Vertical farming

The term "vertical farming" was coined by Gilbert Ellis Bailey in 1915 in his book Vertical Farming. His use of the term differs from the current meaning—he wrote about farming with a special interest in soil origin, its nutrient content and the view of plant life as "vertical" life forms, specifically relating to their underground root structures.{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924000349328 |title=Vertical farming (1915) |publisher=E. I. duPont de Nemours Powder Co. |location=Wilmington, Del. |accessdate=2011-07-23}} Modern usage of the term "vertical farming" usually refers to growing plants in layers, whether in a multistorey skyscraper, used warehouse, or shipping container.

Mixed-use skyscrapers were proposed and built by architect Ken Yeang. Yeang proposes that instead of hermetically sealed mass-produced agriculture, plant life should be cultivated within open air, mixed-use skyscrapers for climate control and consumption. This version of vertical farming is based upon personal or community use rather than the wholesale production and distribution that aspires to feed an entire city.{{Cite web|url=https://www.architecture.org.au/news/enews/354-ken-yeang-and-bioclimatic-architecture|title=Ken Yeang and Bioclimatic Architecture|website=www.architecture.org.au|access-date=2018-04-18}}

Ecologist Dickson Despommier argues that vertical farming is legitimate for environmental reasons. He claims that the cultivation of plant life within skyscrapers will require less embodied energy and produce less pollution than some methods of producing plant life on natural landscapes. By shifting to vertical farms, Despommier believes that farmland will return to its natural state (i.e., forests), which would help reverse the effects of climate change. He moreover claims that natural landscapes are too toxic for natural agricultural production. Vertical farming would remove some of the parasitic risks associated with farming.Despommier, D. (2013). Farming up the city: The rise of urban vertical farms.Trends in Biotechnology, 31(7), 388-389.

Despommier's concept of the vertical farm emerged in 1999 at Columbia University. It promotes the mass cultivation of plant life for commercial purposes in skyscrapers.{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/15/science/15farm.html |title=Country, the City Version: Farms in the Sky Gain New Interest |newspaper=The New York Times |date= 2008-07-15|accessdate=2011-01-05 |first=Bina |last=Venkataraman}}

Several companies have developed stacking recycled shipping containers in urban settings. The shipping containers serve as standardized, modular environmental chambers for growing. By stacking the shipping containers, higher density in terms of produce yield/square foot is possible. But, the stacked containers pose the challenge of how to effectively and affordably access the stacked levels. Brighterside Consulting created a complete off-grid container system.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}

Freight Farms produces the "Greenery" that is a complete farm-to-table system outfitted with vertical hydroponics, LED lighting and intuitive climate controls built within a 12 m × 2.4 m shipping container.{{cite web |last= |date=12 April 2015 |title=2015 Leafy Green Machine by Freight Farms |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1t-PUIXUPgw |access-date=2024-02-16 |website=Freight Farms |publisher= |via=YouTube}} Podponics built a vertical farm in Atlanta consisting of over 100 stacked "growpods", but reportedly went bankrupt in May 2016.{{cite web |last=Karkaria |first=Urvaksh |date=2016-06-20 |title=2016 Bloom to bust: The birth and death of Atlanta startup PodPonics |url=https://www.bizjournals.com/atlanta/print-edition/2016/06/17/bloom-to-bust-the-birth-and-death-of-an-atlanta.html |access-date=2024-02-16 |website=Atlanta Business Chronicle}} A similar farm is under construction in Oman.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024|reason=former vlog used as source no longer exists}}

