Controlled-environment agriculture

CEA farms are mainly located in buildings resembling warehouses, but other types of are used as well. Although CEA facilities share common characteristics for greenhouses, mushroom farms, and other indoor agricultural practices, they require different types of buildings, technologies, and workforce skills, such as software programming. CEA is also distinct from medical marijuana growing and processing.{{Cite web |last=Commission |first=Chester County Planning |title=Chester County Planning Commission |url=https://chescoplanning.org/MuniCorner/eTools/76-CEA.cfm |access-date=2025-02-14 |website=www.chescoplanning.org |language=en}} In contrast to CEA systems used for greens and herbs, mushrooms can be produced in locations with minimal infrastructure and capital to start and maintain production. Mushroom production can be adapted to abandoned and underutilized farm infrastructure including barns, outbuildings, high tunnels and storage facilities.{{Cite web |date=2019-06-04 |title=Indoor Production - Cornell Small Farms |url=https://smallfarms.cornell.edu/projects/mushrooms/indoor-production/ |access-date=2025-02-14 |website=smallfarms.cornell.edu |language=en-US}}

In consideration to urban agriculture, CEA can exist inside repurposed structures, built to purpose structures or in basements and subterranean spaces.{{cite book |last1=Jans-Singh |first1=M. |title=International Conference on Smart Infrastructure and Construction 2019 (ICSIC) |last2=Fidler |first2=P. |last3=Ward |first3=R.M. |last4=Choudhary |first4=R. |date=January 2019 |isbn=978-0-7277-6466-9 |pages=133–141 |chapter=Monitoring the Performance of an Underground Hydroponic Farm |doi=10.1680/icsic.64669.133 |doi-access=free |s2cid=201596364}} The trend is increasingly growing into alternative food networks, as entrepreneurs and households seek to meet the growing demand for fresh food products.{{Cite journal |last1=Wiśniewska-Paluszak |first1=Joanna |last2=Paluszak |first2=Grzegorz |date=May 2021 |title=The Urban and Peri-Urban Farms (UPFs) Relational Model: The Case of Greater Poland Voivodeship, Poland |journal=Agriculture |language=en |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=421 |doi=10.3390/agriculture11050421 |doi-access=free}}

Controllable variables:

Environmental:

• Temperature (air, nutrient solution, root-zone, leaf)
• Relative Humidity (%RH)
• Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
• Light (intensity, spectrum, duration and intervals)

Cultural:

• Water Quality
• Nutrient concentration (PPM of Nitrogen, Potassium, Phosphorus, etc)
• Nutrient pH (acidity)
• Cropping duration and density
• Cultivar
• Pest controls

CEA facilities can range from fully 100% environmentally controlled enclosed closed loop systems, to automated glasshouses with computer controls for watering, lighting and ventilation. Low-tech solutions such as cloches or plastic film on field grown crops and plastic-covered tunnels are referred to as modified environment agriculture.

CEA methods can be used to grow literally any crop, though the reality is a crop has to be economically viable and this will vary considerably due to local market pricing, and resource costs. Currently, tomatoes, leafy greens and herbs are the most economically viable crops.{{cite web |title=Food Crops Grown Under Protection and Sold |url=https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2017/Online_Resources/Census_of_Horticulture_Specialties/hortic_2_0014_0014.pdf |website=Census of Horticulture Specialties |publisher=USDA |access-date=30 November 2021}}

Crops can be grown for food, pharmaceutical and nutriceutical applications. It can also be used to grow algae for food or for biofuels.

CEA methods can increase food safety by removing sources of contamination, and increases the security of supply as it is unaffected by outside environment conditions and eliminates seasonality to create a stable market pricing, which is good for both farmers and consumers. The use of monitoring software and automation can greatly reduce the amount of human labor required.

