Common Security and Defence Policy

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{{Main|History of the Common Security and Defence Policy}}

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| caption1 = The commands of Western Union service branches were situated in the Palace of Fontainebleau from 1948 until they were transformed into NATO's Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe in 1951.

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| caption2 = Organizational chart for the European Defence Community (EDC), which – if ratified – would create a unified European defence force. This force would represent an autonomous European pillar within NATO, under the authority of the Supreme Commander.

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The post-war period saw several short-lived or ill-fated initiatives for European defence integration intended to protect against potential Soviet or German aggression: The Western Union (WU, also referred to as the Brussels Treaty Organisation, BTO) and the proposed European Defence Community (EDC) were respectively cannibalised by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and rejected by the French Parliament. The largely dormant Western European Union (WEU) succeeded the WU's remainder in 1955.

In 1970 the European Political Cooperation (EPC) brought about the European Communities' (EC) initial foreign policy coordination. Opposition to the addition of security and defence matters to the EPC led to the reactivation of the WEU in 1984 by its member states, which were also EC member states.

European defence integration gained momentum soon after the end of the Cold War, partly as a result of the EC's failure to prevent the Yugoslav Wars. In 1992, the WEU was given new tasks, and the following year the Treaty of Maastricht founded the EU and replaced the EPC with the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar. In 1996 NATO agreed to let the WEU develop a so-called European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI).{{cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/summary/glossary/european_security_defence_identity.html|title=Glossary of summaries - EUR-Lex|website=eur-lex.europa.eu}} The 1998 St. Malo declaration signalled that the traditionally hesitant United Kingdom was prepared to provide the EU with autonomous defence structures.{{Cite web|url=https://euobserver.com/foreign/138147|title=EU to spend €1.5bn a year on joint defence|website=EUobserver|date=7 June 2017 }} This facilitated the transformation of the ESDI into the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) in 1999, when it was transferred to the EU. In 2003 the EU deployed its first CSDP missions, and adopted the European Security Strategy identifying common threats and objectives. In 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon introduced the present name, CSDP, while establishing the EEAS, the mutual defence clause and enabling a subset of member states to pursue defence integration within PESCO. In 2011 the WEU, whose tasks had been transferred to the EU, was dissolved. In 2016 a new security strategy was introduced, which along with the Russian annexation of Crimea, the British withdrawal from the EU and the election of Donald Trump as US president have given the CSDP a new impetus.{{Cite journal |last=Helferich |first=John |last2=De France |first2=Olivier |date=2022 |title=Les spectres de la défense européenne se raniment |url=https://legrandcontinent.eu/fr/2022/02/04/les-spectres-de-la-defense-europeenne-se-raniment/ |journal=Le Grand Continent}}

{{Main|List of military and civilian missions of the European Union}}

File:Map of EU interventions overseas.svg.}}]]

The first deployment of European troops under the ESDP, following the 1999 declaration of intent, was in March 2003 in the Republic of Macedonia (now North Macedonia). Operation Concordia used NATO assets and was considered a success and replaced by a smaller police mission, EUPOL Proxima, later that year. Since then, there have been other small police, justice and monitoring missions. As well as in the Republic of Macedonia, the EU has maintained its deployment of peacekeepers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as part of Operation Althea.Christopher S. Chivvis, [http://www.ifri.org/files/Securite_defense/Focus_strategique_5_Chivvis_PESD.pdf "Birthing Athena. The Uncertain Future of ESDP"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080627111238/http://www.ifri.org/files/Securite_defense/Focus_strategique_5_Chivvis_PESD.pdf |date=27 June 2008 }}, Focus stratégique, Paris, Ifri, March 2008.

Between May and September 2003 EU troops were deployed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) during "Operation Artemis" under a mandate given by UN Security Council Resolution 1484 which aimed to prevent further atrocities and violence in the Ituri Conflict and put the DRC's peace process back on track. This laid out the "framework nation" system to be used in future deployments. The EU returned to the DRC during July–November 2006 with EUFOR RD Congo, which supported the UN mission there during the country's elections.

Geographically, EU missions outside the Balkans and the DRC have taken place in Georgia, Indonesia, Sudan, Palestine, and Ukraine–Moldova. There is also a judicial mission in Iraq (EUJUST Lex). On 28 January 2008, the EU deployed its largest and most multi-national mission to Africa, EUFOR Tchad/RCA.[http://www.consilium.europa.eu/showPage.aspx?id=1366&lang=en "EUFOR Tchad/RCA"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214224814/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/showPage.aspx?id=1366&lang=en |date=14 December 2014 }} consilium.europa.eu The UN-mandated mission involves troops from 25 EU states (19 in the field) deployed in areas of eastern Chad and the north-eastern Central African Republic in order to improve security in those regions. EUFOR Tchad/RCA reached full operation capability in mid-September 2008, and handed over security duties to the UN (MINURCAT mission) in mid-March 2009.Benjamin Pohl (2013). [http://euroakadeemia.ee/materjalid/Logic%20of%20the%20EU%20crises%20mang.pdf "The logic underpinning EU crisis management operations"]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214175238/http://euroakadeemia.ee/materjalid/Logic%20of%20the%20EU%20crises%20mang.pdf |date=14 December 2014 }}, European Security, 22(3): 307–325, {{doi|10.1080/09662839.2012.726220}}, p. 311.