TerraFarms offer a system of 40-foot shipping containers, which include computer vision integrated with an artificial neural network to monitor the plants;{{cite web |title=Indoor Farm: Tech |url=https://www.localrootsfarms.com/how-we-farm-tech |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20190702165754/https://www.localrootsfarms.com/how-we-farm-tech/ |archive-date=2019-07-02 |access-date=17 December 2017 |website=Local Roots |quote=}} and are remotely monitored from California. It is claimed that the TerraFarm system "has achieved cost parity with traditional, outdoor farming"{{cite web |last=Gitig |first=Diana |date=17 December 2017 |title=Local Roots: Farm-in-a-box coming to a distribution center near you |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2017/12/local-roots-farm-in-a-box-coming-to-a-distribution-center-near-you/ |access-date=17 December 2017 |website=Ars Technica |publisher=Condé Nast |quote=shipping-container farming that's said to have price parity with farms}} with each unit producing the equivalent of "{{convert|3|to|5|acre|0|spell=on|disp=sqbr}} of farmland", using 97% less water{{cite news |last=Carroll |first=Rory |date=18 July 2017 |title='Grow food on Mars': LA startups tackle climate change with inventive solutions |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/jul/18/climate-change-los-angeles-tech-startups |access-date=17 December 2017 |newspaper=The Guardian |publisher= |quote=}} through water recapture and harvesting the evaporated water through the air conditioning.{{cite web |title=Local Roots (business) FAQ |url=https://www.localrootsfarms.com/faqs-1/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20190707110614/https://www.localrootsfarms.com/faqs-1/ |archive-date=2019-07-07 |access-date=17 December 2017 |website=Local Roots |publisher= |quote=}} {{As of|2017|December}} the TerraFarm system was in commercial operation.

Vertical farming in abandoned mine shafts is termed "deep farming", and is proposed to take advantage of consistent underground temperatures and locations near or in urban areas. It would also be able to use nearby groundwater, thereby reducing the cost of providing water to the farm.{{cite web | url =https://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/infrastructure/a25379774/abandoned-coal-mines-could-be-future-of-farming/ | title =Abandoned Coal Mines Could Be Future of Farming | last =Grossman | first =David | date =3 December 2018 | website =Popular Mechanics | access-date =3 December 2018 | quote = }}

Lighting can be natural or via LEDs. As of 2018 commercial LEDs were about 28% efficient,{{Update inline|date=November 2019|reason=}} which keeps the cost of produce high and prevents vertical farms from competing in regions where cheap vegetables are abundant.{{Cite news|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22129524-100-vertical-farms-sprouting-all-over-the-world/|title=Vertical farms sprouting all over the world|last=Marks|first=Paul|date=15 January 2014|work=New Scientist|access-date=2018-02-27}} Energy costs can be reduced because full-spectrum white light is not required. Instead, red and blue or purple light can be generated with less electricity.

One of the earliest drawings of a tall building that cultivates food was published in Life Magazine in 2009.{{Cite web|url=https://store.ctbuh.org/PDF_Previews/Journal/CTBUHJournal_2009-2.pdf|title=Nakheel Harbor and Tower}} The reproduced drawings feature vertically stacked homesteads set amidst a farming landscape. This proposal can be seen in Rem Koolhaas's Delirious New York. Koolhaas wrote that this theorem is 'The Skyscraper as Utopian device for the production of unlimited numbers of virgin sites on a metropolitan location'.{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=163oAwAAQBAJ}}|title=Delirious New York: A Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan|last=Koolhaas|first=Rem|date=1 July 2014|publisher=Monacelli Press|isbn=978-1-58093-410-7}}