CEA is used in research so that a specific aspect of production can be isolated while all other variables remain the same. For example, the use of tinted greenhouse glass could be compared to clear glass in this way during an investigation into photosynthesis.{{cite web |url=http://biodynamicshydroponics.com/controlled-environment-agriculture-cea-ezp-43.html |title=Controlled Environment Agriculture Center |publisher=Biodynamics Hydroponics |accessdate=2015-08-18 |archive-date=2015-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810225019/http://biodynamicshydroponics.com/controlled-environment-agriculture-cea-ezp-43.html |url-status=dead }}

A February 2011 article in the magazine Science Illustrated states, "In commercial agriculture, CEA can increase efficiency, reduce pests and diseases, and save resources. ... Replicating a conventional farm with computers and LED lights is expensive but proves cost-efficient in the long run by producing up to 20 times as much high-end, pesticide-free produce as a similar-size plot of soil. Fourteen thousand square feet of closely monitored plants produce 15 million seedlings annually at the solar-powered factory. Such factories will be necessary to meet urban China's rising demand for quality fruits and vegetables."{{cite web |url=http://www.ceacapitalholdings.com/education/sub-page/ |title=CEA |date=2011-02-01 |work=Science Illustrated |accessdate=2015-08-16 |archive-date=2015-08-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150831212031/http://www.ceacapitalholdings.com/education/sub-page/ |url-status=dead }}

Advantages of CEA over traditional field farming:{{cite web |title=The 10 biggest advantages of vertical farming |url=https://www.hortidaily.com/article/9183371/the-10-biggest-advantages-of-vertical-farming/ |website=hortidaily.com |date=31 January 2020 |publisher=Horti-Daily |access-date=30 November 2021}}

• Water efficiency{{cite journal |last1=Nicola |first1=S. |last2=Pignata |first2=G. |last3=Ferrante |first3=A. |last4=Bulgari |first4=R. |last5=Cocetta |first5=G. |last6=Ertani |first6=A. |title=Water Use Efficiency in Greenhouse Systems and its Application in Horticulture |journal=AgroLife Scientific Journal |date=2020 |volume=9 |issue=1 |url=http://www.agrolifejournal.usamv.ro/pdf/vol.IX_1/Art32.pdf |access-date=30 November 2021}}
• Space use efficiency
• Reduced transportation requirements
• Reliable year-round production
• Protection from adverse weather events
• Reduce fertilizer runoff
• Pleasant working conditions

According to the findings of a USDA workshop in 2018:

:indoor agriculture (IA) in urban and near-urban areas has the potential to act as a consistent, local, and accessible producer and distributor of fresh produce. If these farms are placed strategically, this possibility of local food production, processing, and distribution could be especially impactful for urban areas without reliable access to affordable and fresh produce. Such farms could also have far-reaching impacts in traditionally underserved communities by creating opportunities for training employment and business development in an emerging sector.[https://www.usda.gov/sites/default/files/documents/indoor-agriculture-workshop-report.pdf Workshop Report: Research and Development Potentials in Indoor Agriculture and Sustainable Urban Ecosystems,] February 2019,

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Chief Scientist & U.S. Department of Energy, Bioenergy Technologies Office, Washington D.C., retrieved January 7, 2022

The US mushroom growing sector reported 19,473 million square feet of indoor mushroom farms in the 2022-2023 growing cycle.{{Cite web |date=August 21, 2024 |title=Mushrooms, Agaricus Mushroom Area in Production and Yield |url=https://www.mushroomcouncil.org/industrystaff/research-reports/nass-report/ |url-status=live |access-date=January 28, 2025 |website=United States Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service}}

The CEA plant growing sector reported 16.55 million square feet (380 acres / 154 hectares) of indoor farms operating around the world as of mid-2021. The State of Indoor Farming annual report suggested this would grow to 22 million sq. ft. (505 acres / 204 hectares) by 2022.Agritech Tomorrow: [https://www.hortibiz.com/newsitem/news/vertical-farming-and-the-future-of-automation-in-agriculture/ "Vertical farming and the future of automation in agriculture,"] Hortibiz Daily World News, retrieved January 9, 2022 (By comparison, the USDA reported 915 million acres (38 million hectares) of farmland in the United States in 2012.)[https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/Highlights/2014/Highlights_Farms_and_Farmland.pdf "Farms and Farmland Numbers, Acreage, Ownership, and Use,"] from Highlights of the 2012 Census of Agriculture, ACH12-13, September 2014, National Agricultural Statistics Service, of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, retrieved January 10, 2022