The EU launched its first maritime CSDP operation on 12 December 2008 (Operation Atalanta). The concept of the European Union Naval Force (EU NAVFOR) was created on the back of this operation, which is still successfully combatting piracy off the coast of Somalia almost a decade later. A second such intervention was launched in 2015 to tackle migration problems in the southern Mediterranean (EUNAVFOR Med), working under the name Operation SOPHIA.

Most of the CSDP missions deployed so far are mandated to support security sector reforms (SSR) in host-states. One of the core principles of CSDP support to SSR is local ownership. The EU Council defines ownership as "the appropriation by the local authorities of the commonly agreed objectives and principles".{{Cite web|url=http://www.ifp-ew.eu/resources/EU_Concept_for_ESDP_support_to_Security_Sector_Reform.pdf|title=EU Concept for ESDP support to Security Sector Reform}} Despite EU's strong rhetorical attachment to the local ownership principle, research shows that CSDP missions continue to be an externally driven, top-down and supply-driven endeavour, resulting often in the low degree of local participation.{{Cite journal|title='Here is your mission, now own it!' The rhetoric and practice of local ownership in EU interventions|first=Filip|last=Ejdus|date=2 October 2017|journal=European Security|volume=26|issue=4|pages=461–484|doi=10.1080/09662839.2017.1333495|doi-access=free|hdl=1983/d77fa2b0-82f5-4bc7-82f8-0d796a02c2cd|hdl-access=free}}

{{Main|Structure of the Common Security and Defence Policy}}

The CSDP involves military or civilian missions being deployed to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with contributions from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member states{{efn|name= Csdp |1=The responsibility of collective self-defence within the CSDP is based on Article 42.7 of TEU, which states that this responsibility does not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain member states, referring to policies of neutrality. See Neutral country§European Union for discussion on this subject.According to the Article 42.7 "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States."

Article 42.2 furthermore specifies that NATO shall be the main forum for the implementation of collective self-defence for EU member states that are also NATO members.}} as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 26 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration. The CSDP structure, headed by the Union's High Representative (HR/VP), Kaja Kallas, comprises:

• the Defence Industry Directorate-General of the European Commission
• relevant sections of the External Action Service (EEAS) — including the Military Staff (EUMS) with its so-called Military Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC)
• a number of Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) preparatory bodies – such as the Military Committee (EUMC)
• four agencies, including the European Defence Agency (EDA).

While the EU has a command and control (C2) structure, it has no standing permanent military structure along the lines of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Allied Command Operations (ACO), although it has been agreed that ACO resources may be used for the conduct of the EU's CSDP missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, does however represent the EU's first step in developing a permanent military headquarters. In parallel, the newly established European Defence Fund (EDF) marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects. The CSDP structure is sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union (EDU), especially in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm.{{Efn|Akin to the EU's banking union, economic and monetary union and customs union.}}

Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the HR/VP, adopted by the FAC, generally requiring unanimity, and then implemented by the HR/VP.

{{anchor|EUc2}}

{{European Union command and control structure}}

{{Main|European Union Global Strategy}}

The European Union Global Strategy (EUGS) is the updated doctrine of the EU to improve the effectiveness of the CSDP, including the defence and security of the members states, the protection of civilians, cooperation between the member states' armed forces, management of immigration, crises etc. Adopted on 28 June 2016,EEAS [https://eeas.europa.eu/archives/docs/top_stories/pdf/eugs_review_web.pdf (June 2016) Shared Vision, Common Action: A Stronger Europe] A Global Strategy for the

European Union’s Foreign And Security Policy it replaces the European Security Strategy of 2003. The EUGS is complemented by a document titled "Implementation Plan on Security and Defense" (IPSD).Council of the European Union [https://www.coe-civ.eu/kh/implementation-plan-on-security-and-defence (2016) Implementation Plan on Security and Defence]

Deterrence theory is applied to deter aggressors as one of the core mandates of Common Security and Defence Policy, yet lacks credibility due to insufficient resources.{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2017.1370581 | doi=10.1080/13533312.2017.1370581 | title=The Credibility of European Union Military Operations' Deterrence Postures | date=2018 | last1=Nováky | first1=Niklas I. M. | journal=International Peacekeeping | volume=25 | issue=2 | pages=191–216 | url-access=subscription }}

{{Main|Defence forces of the European Union}}

A new Action Plan on military mobility and cyber resilience was released 10 November 2022.Tim Martin [https://breakingdefense.com/2022/11/european-commission-launches-new-defense-package-with-military-mobility-and-cyber-focus/ (11 November 2022) European Commission launches new defense package, with military mobility and cyber focus] Action Plan on Military Mobility 2.0

{{EU military personnel}}

The CSDP is implemented using civilian and military contributions from member states' armed forces, which also are obliged to collective self-defence based on Treaty on European Union (TEU).