Early architectural proposals that contribute to VF include Le Corbusier's Immeubles-Villas (1922) and SITE's Highrise of Homes (1972).{{cite book|last1=Ruby|first1=Ilka|last2=Ruby|first2=Andreas|title=Groundscapes: el reencuentro con el suelo en la arquitectura contemporánea|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=mglNAAAAYAAJ}}|year=2006|publisher=G. Gili|isbn=978-84-252-1963-4|pages= 87–93}} SITE's Highrise of Homes is a near revival of the 1909 Life Magazine Theorem.{{cite book|last=Eaton|first=Ruth|title=Ideal Cities: Utopianism and the (un)built Environment|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=03fGQgAACAAJ}}|year=2002|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-34186-5|pages=239}} Built examples of tower hydroponicums are documented in The Glass House by John Hix. Images of the vertical farms at the School of Gardeners in Langenlois, Austria, and the glass tower at the Vienna International Horticulture Exhibition (1964) show that vertical farms existed.Hix, John. 1974. The glass house. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. The technological precedents that make vertical farming possible can be traced back to horticultural history through the development of greenhouse and hydroponic technology. Early hydroponicums integrated hydroponic technology into building systems. These horticultural building systems evolved from greenhouse technology. The British Interplanetary Society developed a hydroponicum for lunar conditions, while other building prototypes were developed during the early days of space exploration. The first Tower Hydroponic Units were developed in Armenia.{{cite web|title=Institute of Hydroponics problems|url=http://academy.academy-info.com/index.php?LMID=National%20Academy%20of%20Sciences%20of%20Armenia&ID=11 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811024138/http://academy.academy-info.com/index.php?LMID=National%20Academy%20of%20Sciences%20of%20Armenia&ID=11 |archivedate=11 August 2011 |url-status=dead}}

The Armenian tower hydroponicums are the first built examples of a vertical farm, and are documented in Sholto Douglas' Hydroponics: The Bengal System, first published in 1951 with data from the then-East Pakistan, today's Bangladesh, and the Indian state of West Bengal.{{cite web|url=http://ps-survival.com/PS/Hydroponics/Hydroponics_The_Bengal_System_1959.pdf|title=link|publisher=}}{{Cite web|url=http://ps-survival.com/PS/Hydroponics/Hydroponics_The_Bengal_System_1959.pdf|title=Hydroponics The Bengal System}}{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=obVOSgAACAAJ}}|title=Hydroponics: The Bengal System|last1=Douglas|first1=James Sholto|date=1975|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195605662|edition=5th|location=New Delhi}}

Later precursors that have been published, or built, are Ken Yeang's Bioclimatic Skyscraper (Menara Mesiniaga, built 1992); MVRDV's PigCity, 2000; MVRDV's Meta City/ Datatown (1998–2000); Pich-Aguilera's Garden Towers (2001).

Ken Yeang is perhaps the most widely known architect who has promoted the idea of the 'mixed-use' Bioclimatic Skyscraper which combines living units and food production.

Dickson Despommier is a professor of environmental health sciences and microbiology. He reopened the topic of VF in 1999 with graduate students in a medical ecology class. He speculated that a 30-floor farm on one city block could provide food for 50,000 people including vegetables, fruit, eggs and meat, explaining that hydroponic crops could be grown on upper floors; while the lower floors would be suited for chickens and fish that eat plant waste.

Although many of Despommier's suggestions have been challenged from an environmental science and engineering point of view, Despommier successfully popularized his assertion that food production can be transformed. Critics claimed that the additional energy needed for artificial lighting, heating and other operations would outweigh the benefit of the building's close proximity to the areas of consumption.{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna21154137|title=Could vertical farming be the future? Nelson, B. (2008).|last=Nelson|first=Bryn|date=2007-12-12|publisher=MSNBC|access-date=2010-11-10}}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/aug/16/green-ivory-towers-farm-skyscrapers|title=Monbiot, G. (16 August 2010). Greens living in ivory towers now want to farm them too.|author=George Monbiot|date=2010-08-16|accessdate=2010-11-10|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London}}

Despommier originally challenged his class to feed the entire population of Manhattan (about 2,000,000 people) using only {{convert|13|acre|ha|order=flip|0}} of rooftop gardens. The class calculated that rooftop gardening methods could feed only 2% of the population. Unsatisfied with the results, Despommier made an off-the-cuff suggestion of growing plants indoors, vertically. By 2001 the first outline of a vertical farm was introduced. In an interview Despommier described how vertical farms would function:

{{blockquote|Each floor will have its own watering and nutrient monitoring systems. There will be sensors for every single plant that tracks how much and what kinds of nutrients the plant has absorbed. You'll even have systems to monitor plant diseases by employing DNA chip technologies that detect the presence of plant pathogens by simply sampling the air and using snippets from various viral and bacterial infections. It's very easy to do.