As of 2018, an estimated 40 indoor vertical farms existed in the United States, some of which produced commercially sold produce and others which were not yet selling to consumers.{{Cite news |author=Charles, Dan |url=http://www.agweek.com/business/agriculture/4527042-cutting-edge-technology-will-change-farming |title=The cutting-edge technology that will change farming |work=Agweek |access-date=2018-11-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117020138/http://www.agweek.com/business/agriculture/4527042-cutting-edge-technology-will-change-farming |archive-date=2018-11-17}} Another source estimated over 100 startups in the space of 2018.{{Cite news |url=https://www.greenbiz.com/article/future-farming-vertical |title=Is the future of farming vertical? |last=Clay |first=Jason |date=2018-04-06 |work=GreenBiz |access-date=2018-11-23}} In Asia, adoption of indoor agriculture has been driven by consumer demand for quality.{{Cite news|url=https://agfundernews.com/consumer-demand-for-clean-food-driving-asias-indoor-agriculture-market-breaking-report5254.html/|title=Consumer Demand For 'Clean Food' Driving Asia's Indoor Agriculture Market - breaking report - AgFunderNews |date=2016-01-18 |work=AgFunderNews |access-date=2018-11-24}} The Recirculating Farms Coalition is a US trade organization for hydroponic farmers.

A 2020 survey of indoor plant farming in the U.S.[https://thespoon.tech/survey-indoor-ag-to-expand-add-more-tech-in-2021/ "Survey: Indoor Ag to Expand, Add More Tech in 2021.html"], June 8, 2021, The Spoon,, retrieved January 9, 2022 found that indoor production was:

• 26% leafy greens,
• 20% herbs
• 16% microgreens
• 10% tomatoes
• 28% other

AeroFarms, founded in 2011, raised $40 million in 2017 and reportedly opened the largest indoor farm in the world in Newark, New Jersey in 2015;{{Cite news |url=http://www.roi-nj.com/2018/06/11/industry/growth-company-aerofarms-is-attracting-attention-expanding-its-farming-locations-and-maybe-changing-the-world/ |title=Growth company: AeroFarms is attracting attention, expanding its farming locations — and, maybe, changing the world - ROI-NJ |date=2018-06-11 |work=ROI-NJ| access-date=2018-11-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123234045/http://www.roi-nj.com/2018/06/11/industry/growth-company-aerofarms-is-attracting-attention-expanding-its-farming-locations-and-maybe-changing-the-world/ |archive-date=2018-11-23}} by 2018 it built its 10th indoor farm. As of June 2023, AeroFarms filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection citing "significant industry and capital market headwinds".{{cite news |last1=Redmind |first1=Kimberly |title=Newark-based AeroFarms files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection |url=https://njbiz.com/newark-based-aerofarms-files-for-chapter-11-bankruptcy-protection/ |access-date=3 July 2023 |publisher=NJBIZ}}

Premier Mushrooms, founded in 2001 as Colusa Mushrooms, was reportedly one of the first, nearly fully closed-loop growing CEA facilities in the United States with a farm located in Colusa, California.{{Cite web |last=Posted by Natalie Forsythe on November 18 |first=2011 at 1:02pm in Innovation Stories |last2=Discussions |first2=Back to Innovation Stories |title=Mushroom Growing in a Nearly Closed-Loop System |url=http://www.innovatingsmart.org/group/theinnovations/forum/topics/john-ashbaugh-ceo-of-premier-mushrooms |access-date=2025-02-14 |website=www.innovatingsmart.org |language=en}} Premier Mushroom went through bankruptcy restructuring in 2004 and 2009,{{Cite web |title=SCHULTZE v. CHANDLER (2014) |url=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/court/us-9th-circuit/1673111.html |access-date=2025-02-14 |website=Findlaw |language=en-US}} eventually being sold to an international operator in 2020.{{Cite web |date=2020-02-13 |title=Premier sold to Farmers’ Fresh |url=https://mushroombusiness.com/news/premier-sold-to-farmers-fresh/ |access-date=2025-02-14 |website=Mushroombusiness |language=en-US}}