Five EU states host nuclear weapons: France has its own nuclear programmes, while Belgium, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands host US nuclear weapons as part of NATO's nuclear sharing policy. Combined, the EU possesses 300 warheads, and hosts between 90 and 130 US warheads. Italy hosts 70-90 B61 nuclear bombs, while Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands 10-20 each one.{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/blog/ssp/2008/06/usaf-report-%E2%80%9Cmost%E2%80%9D-nuclear-weapon-sites-in-europe-do-not-meet-us-security-requirements.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310160809/http://www.fas.org/blog/ssp/2008/06/usaf-report-%E2%80%9Cmost%E2%80%9D-nuclear-weapon-sites-in-europe-do-not-meet-us-security-requirements.php|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 March 2013|title=USAF Report: "Most" Nuclear Weapon Sites in Europe Do Not Meet US Security Requirements » FAS Strategic Security Blog|date=10 March 2013}} The EU has the third largest arsenal of nuclear weapons, after the United States and Russia.

{{further|List of countries by military expenditures}}

The following table presents the military expenditures of the members of the European Union in euros (€). The combined military expenditure of the member states amounted to €223.4 billion in 2018.[https://www.eda.europa.eu/docs/default-source/brochures/eda-defence-data-2017-2018 Defence Data 2017–2018], Official 2018 defence statistics from the European Defence Agency This represents 1.4% of European Union GDP. European military expenditure includes spending on joint projects such as the Eurofighter Typhoon and joint procurement of equipment. The European Union's combined active military forces in 2016 totaled 1,410,626 personnel.

In a speech in 2012, Swedish General Håkan Syrén criticised the spending levels of European Union countries, saying that in the future those countries' military capability will decrease, creating "critical shortfalls".{{cite news |title=Some EU states may no longer afford air forces-general |first=Adrian |last=Croft |url=http://mobile.reuters.com/article/idUSL5E8KJJSL20120919?irpc=932 |work=Reuters |date=19 September 2012 |access-date=31 March 2013}}

In May 2025, EU member states agreed to launch a €150bn loans-for-arms fund backed by the bloc’s shared budget. The initiative will allow EU countries to borrow from Brussels and spend on weapons systems and platforms through joint procurement.{{Cite news |last=Foy |first=Henry |last2=Tamma |first2=Paola |date=2025-05-19 |title=EU agrees to launch €150bn loans-for-arms scheme |url=https://www.ft.com/content/b5c95e3d-74e2-4eb5-a88b-9e650cb93ce2 |access-date=2025-05-19 |work=Financial Times}}

Guide to table:

• All figure entries in the table below are provided by the European Defence Agency for the year 2017, except for Germany's personnel figure, which is for 2016. Figures from other sources are not included.
• The "operations & maintenance expenditure" category may in some circumstances also include finances on-top of the nations defence budget.
• The categories "troops prepared for deployed operations" and "troops prepared for deployed and sustained operation" only include land force personnel.

{{update section|date=November 2018}}

File:Charles De Gaulle (R91) underway 2009.jpg aircraft carrier is one of the largest commissioned warships in the European Union.]]

The combined component strength of the naval forces of member states is some 514 commissioned warships. Of those in service, 4 are fleet carriers. The EU also has 4 amphibious assault ships and 20 amphibious support ships in service. Of the EU's 49 submarines, 10 are nuclear-powered submarines while 39 are conventional attack submarines.

Operation Atalanta (formally European Union Naval Force Somalia) is the first ever (and still ongoing) naval operation of the European Union. It is part of a larger global action by the EU in the Horn of Africa to deal with the Somali crisis. As of January 2011, twenty-three EU nations participate in the operation.

France and Italy have blue-water navies.Todd, Daniel; Lindberg, Michael (1996). Navies and Shipbuilding Industries: The Strained Symbiosis. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 56–57. {{ISBN|9780275953102}}

Guide to table:

• Ceremonial vessels, research vessels, supply vessels, training vessels, and icebreakers are not included.
• The table only counts warships that are commissioned (or equivalent) and active.
• Surface vessels displacing less than 200 tonnes are not included, regardless of other characteristics.
• The "amphibious support ship" category includes amphibious transport docks and dock landing ships, and tank landing ships.
• Frigates over 6,000 tonnes are classified as destroyers.
• The "patrol vessel" category includes missile boats.
• The "anti-mine ship" category includes mine countermeasures vessels, minesweepers and minehunters.
• Generally, total tonnage of ships is more important than total number of ships, as it gives a better indication of capability.

{{update section|date=November 2018}}

File:Leopard 2A6, PzBtl 104.jpg main battle tank]]

Combined, the member states of the European Union maintain large numbers of various land-based military vehicles and weaponry.

Guide to table:

• The table is not exhaustive and primarily includes vehicles and EU-NATO member countries under the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty (CFE treaty). Unless otherwise specified.
• The CFE treaty only includes vehicles stationed within Europe, vehicles overseas on operations are not counted.
• The "main battle tank" category also includes tank destroyers (such as the Italian B1 Centauro) or any self-propelled armoured fighting vehicle, capable of heavy firepower. According to the CFE treaty.
• The "armoured fighting vehicle" category includes any armoured vehicle primarily designed to transport infantry and equipped with an automatic cannon of at least 20 mm calibre. According to the CFE treaty.
• The "artillery" category includes self-propelled or towed howitzers and mortars of 100 mm calibre and above. Other types of artillery are not included regardless of characteristics. According to the CFE treaty.
• The "attack helicopter" category includes any rotary wing aircraft armed and equipped to engage targets or equipped to perform other military functions (such as the Apache or the Wildcat). According to the CFE treaty.
• The "military logistics vehicle" category includes logistics trucks of 4-tonne, 8-tonne, 14-tonne or larger, purposely designed for military tasking. Not under CFE treaty.