Moreover, a gas chromatograph will tell us when to pick the plant by analyzing which flavenoids the produce contains. These flavonoids are what gives the food the flavors you're so fond of, particularly for more aromatic produce like tomatoes and peppers. These are all right-off-the-shelf technologies. The ability to construct a vertical farm exists now. We don't have to make anything new.{{cite web |author=Arnie Cooper |date=May 19, 2009 |url=http://www.miller-mccune.com/science_environment/farming-in-high-rises-raises-hopes-1226 |title=Going up? Farming in High Rises Raises Hopes |publisher=Miller-mccune.com |accessdate=2010-11-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090522050419/http://www.miller-mccune.com/science_environment/farming-in-high-rises-raises-hopes-1226 |archive-date=May 22, 2009 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}}}

Architectural designs were independently produced by designers Chris Jacobs, Andrew Kranis and Gordon Graff.{{cite news |last= Whyte |first= Murray |title= Is high rise farming in Toronto's future? |publisher= Toronto Star |date= 2008-07-27 |url= https://www.thestar.com/article/468023 |accessdate= 2008-08-12 }}{{cite web|url=http://www.treehugger.com/files/2007/06/sky_farm_propos.php |title=Sky Farm Proposed for Downtown Toronto |work=TreeHugger |accessdate=2009-03-14}}

Mass media attention began with an article written in New York magazine,{{Citation needed|date=February 2018}} followed by others,{{cite news |last= Venkataraman |first= Bina |title= Country, the City Version: Farms in the Sky Gain New Interest |work=The New York Times |date= 2008-07-15 |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/15/science/15farm.html }}{{cite news |last= Shute |first= Nancy |title= Farm of the Future? Someday food may grow in skyscrapers |work= U.S. News & World Report |date= 2007-05-20 |url= http://health.usnews.com/usnews/health/articles/070520/28food.b1.htm |url-status= dead |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080916234003/http://health.usnews.com/usnews/health/articles/070520/28food.b1.htm |archivedate= 2008-09-16 }}{{cite news |last= Feldman |first= Amy |title= Skyscraper Farms |work=Popular Science |date= 2007-07-11 |url= http://www.popsci.com/environment/article/2007-07/skyscraper-farms }} as well as radio and television features.

In 2011, the Plant in Chicago was building an anaerobic digester into the building. This will allow the farm to operate off the energy grid. Moreover, the anaerobic digester will be recycling waste from nearby businesses that would otherwise go into landfills.{{cite web|url=http://www.plantchicago.com/about-the-plant/|title=About The Plant|publisher=The Plant|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111204102733/http://www.plantchicago.com/about-the-plant/|archivedate=2011-12-04|url-status=dead}}

In 2013, the Association for Vertical Farming was founded in Munich, Germany.

As of 2014, Vertical Fresh Farms was operating in Buffalo, New York, specializing in salad greens, herbs and sprouts.{{Cite web|title = Vertical Fresh Farms LLC, Buffalo, NY {{!}} StateLog|url = http://www.statelog.com/vertical-fresh-farms-llc-buffalo-ny|website = www.statelog.com|accessdate = 2015-11-05}} In March the world's then largest vertical farm opened in Scranton, Pennsylvania, built by Green Spirit Farms (GSF). The firm is housed in a single-storey building covering 3.25 hectares, with racks stacked six high to house 17 million plants. The farm was to grow 14 lettuce crops per year, as well as spinach, kale, tomatoes, peppers, basil and strawberries. Water is scavenged from the farm's atmosphere with a dehumidifier.

Kyoto-based Nuvege (pronounced "new veggie") operates a windowless farm. Its LED lighting is tuned to service two types of chlorophyll, one preferring red light and the other blue. Nuvege produces 6 million lettuce heads a year.

The US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) operates an 18-storey project that produces genetically modified plants that make proteins useful in vaccines.

