer/ |issn=0898-7084}} Considerations of finance and water supply prevailed, and the people of Brooklyn voted by a narrow margin to consolidate.Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 (The History of New York City){{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1894/10/16/archives/vote-for-greater-newyork-commissioners-offer-arguments-for-a-mighty.html |title=Vote for Greater New York |date=October 16, 1894 |newspaper=The New York Times |url-access=subscription |access-date=December 28, 2007}}{{cite news |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1894/12/15/106917592.pdf |title=Official Announcement of the Results of the Election |newspaper=The New York Times |date=December 15, 1894 |quote=The area included a radius of twenty miles, with the city hall in New York as a center to circumscribe it |access-date=December 28, 2007}}File:Victor Gillam. The Modern House That Jack Built (1898).jpg presides over the marriage of Richard Croker to "Greater New York".]]

The term City of Greater New York was never a legal or official designation; both the original charter of 1898 and the newer one of 1938 use the name of City of New York. It is used today only to refer to the time period when the consolidation took place.{{Cite book |title=Capital City: New York City and the Men Behind America's Rise to Dominance 1860–1900 |last=Kessner |first=Thomas |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2004 |isbn=978-0743257534 |location=New York City |at=pp. 60, ibid}}

Each consolidated county remained a county in relation to the state, but also became a borough within the city. The Bronx reunited to form a fifth borough that shared New York County with Manhattan. A separate Bronx County was established in 1914, making the present New York County co-extensive with the Borough (but not the island) of Manhattan.

On December 14, 1894, the State Board of Canvassers released the official tally of the referendums, along with other races. The options listed on the ballot were "For Consolidation" and "Against Consolidation". The New York Times reported the results:{{Cite web |date=December 15, 1894 |title=The State Vote Canvassed |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1894/12/15/106917592.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=September 4, 2021 |website=New York Times |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309000459/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1894/12/15/106917592.pdf |archive-date=March 9, 2021}}

{{Referendum| title = New York County Results

| yes = 96,938 | yespct = 61.78 | no = 59,959 | nopct = 38.22

| valid = 156,897 | validpct = 94.23 | invalid = 9,608 | invalidpct = 5.77

| total = 166,505

}}{{Referendum | title = Kings County Results

| yes = 64,744 | yespct = 50.11 | no = 64,467 | nopct = 49.89

| valid = 129,211 | validpct = 99.80 | invalid = 255 | invalidpct = 0.20

| total = 129,466

}}{{Referendum | title = Queens County Results

| yes = 7,712 | yespct = 61.93 | no = 4,741 | nopct = 38.07

| valid = 12,453 | validpct = 100 | invalid = 0 | invalidpct = 0

| total = 12,453

}}{{Referendum | title = Richmond County Results

| yes = 5,531 | yespct = 78.61 | no = 1,505 | nopct = 21.39

| valid = 7,036 | validpct = 99.99 | invalid = 5 | invalidpct = 0.01

| total = 7,041

}}{{Referendum | title = City of Mount Vernon Results

| yes = 873 | yespct = 35.26 | no = 1,603 | nopct = 64.74

| valid = 2,476 | validpct = 100 | invalid = 0 | invalidpct = 0

| total = 2,476

}}{{Referendum | title = Town of East Chester Results

| yes = 374 | yespct = 58.99 | no = 260 | nopct = 41.01

| valid = 634 | validpct = 100 | invalid = 0 | invalidpct = 0

| total = 634

}}{{Referendum | title = Town of Westchester Results

| yes = 620 | yespct = 49.96 | no = 621 | nopct = 50.04

| valid = 1,241 | validpct = 100 | invalid = 0 | invalidpct = 0

| total = 1,241

}}{{Referendum | title = Town of Pelham Results

| yes = 251 | yespct = 62.13 | no = 153 | nopct = 37.87

| valid = 404 | validpct = 100 | invalid = 0 | invalidpct = 0

| total = 404

}}

Since the enlarged city contained the majority of the state of New York's population, and the enlargement increased the city's already enormous power within the state, the state legislature established certain oversight powers within the city. For example, some issues of taxation and changes in governmental procedures require state approval or granting of specific home rule powers.

Conversely, the State Constitution was amended to provide that no city could elect the majority of the State Assembly, a provision later struck down by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1964 as violating the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.{{cite web |last1=Court |first1=Supreme |title=WMCA, INC. Et Al. V. Lomenzo, Secretary of State of New York, Et Al. |url=https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep377/usrep377633/usrep377633.pdf |access-date=March 11, 2021}} The New York City Board of Estimate, created in the consolidation charter with equal votes for each borough, was struck down on similar grounds in 1989.