{{update section|date=November 2018}}

The air forces of EU member states operate a wide range of military systems and hardware. This is primarily due to the independent requirements of each member state and also the national defence industries of some member states. However such programmes like the Eurofighter Typhoon and Eurocopter Tiger have seen many European nations design, build and operate a single weapons platform. 60% of overall combat fleet was developed and manufactured by member states, 32% are US-origin, but some of these were assembled in Europe, while remaining 8% are soviet-made aircraft. As of 2014, it is estimated that the European Union had around 2,000 serviceable combat aircraft (fighter aircraft and ground-attack aircraft).[https://www.flightglobal.com/reports/world-air-forces-2020/135665.article - Flight International], Flightglobal.com, Accessed 19 September 2020

The EUs air-lift capabilities are evolving with the future introduction of the Airbus A400M (another example of EU defence cooperation). The A400M is a tactical airlifter with strategic capabilities.[http://www.raf.mod.uk/equipment/a400m.cfm "RAF – A400m."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090430164301/http://www.raf.mod.uk/equipment/a400m.cfm |date=30 April 2009 }} RAF, MOD. Retrieved: 15 May 2010. Around 140 are initially expected to be operated by 5 member states (Luxembourg, France, Germany, Spain and Belgium).

Guide to tables:

• The tables are sourced from figures provided by Flight International for the year 2020.
• Aircraft are grouped into three main types (indicated by colours): red for combat aircraft, green for aerial refueling aircraft, and yellow for strategic and tactical transport aircraft.
• The two "other" columns include additional aircraft according to their type sorted by colour (i.e. the "other" category in red includes combat aircraft, while the "other" category in grey includes both aerial refueling and transport aircraft). This was done because it was not feasible allocate every aircraft type its own column.
• Other aircraft such as trainers, helicopters, UAVs and reconnaissance or surveillance aircraft are not included in the below tables or figures.

;Fighter and ground-attack

;Aerial refueling and transport

File:Nordic Battle Group ISTAR Training (5014209533).jpg personnel from the Nordic Battle Group at an exercise in 2010]]

The Helsinki Headline Goal Catalogue is a listing of rapid reaction forces composed of 60,000 troops managed by the European Union, but under control of the countries who deliver troops for it.

Forces introduced at Union level include:

• The battle groups (BG) adhere to the CSDP, and are based on contributions from a coalition of member states. Each of the eighteen Battlegroups consists of a battalion-sized force (1,500 troops) reinforced with combat support elements.{{Cite web |url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/Battlegroups.pdf |title=Choose a language - Consilium |access-date=10 January 2018 |archive-date=28 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428231839/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/Battlegroups.pdf |url-status=dead }} The groups rotate actively, so that two are ready for deployment at all times. The forces are under the direct control of the Council of the European Union. The Battlegroups reached full operational capacity on 1 January 2007, although, as of January 2013 they are yet to see any military action.{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/europe/21569718-europeans-ability-deploy-force-abroad-falling-mali-shows-it-still-needed-europe|title=Europe in a foreign field|newspaper=The Economist|date=19 January 2013}} They are based on existing ad hoc missions that the European Union (EU) has undertaken and has been described by some as a new "standing army" for Europe.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6441417.stm New force behind EU foreign policy] BBC News – 15 March 2007 The troops and equipment are drawn from the EU member states under a "lead nation". In 2004, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan welcomed the plans and emphasised the value and importance of the Battlegroups in helping the UN deal with troublespots.[http://www.forumoneurope.ie/eng/index.asp?docID=567 Value of EU 'Battlegroup' plan stressed by Annan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213180054/http://www.forumoneurope.ie/eng/index.asp?docID=567 |date=13 February 2009 }} forumoneurope.ie 15 October 2004
• The Medical Command (EMC) is a planned medical command centre in support of EU missions, formed as part of the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO).{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/epsc/publications/strategic-notes/defence-europe_en|title=In Defence of Europe - EPSC - European Commission|website=EPSC|date=31 March 2016}} The EMC will provide the EU with a permanent medical capability to support operations abroad, including medical resources and a rapidly deployable medical task force. The EMC will also provide medical evacuation facilities, triage and resuscitation, treatment and holding of patients until they can be returned to duty, and emergency dental treatment. It will also contribute to harmonising medical standards, certification and legal (civil) framework conditions.{{Cite web|url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/32079/pesco-overview-of-first-collaborative-of-projects-for-press.pdf|title=Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) first collaborative PESCO projects}}
• The Force Crisis Response Operation Core (EUFOR CROC) is a flagship defence project under development as part of Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO). EURFOR CROC will contribute to the creation of a "full spectrum force package" to speed up provision of military forces and the EU's crisis management capabilities.{{Cite web|url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/32079/pesco-overview-of-first-collaborative-of-projects-for-press.pdf|title=Project outlines}} Rather than creating a standing force, the project involves creating a concrete catalogue of military force elements that would speed up the establishment of a force when the EU decides to launch an operation. It is land-focused and aims to generate a force of 60,000 troops from the contributing states alone. While it does not establish any form of "European army", it foresees an deployable, interoperable force under a single command.{{Cite web|url=http://www.egmontinstitute.be/content/uploads/2017/10/SPB91-Biscop.pdf?type=pdf|title=European Defence: What's in the CARDs for PESCO?}} Germany is the lead country for the project, but the French are heavily involved and it is tied to President Emmanuel Macron's proposal to create a standing intervention force. The French see it as an example of what PESCO is about.{{cite news|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/macron-eu-to-unveil-military-pact-projects/|title=EU unveils military pact projects|date=10 December 2017|first=Jacopo|last=Barigazzi|work=Politico|access-date=29 December 2017}}