Plenty has designed a new AI-controlled modular grow system for multiple crops; they are opening a farm in Chesterfield, Virginia that will grow more than {{convert|4|e6lb|e6kg|abbr=off|order=flip}} of strawberries each year. The farm uses 97% less land and 97% less water than traditional farming.{{Cite web |last=CBN |date=2024-09-24 |title=Plenty Opens World's First Farm To Grow Indoor, Vertically Farmed Berries At Scale in Chesterfield, Virginia |url=https://chesterfieldbusinessnews.com/2024/plenty-opens-worlds-first-farm-to-grow-indoor-vertically-farmed-berries-at-scale-in-chesterfield-virginia/ |access-date=2024-11-03 |website=Chesterfield Business News |language=en-US}}

Many of VF's potential benefits are obtained from scaling up hydroponic or aeroponic growing methods.{{cite web |last= Despommier |first= D. |title= Vertical Farm Essay I |publisher= Vertical Farm |date= 2008 |url= http://www.verticalfarm.com/essay_print.htm |accessdate= 2009-06-26 |url-status= dead |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090701091951/http://www.verticalfarm.com/essay_print.htm |archivedate= 2009-07-01 }}

A 2018 study estimated that the value of four ecosystem services provided by existing vegetation in urban areas was on the order of $33 billion annually. The study's quantitative framework projected annual food production of 100–180 million tonnes, energy savings ranging from 14 to 15 billion kilowatt-hours, nitrogen sequestration between 100,000 and 170,000 tonnes and stormwater runoff reductions between 45 and 57 billion cubic metres annually. Food production, nitrogen fixation, energy savings, pollination, climate regulation, soil formation and biological pest control could be worth as much as $80–160 billion annually.{{Cite journal|last1=Clinton|first1=Nicholas|last2=Stuhlmacher|first2=Michelle|last3=Miles|first3=Albie|last4=Uludere Aragon|first4=Nazli|last5=Wagner|first5=Melissa|last6=Georgescu|first6=Matei|last7=Herwig|first7=Chris|last8=Gong|first8=Peng|date=2018-01-01|title=A Global Geospatial Ecosystem Services Estimate of Urban Agriculture|journal=Earth's Future|volume=6|issue=1|pages=40–60|doi=10.1002/2017ef000536|issn=2328-4277|bibcode=2018EaFut...6...40C|doi-access=free}}

It is estimated that by the year 2050, the world's population will increase by 3 billion people and close to 80% will live in urban areas.{{cite web|website=The Vertical Farm Project |year=2009 |title=Agriculture for the 21st Century and Beyond |url=http://www.verticalfarm.com/}} Vertical farms have the potential to reduce or eliminate the need to create additional farmland.{{cite journal|last=Frediani |first=K. L. |title=Feeding time at the Zoo. |journal=The Horticulturalist |date=April 2010 |pages=12–15 }}{{cite journal|last=Frediani |first=K. L. |date= October 2011|title=High rise food |journal=The Horticulturalist |pages=18–20}}

Unlike traditional farming in non-tropical areas, indoor farming can produce crops year-round. All-season farming multiplies the productivity of the farmed surface by a factor of 4 to 6 depending on the crop. With crops such as strawberries, the factor may be as high as 30.{{cite web |last= Despommier |first= D. |title= Vertical Farm Essay I|publisher= Vertical Farm |date= 2008 |url= http://www.verticalfarm.com/?page_id=36 |accessdate= 2009-06-26 }}{{cite web |title= Vertical Farm Video |publisher= Discovery Channel |date= 2009-04-23 |url= http://watch.discoverychannel.ca/daily-planet/april-2009/daily-planet-april-23-2009/#clip164926 |accessdate= 2009-06-26 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090510091346/http://watch.discoverychannel.ca/daily-planet/april-2009/daily-planet-april-23-2009/#clip164926 |archive-date= 2009-05-10 |url-status= dead }}

Furthermore, as the crops would be consumed where they are grown, long-distance transport with its accompanying time delays, should reduce spoilage, infestation and energy needs. Globally some 30% of harvested crops are wasted due to spoilage and infestation, though this number is much lower in developed nations.