Staten Island is geographically the most distant of the five boroughs, linked to the other four only by a single bridge, the Staten Island Ferry, and one NYC Ferry route. It is also not connected to the New York City Subway. In 1993, it held a non-binding referendum on the issue of seceding from New York City to become an independent city and county.[http://www.city-journal.org/article02.php?aid=1519 Article about Staten Island Secession] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927152331/http://www.city-journal.org/article02.php?aid=1519 |date=September 27, 2006 }} at the City Journal web site Many Staten Island politicians, including Senator John J. Marchi and Assemblyman Eric N. Vitaliano supported the movement.{{Cite web |title=Collection: PM-01: Senator John J. Marchi Papers {{!}} College of Staten Island ArchivesSpace |url=https://archivesspace.library.csi.cuny.edu/repositories/2/resources/39 |access-date=March 3, 2023 |website=archivesspace.library.csi.cuny.edu}}{{Cite web |title=Collection: PM-03: Assemblyman Eric N. Vitaliano Papers {{!}} College of Staten Island ArchivesSpace |url=https://archivesspace.library.csi.cuny.edu/repositories/2/resources/31 |access-date=March 3, 2023 |website=archivesspace.library.csi.cuny.edu}} Vote Yes, Inc. was formed as a nonpartisan, grass-roots organization in January 1990. Its initial purpose was to secure a "yes" vote for the November 1990 referendum on Staten Island secession.{{Cite web |title=Collection: SIM-03: Staten Island: Vote Yes, Inc. Collection {{!}} College of Staten Island ArchivesSpace |url=https://archivesspace.library.csi.cuny.edu/repositories/2/resources/50 |access-date=March 3, 2023 |website=archivesspace.library.csi.cuny.edu}} Ultimately, 65% of Staten Island residents voted to secede, through the approval of a new city charter making Staten Island an independent city, but implementation was blocked in the State Assembly.{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/03/05/nyregion/home-rule-factor-may-block-si-secession.html |title='Home Rule' Factor May Block S.I. Secession |last=McFadden |first=Robert D. |date=March 5, 1994 |work=The New York Times |url-access=subscription |access-date=October 20, 2009}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.silive.com/news/2019/11/forgotten-borough-no-more-borelli-moves-forward-with-plan-to-revive-island-secession-from-new-york-city.html |title=Forgotten borough no more: Borelli moves forward with plan to revive Island secession from New York City |last=Kashiwagi |first=Sydney |date=November 8, 2019 |website=silive |language=en |access-date=November 11, 2019}} The Staten Island secession movement was defused by the election of Rudy Giuliani as New York City mayor, who fulfilled two of the borough's biggest demands: making the Staten Island Ferry free in 1997{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/07/05/nyregion/on-the-staten-island-ferry-illusory-free-ride-is-reality.html |url-access=subscription |title=On the Staten Island Ferry, Illusory 'Free Ride' Is Reality |last=Sontag |first=Deborah |date=July 5, 1997 |work=The New York Times |access-date=September 19, 2017 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}} and closing the Fresh Kills Landfill in 2001.{{cite web |url=http://nyc.gov/html/dcp/html/fkl/fkl3.shtml |title=Fresh Kills |publisher=New York City Department of City Planning |year=2009 |access-date=October 20, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091124160916/http://www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/html/fkl/fkl3.shtml |archive-date=November 24, 2009 }}

The topic of Staten Island's secession continues to be debated into the 2020s,{{cite web | last=McGibney | first=Megan | title=Another Staten Island secession task force bill, really? | website=City & State NY | date=June 27, 2022 | url=https://www.cityandstateny.com/policy/2022/06/another-staten-island-secession-task-force-bill-really/368665/ | access-date=March 6, 2025|postscript=none}}; {{cite web | last=Husock | first=Howard | title=for multiple reasons | website=New York Post | date=September 5, 2023 | url=https://nypost.com/2023/09/05/why-staten-island-seceding-from-nyc-makes-sense/ | access-date=March 6, 2025|postscript=none}}; {{cite web | last=Donaldson | first=Sahalie | title=Why Staten Island's secession fever won't break anytime soon | website=City & State NY | date=October 30, 2023 | url=https://www.cityandstateny.com/politics/2023/10/why-staten-islands-secession-fever-wont-break-anytime-soon/391585/ | access-date=March 6, 2025}} and borough president Vito Fossella announced in 2024 that his office would conduct a study to determine whether it was feasible for Staten Island to secede from the rest of the city.{{cite web | last=Bascome | first=Erik | title=2024 State of the Borough: BP Fossella announces study to explore Staten Island secession from NYC | website=silive | date=February 11, 2024 | url=https://www.silive.com/news/2024/02/2024-state-of-the-borough-bp-fossella-announces-study-to-explore-secession-from-nyc.html | access-date=March 6, 2025}} A study by the New York City Independent Budget Office the same year found that, if Staten Island were to secede, it would incur annual deficits of $171–199 million.{{cite web | last=Kaplan | first=Robert D. | title=STATEN ISLAND SECESSION? FUHGEDDABOUTIT | website=POLITICO | date=May 3, 2024 | url=https://www.politico.com/newsletters/new-york-playbook/2024/05/03/staten-island-secession-fuhgeddaboutit-00155926 | access-date=March 6, 2025|postscript=none}}; {{cite web | last=McDonough | first=Annie | title=Staten Island secession? A new IBO report studies the age-old question | website=City & State NY | date=May 2, 2024 | url=https://www.cityandstateny.com/policy/2024/05/staten-island-secession-new-ibo-report-studies-age-old-question/396283/ | access-date=March 6, 2025}}

• List of former municipalities in New York City
• Boroughs of New York City
• History of New York City (1855–97)
• History of New York City (1898–1945)

{{Reflist}}

• {{Cite web |url=http://mapsites.net/gotham01/ConsolidationDBQ.htm |title=Inventing Gotham |access-date=December 28, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723202040/http://mapsites.net/gotham01/ConsolidationDBQ.htm |archive-date=July 23, 2011 |url-status=dead }}
• {{Cite Q|Q114149635 |mode=cs1 |ref={{sfnref|Sullivan|1927}} |editor-last=Sullivan |editor-first=James |editor2-last=Williams |editor2-first=Melvin E. |editor3-last=Conklin |editor3-first=Edwin P. |editor4-last=Fitzpatrick |editor4-first=Benedict |chapter=Chapter IV. Growth and Achievement. |pp=340–43}}

{{New York City|state=expanded}}

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Category:Separatism in the United States

Category:History of New York City

Category:Government of New York City

Category:Mergers of administrative divisions in the United States