File:Eurocorps Strasbourg passage de commandement 28 juin 2013 14.jpg

This section presents an incomplete list of forces and bodies established intergovernmentally amongst a subset of member states. These organisations will deploy forces based on the collective agreement of their member states. They are typically technically listed as being able to be deployed under the auspices of NATO, the United Nations, the European Union (EU) through Article 42.3 of TEU, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, or any other international entity.

However, with the exception of the Eurocorps, very few have actually been deployed for any real military operation, and none under the CSDP at any point in its history.

Land Forces:

• The Eurocorps is an army corps of approximately 1,000 soldiers stationed in Strasbourg, France. Based in the French city of Strasbourg, the corps is the nucleus of the Franco-German Brigade.{{cite web |url=http://www.eurocorps.org/ |title= Eurocorps' official website / History|access-date=23 February 2008 }}
• The I. German/Dutch Corps is a multinational formation consisting of units from the Dutch and German armies. Due to its role as a NATO High Readiness Forces Headquarters, soldiers from other NATO member states, the United States, Denmark, Norway, Spain, Italy, the United Kingdom amongst others, are also stationed at Münster.
• The Multinational Corps Northeast, a Danish-German-Polish multinational corps
• The European Gendarmerie Force, an intervention force with militarised police functions which specializes in crisis management.{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1080/09662839.2012.747511|title = The European Gendarmerie Force: A solution in search of problems?|journal = European Security|volume = 22|pages = 1–20|year = 2013|last1 = Arcudi|first1 = Giovanni|last2 = Smith|first2 = Michael E.|s2cid = 153388488|doi-access = free}}

Aerial:

• The European Air Transport Command exercises operational control of the majority of the aerial refueling capabilities and military transport fleets of its participating nations. Located at Eindhoven Airbase in the Netherlands, the command also bears a limited responsibility for exercises, aircrew training and the harmonisation of relevant national air transport regulations.{{Cite web|url=http://www.zie.nl/video/algemeen/Eindhoven-regelt-internationale-militaire-luchtvaart/m1aztdof6jpc|title=Eindhoven regelt internationale militaire luchtvaart}}{{cite web|url=http://www.eda.europa.eu/info-hub/news/2012/11/30/claude-france-arnould-visits-eatc-headquarters |title=Claude-France Arnould Visits EATC Headquarters |publisher=Eda.europa.eu |access-date=19 February 2016}} The command was established in 2010 to provide a more efficient management of the participating nations' assets and resources in this field.

Naval:

• The European Maritime Force (EUROMARFOR or EMF) is a non-standing,[http://www.euromarfor.org/images/stories/EUROMARFOR_arte_final.pdf EUROMARFOR – At Sea for Peace pamphlet]{{dead link|date=June 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. Retrieved 11 March 2012. military force{{cite book |title=Euro-Mediterranean security: a search for partnership |last=Biscop |first=Sven |year=2003 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=978-0-7546-3487-4 |page=53 }} that may carry out naval, air and amphibious operations, with an activation time of 5 days after an order is received.[http://www.euromarfor.org/images/stories/pdfs/retrospectiva_29ago11.pdf EUROMARFOR Retrospective – Portuguese Command]{{dead link|date=June 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, page 12. Retrieved 11 March 2012. The force was formed in 1995 to fulfill missions defined in the Petersberg Declaration, such as sea control, humanitarian missions, peacekeeping operations, crisis response operations, and peace enforcement.

{{Further|European Union–NATO relations}}

Out of the 27 EU member states, 23 are also members of NATO. Another four NATO members are EU applicants—Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Turkey. Two others—Iceland and Norway—have opted to remain outside of the EU, however participate in the EU's single market. The memberships of the EU and NATO are distinct, and some EU member states are traditionally neutral on defence issues. Several EU member states were formerly members of the Warsaw Pact. Denmark had an opt-out from the CSDP, however voted in a referendum in 2022 to begin to participate in the policy area.

{{Participation in Euro-Atlantic defence arrangements}}

The Berlin Plus agreement is the short title of a comprehensive package of agreements made between NATO and the EU on 16 December 2002.NATO, Berlin Plus agreement, 21 June 2006.{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/shape/news/2003/shape_eu/se030822a.htm |title=SHAPE Information |access-date=19 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070817094713/http://www.nato.int/shape/news/2003/shape_eu/se030822a.htm |archive-date=17 August 2007 }} These agreements were based on conclusions of NATO's 1999 Washington summit, sometimes referred to as the CJTF mechanism,The Heritage Foundation report, 4 October 2004: "Through the CJTF mechanism, NATO member states do not have to actively participate actively in a specific mission if they do not feel their vital interests are involved, but their opting out [...] would not stop other NATO members from participating in an intervention if they so desired." {{unfit|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090205165920/http://www.heritage.org/Research/Europe/bg1803.cfm]}} and allowed the EU to draw on some of NATO's military assets in its own peacekeeping operations.