The economics of indoor farming has been challenging, with high capital investment and energy operating costs—particularly the price of electricity—and several startups shut down as a result.{{Cite news |url=https://finance-commerce.com/2018/05/people-power-costs-keep-indoor-farming-down-to-earth/ |title=People, power costs keep indoor farming down to Earth |agency=Associated Press |date=2018-05-14 |work=Finance & Commerce |access-date=2018-11-23}} A 2018 U.S. survey found only 51% of indoor farming operations profitable.Agrilyst press release: [https://www.producegrower.com/article/agrilyst-state-of-indoor-farming-survey/ "Agrilyst releases third State of Indoor Farming survey; The report notes that 51 percent of respondents currently operate profitable indoor farms."], October 1, 2018, Produce Grower, retrieved January 8, 2022 One approach to overcoming the energy cost limitations of CEA is to couple it with low-cost agrivoltaic electricity generation.{{Cite web |last=TechAlliance |date=2024-05-14 |title=London team tackling year-round food production as part of national competition |url=https://www.techalliance.ca/news/london-team-tackling-year-round-food-production-as-part-of-national-competition/ |access-date=2024-09-20 |website=TechAlliance of Southwestern Ontario |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |date=2024-05-20 |title=CAN (ON): Weston Family funded projects sees flourishing results from Innovation project |url=https://www.hortidaily.com/article/9627679/can-on-weston-family-funded-projects-sees-flourishing-results-from-innovation-project/ |access-date=2024-09-20 |website=www.hortidaily.com |language=en}} This has been done when Food Security and Structures Canada{{Cite news |title=Is this the high-tech solution to help northern communities get fresh produce year-round? |url=https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/video/9.4228573 |date=2024}} developed an agrivoltaic agrotunnel, which uses: (1) high R-value insulation for a building dedicated to vertical growing, (2) high-efficiency light emitting diode lighting, (3) heat pumps, and (4) solar photovoltaics (PVs) to provide known electric costs for 25 years.{{Cite journal |last1=Asgari |first1=Nima |last2=Jamil |first2=Uzair |last3=Pearce |first3=Joshua M. |date=2024-07-17 |title=Net Zero Agrivoltaic Arrays for Agrotunnel Vertical Growing Systems: Energy Analysis and System Sizing |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=14 |pages=6120 |doi=10.3390/su16146120 |doi-access=free |issn=2071-1050}}

A 2020 U.S. survey found that typical indoor agriculture crops, per pound of crop yield, consumed between US$0.47 (for leafy greens) and US$1.38 (for microgreens) in inputs (especially seed, growing media, and nutrients) -- though tomatoes were reported at US$0.06 inputs per pound. Labor costs for container farms were reported at US$2.35 per pound. However, the same survey noted that indoor agriculture yields more revenue per pound than conventional field agriculture.Artemis survey: [https://artemisag.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/State-of-Indoor-Farming-2020.pdf State of Indoor Farming 2020,], 2020, ArtemisMag.com, retrieved January 8, 2022

In the Asia-Pacific region, where burgeoning population growth conflicts with burgeoning space requirements for agriculture to feed the population, indoor farming is expected to have a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 29%, growing from a 2021 value of US$0.77 billion to a 2026 value of US$2.77 billion.

Advances in LED lighting have been one of the most important advances for improving economic viability. The high financial cost of investing in CEA presents a challenge that can only be overcome through research & development to innovate sustainable practices. The production potential of these farm networks justifies the investment in infrastructural value and contributes towards the 2030 SDGS to combat carbon footprint.

{{Main|Organic hydroponics}}

In 2017, the US National Organic Standards Board voted to allow hydroponically grown produce to be labeled as certified organic.{{Cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2017/11/02/561462293/hydroponic-veggies-are-taking-over-organic-and-a-move-to-ban-them-fails |title=Hydroponic Veggies Are Taking Over Organic, And A Move To Ban Them Fails |work=NPR.org |access-date=2018-11-24}}

• Building-integrated agriculture
• [https://ceac.arizona.edu/ Controlled Environment Agriculture Center (CEAC)] at the University of Arizona
• Vertical farming

• [https://www.usda.gov/sites/default/files/documents/urban-agriculture-toolkit.pdf Urban Agriculture Tool Kit], U.S. Dept. of Agriculture
• [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/40820/Shamshiri2018%20-%20controlled%20environment%20urban%20agriculture%20review.pdf "Advances in greenhouse automation and controlled environment agriculture: A transition to plant factories and urban agriculture"], January, 2018, Int J Agric & Biol Eng, Vol. 11 No.1, copied at USDA.gov
• [https://vegetablegrowersnews.com/article/indoor-agriculture-quickly-gaining-speed/ "Indoor agriculture quickly gaining speed"], May 21, 2015, Vegetable Growers News, retrieved January 9, 2022 (extensive data).

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Category:Horticulture

Category:Agriculture and the environment