File:CSDP utility.svg of the Military Staff Lt. gen. Ton van Osch, asserting that the utility of the combined civilian and military components of the EU policy could be considered more effective than NATO for a limited level of conflict.]]

The EUCAP Somalia{{Cite web |title=About EUCAP Somalia |url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eucap-som/about-eucap-somalia_en?s=332 |access-date=2024-09-27 |website=www.eeas.europa.eu |language=en}} is an example of an unarmed, non-executive, civilian Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) Mission. aimed at strengthening maritime security capacities, police sector, as well as promoting the Rule of Law in Somalia.{{Citation |title=Décision 2012/389/PESC du Conseil du 16 juillet 2012 relative à la mission de l'Union européenne visant au renforcement des capacités maritimes régionales dans la Corne de l'Afrique (EUCAP NESTOR) |date=2012-07-16 |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/FR/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32012D0389 |access-date=2024-09-27 |language=fr}} It provides strategic level advice, mentoring and training, on issues ranging from coast guard and police functions to police-prosecution cooperation and the drafting of laws. Initially launched as EUCAP Nestor{{Cite web |title=EUCAP NESTOR, Somali Coastguard and Maritime Police Unit Visit Operation Atalanta Flagship HNLMS Tromp {{!}} EUNAVFOR |url=https://eunavfor.eu/news/eucap-nestor-somali-coastguard-and-maritime-police-unit-visit-operation-atalanta-flagship |access-date=2024-09-27 |website=eunavfor.eu}} in 2012, the mission was reconfigured to focus on Somalia, thus renamed by the Council of the European Union, EUCAP Somalia in 2016.

In December 2024, the Council of European Union extended the [https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2024/12/16/horn-of-africa-and-somalia-operation-atalanta-eutm-and-eucap-somalia-s-mandates-extended-for-two-years/ Mission’s mandate] to February 2027.

The most prominent goals of the Mission are to help Somalia to generate well trained police forces in line with the [https://press.un.org/en/2018/sc13341.doc.htm Somali Transition Plan], contribute to secure one of the EU’s vital maritime trade routes, and assist to draft and implement sound legislative frameworks, including accountability systems.

The mission was established in response to the persistent challenges posed by maritime insecurity in the Western Indian Ocean, particularly piracy, illegal fishing, human trafficking, and arms smuggling. These issues severely impacted both the security and economic stability of Somalia and the surrounding region. Somalia’s extensive coastline (the longest in mainland Africa) was unprotected for years due to the collapse of the government in the early 1990s.{{Cite web |title=EU Missions in Somalia: Successes, Challenges and Future Prospects |url=https://www.pubaffairsbruxelles.eu/opinion-analysis/eu-missions-in-somalia-successes-challenges-and-future-prospects/ |access-date=2024-09-27 |website=PubAffairs Bruxelles |language=en-US}} Piracy flourished in the absence of effective maritime governance, leading to international efforts to assist the country in reclaiming control over its waters. EUCAP Somalia emerged as part of these efforts, complementing other international missions such as Operation Atalanta and EUTM Somalia.

EUCAP Nestor's mandate is divided into two objectives: strengthening the maritime capacities of the beneficiary countries (excluding Somalia) and training a coastal police force and judges in Somalia, the primary aim being to get the countries in the region to work together to strengthen action at sea. EUCAP Nestor operates in five countries: Djibouti, Kenya, Seychelles, Somalia (Puntland/Somaliland) and Tanzania. This is why it is relatively large in terms of staff numbers, with almost 200 people spread across the different countries. These experts provide legal, strategic and operational advice on maritime safety.{{Cite web |last=Gros-Verheyde |first=Nicolas |date=May 16, 2012 |title=EUCAP Nestor, une mission de 200 personnes aux multiples facettes |url=https://www.bruxelles2.eu/2012/05/16/eucap-nestor-une-mission-de-200-personnes-aux-multiples-facettes/#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url |archive-url=https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=https://www.bruxelles2.eu/2012/05/16/eucap-nestor-une-mission-de-200-personnes-aux-multiples-facettes/#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-06-15 |access-date=2024-09-27 |website=archive.wikiwix.com}}

When the name was changed in December 2016, so too was the mandate. EUCAP Somalia will drop its regional ambitions and focus solely on Somalia, and more specifically on the Coast Guard, with a view to strengthening ‘Somali maritime law enforcement capabilities’. The mandate is not limited to piracy, but covers any criminal activity or offence committed on the coast or in the sea.{{Cite web |title=Decision - 2022/2445 - EN - EUR-Lex |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dec/2022/2445/oj |access-date=2024-09-27 |website=eur-lex.europa.eu |language=en}}

In December 2020, the Council of the European Union extended EUCAP's mandate until 31 December 2024. From 2021 onwards, the mission will also be helping Somalia to strengthen its police capabilities, in particular by developing the Federal Darwish police force and reinforcing the INTERPOL National Central Bureau in Mogadishu.{{Cite web |title=Déclarations officielles de politique étrangère du 06 janvier 2021 |url=https://basedoc.diplomatie.gouv.fr/vues/Kiosque/FranceDiplomatie/kiosque.php?fichier=bafr2021-01-06.html#Chapitre5#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url |archive-url=https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=https://basedoc.diplomatie.gouv.fr/vues/Kiosque/FranceDiplomatie/kiosque.php?fichier=bafr2021-01-06.html#Chapitre5#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-06-15 |access-date=2024-09-27 |website=archive.wikiwix.com}} The EU's budget for the period 2023-2024 allocated is 81 million €.{{Cite web |title=About EUCAP Somalia {{!}} EEAS |url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eucap-som/about-eucap-somalia_en?s=332 |access-date=2024-09-27 |website=www.eeas.europa.eu |language=en}}

Current mandate from 2025 to 2027

In December 2024, the Council of European Union extended the [https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2024/12/16/horn-of-africa-and-somalia-operation-atalanta-eutm-and-eucap-somalia-s-mandates-extended-for-two-years/ Mission’s mandate] to February 2027. EUCAP Somalia is tasked to advise, train, and equip the Somali Police Force and to support the development of a legal framework for Somalia’s internal security architecture. The mission’s work also includes providing monitoring support to regional maritime police forces, including the Somaliland and Puntland Maritime Police Forces, to bolster maritime law enforcement and security. The Mission’s budget for its current mandate is €110 million and total staff of 169 [https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eucap-som/about-eucap-somalia_en?s=332 members].

1. Support the development of Somali Police Forces by enhancing their capabilities through advising, training and equipping Somali Police Forces in line with the Somali Security Sector Development Plan, ensuring the police are better prepared to maintain security and stability across the country.
2. Strengthen Maritime Police Capacities in and around the three main Somali ports (Mogadishu, Berbera and Bossaso) by providing capacity building on coast guard functions.
3. Promote the rule of law by working with Somali authorities to enhance accountability within the police force and across the criminal justice chain. This includes supporting the development of legal frameworks necessary for the effective functioning of law enforcement, and security actors in both land and maritime domains, fostering governance and accountability.

Since its reconfiguration in 2016, EUCAP Somalia has made significant strides in enhancing Somalia’s maritime security capabilities. Recent achievements include improving the Somali Police Force's (SPF) command, control, and communication capabilities, as well as enhancing their ability to manage security incidents in Mogadishu. EUCAP has deployed a specialized multinational team to support the SPF's Maritime Police Unit and has played a key role in the development of Somaliland’s Coast Guard, conducting joint exercises with EUNAVFOR Operation ATALANTA. The mission also trained and equipped the Puntland Maritime Police Force, enhancing their capacity to enforce maritime law. Additionally, EUCAP has supported the Somali Attorney General’s Maritime Crimes Unit by providing training in internal procedures and investigations and launching an internship program for young lawyers. Despite the progress, Somalia continues to face challenges in maritime governance due to political instability and resource limitations, but EUCAP remains committed to addressing these issues with Somali authorities and international partners.{{Cite report |url=https://www.sipri.org/publications/2020/sipri-background-papers/european-union-training-mission-somalia-assessment |title=The European Union Training Mission in Somalia: An Assessment |date=November 2020 |publisher=SIPRI |language=en}}

[https://www.eeas.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/2025/EUCAP%20infosheet%20Feb%202025.pdf Mission's achievements during mandate 2022 - 24]

• Increased the Somali Police Force command, control and communication capability.
• Trained Somali Police Force trainers for co-training activities.
• Enabling the establishment of the Maritime Rescue and Coordination Center in Mogadishu to enhance maritime security coordination along the Somali coastline and in regional waters.
• Supported the development of Somaliland Coast Guard, including through joint exercises with EUNAVFOR Operation ATALANTA and the provision of maritime equipment.
• Trained mobile training units for Somaliland Coast Guard and Somaliland Police.
• Trained and equipped the Puntland Maritime Police Force - Maritime Police Unit, enhancing their law enforcement capabilities.
• Supporting the maritime crimes unit of the Somali Attorney General's Office in internal procedures and maritime crimes investigations as well as an internship program for young lawyers in Mogadishu and Puntland.

{{Portal|European Union

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{{Portal|European Union}}

• European Union–NATO relations
• European Union as an emerging superpower
• Security and defense pacts of the European Union
• European countries by military expenditure as a percentage of government expenditure
• {{section link|Neutral country#European Union}}
• Strategic Compass for Security and Defence

• Military Mobility
• European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats (Hybrid CoE), an EU-supported intergovernmental think-tank

• Finabel, an organisation, controlled by the army chiefs of staff of its participating nations, that promotes cooperation and interoperability between the armies.{{Cite web|url=http://espace-finabel.eu/public/images/stories/Finabel/Finabel_UK-midres.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720160258/http://espace-finabel.eu/public/images/stories/Finabel/Finabel_UK-midres.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Finabel information folder: "Finabel: Contributing to European Army Interoperability since 1953"|archivedate=20 July 2011}}
• Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation (OCCAR), an organisation that facilitates and manages collaborative armament programmes through their lifecycle between its participating nations.
• European Air Group (EAG), an organisation that promotes cooperation and interoperability between the air forces of its participating nations.
• European Organisation of Military Associations and Trade Unions (EUROMIL)
• European Personnel Recovery Centre (EPRC), an organisation that contributes to the development and harmonisation of policies and standards related to personnel recovery.
• European Intervention Initiative
• European Centre of Excellence for Civilian Crisis Management

• Nordic Defence Cooperation (NORDEFCO)
• Central European Defence Cooperation (CEDC)

• North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
• Movement Coordination Centre Europe (MCCE), an organisation aiming to coordinate the use of airlift, sealift and land movement assets owned or leased by participating nations.

{{notelist|30em}}

{{reflist}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20100201024031/http://www.iss.europa.eu/nc/actualites/analysisbooks/news/back/article/what-ambitions-for-european-defence-in-2020-2nd-edition/ Book – What ambitions for European defence in 2020?, European Union Institute for Security Studies]
• [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091223065119/http://www.iss.europa.eu/nc/actualites/analysisbooks/news/back/article/european%2Dsecurity%2Dand%2Ddefence%2Dpolicybrthe%2Dfirst%2D10%2Dyears%2D1999%2D2009/ Book – European Security and Defence Policy: The first 10 years (1999–2009), European Union Institute for Security Studies]
• Book - Smith, Michael E. (2017). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/europes-common-security-and-defence-policy/BE414345DA4007E499DF855843D7CE43# 'Europe's Common Security and Defence Policy: Capacity-Building, Experiential Learning, and Institutional Change'] (Cambridge University Press).
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20100331215332/http://www.rpfrance.eu/IMG/pdf/Guide_to_the_ESDP_nov._2008_EN.pdf "Guide to the ESDP" nov.2008 edition] Exhaustive guide on ESDP's missions, institutions and operations, written and edited by the Permanent representation of France to the European Union.
• {{cite book

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• {{cite book

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• {{cite book

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• [http://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/vital/access/manager/Repository/unige:1407 PhD Thesis on Civilian ESDP - EU Civilian crisis management (University of Geneva, 2008, 441 p. in French)]
• {{cite journal

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• Giovanni Arcudi & Michael E. Smith (2013). [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/09662839.2012.747511#preview The European Gendarmerie Force: a solution in search of problems?], European Security, 22(1): 1–20, [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09662839.2012.747511#.VJsgs_-AMA DOI:10.1080/09662839.2012.747511]
• Teresa Eder (2014). [http://derstandard.at/1389857860322/Welche-Befugnisse-hat-die-Europaeische-Gendarmerietruppe-EGF Welche Befugnisse hat die Europäische Gendarmerietruppe?], Der Standard, 5 Februar 2014.
• Alexander Mattelaer (2008). [http://www.ies.be/files/repo/IES%20working%20paper%205_Alexander%20Mattelaer.pdf The Strategic Planning of EU Military Operations – The Case of EUFOR Tchad/RCA], IES Working Paper 5/2008.
• Benjamin Pohl (2013). [https://web.archive.org/web/20141214175238/http://euroakadeemia.ee/materjalid/Logic%20of%20the%20EU%20crises%20mang.pdf The logic underpinning EU crisis management operations], European Security, 22(3): 307–325, [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09662839.2012.726220#.VI2xNns0-rI DOI:10.1080/09662839.2012.726220]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20110429211047/http://www.diis.dk/sw87465.asp?csref=RSS "The Russo-Georgian War and Beyond: towards a European Great Power Concert"], Danish Institute of International Studies.
• U.S Army Strategic Studies Institute (SSI), [http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/download.cfm?q=1026 Operation EUFOR TCHAD/RCA and the EU's Common Security and Defense Policy.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180408073353/http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/download.cfm?q=1026 |date=8 April 2018 }}, U.S. Army War College, October 2010
• Mai'a K. Davis Cross [http://www.press.umich.edu/3250714/security_integration_in_europe "Security Integration in Europe: How Knowledge-based Networks are Transforming the European Union."] University of Michigan Press, 2011.
• {{cite journal

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| title =The European Defence Union and Denmark's Defence Opt-out: A Legal Appraisal

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| url =https://pure.au.dk/ws/files/210783649/The_European_Defence_Union_and_Denmarks_defence_opt_out_Published_version_2020.pdf

}}

{{Wikisource|Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union/Title V: General Provisions on the Union's External Action Service and Specific Provisions on the Common Foreign and Security Policy#SECTION 2: PROVISIONS ON THE COMMON SECURITY AND DEFENCE POLICY|Article 42–46 of the Treaty on European Union: Provisions on the Common Security and Defence Policy}}

• {{Official website|https://eeas.europa.eu/topics/common-security-and-defence-policy-csdp_en}}, European External Action Service
• [https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/area/security-and-defence_en Security and Defence], European External Action Service
• [http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/defence-security/ EU cooperation on security and defence], Council of the European Union
• [http://www.europeandefenceconcept.eu CFSP operational instrument: A proposed CSDP evolution in the Eurocorps and ESDI in NATO]

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