Despommier suggests that once dwarf versions of crops (e.g., dwarf wheat which is smaller in size but richer in nutrients{{cite web| title = Dwarf Wheat grown aboard the International Space Station | publisher = NASA| date = 9 February 2003| url = http://mix.msfc.nasa.gov/abstracts.php?p=2889| accessdate = 17 November 2009}}), year-round crops and "stacker" plant holders are accounted for, a 30-storey building with a base of a building block ({{convert|5|acre|ha|0|order=flip|disp=or}}) would yield a yearly crop analogous to that of {{convert|2400|acre|ha|order=flip|sigfig=1}} of traditional farming.

Crops grown in traditional outdoor farming depend on supportive weather, and suffer from undesirable temperatures rain, monsoon, hailstorm, tornado, flooding, wildfires and drought. "Three recent floods (in 1993, 2007 and 2008) cost the United States billions of dollars in lost crops, with even more devastating losses in topsoil. Changes in rain patterns and temperature could diminish India's agricultural output by 30% by the end of the century."{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/10/opinion/10pollan.html|title=Opinion {{!}} Big Food vs. Big Insurance|last=Pollan|first=Michael|date=2009-09-09|work=The New York Times|access-date=2018-02-27|issn=0362-4331}}

VF productivity is mostly independent of weather, although earthquakes and tornadoes still pose threats.

The issue of adverse weather conditions is especially relevant for arctic and sub-arctic areas like Alaska and northern Canada where traditional farming is largely impossible. Food insecurity has been a long-standing problem in remote northern communities where fresh produce has to be shipped large distances resulting in high costs and poor nutrition.{{cite web |last1=Zafar |first1=Amina |last2=Ireland |first2=Nicole |last3=Salomonie |first3=Mike |title=Food insecurity in Nunavut 'should be considered a national crisis,' expert says |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/health/food-insecurity-1.4122103 |website=CBC |publisher=CBC News |accessdate=1 October 2019}} Container-based farms can provide fresh produce year-round at a lower cost than shipping in supplies from more southerly locations with a number of farms operating in locations such as Churchill, Manitoba and Unalaska, Alaska{{cite web |last1=MacIntosh |first1=Cameron |title=Hydroponic produce is blooming in Churchill, Man. |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/churchill-hydroponic-produce-1.4568847 |website=CBC |publisher=CBC News |accessdate=1 October 2019}}{{cite web |last1=Cole |first1=Dermot |title=How 'farms in a box' have begun to transform the way Arctic residents get vegetables |url=https://www.arctictoday.com/farms-box-begun-transform-way-arctic-residents-get-vegetables/ |website=Arctic Today |date=16 March 2018 |accessdate=1 October 2019}} As with disruption to crop growing, local container-based farms are also less susceptible to disruption than the long supply chains necessary to deliver traditionally grown produce to remote communities. Food prices in Churchill spiked substantially after floods in May and June 2017 forced the closure of the rail line that forms the only permanent overland connection between Churchill and the rest of Canada.{{cite web |last1=Grabish |first1=Austin |title=Churchill residents face rising cost of food after rail line suspended |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/churchill-food-prices-after-rail-line-suspended-1.4156142 |website=CBC |publisher=CBC News |accessdate=1 October 2019}}

Up to 20 units of outdoor farmland per unit of VF could return to its natural state,{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/24/opinion/24Despommier.html|title=Opinion {{!}} A Farm on Every Floor|last=Despommier|first=Dickson D.|date=2009-08-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2018-02-27|issn=0362-4331}}[http://www.sustainweb.org/pdf/11/ch_vertical_farming.pdf Vertical take off], Fresh Produce Journal, 28 January 2011 due to VF's increased productivity.

Vertical farming would thus reduce the amount of farmland, thus saving many natural resources.{{Cite journal| last = Despommier| first = Dickson| authorlink = Dickson Despommier| title = The Rise of Vertical Farms| journal = Scientific American| volume = 301| issue = 5| pages = 60–67| date = November 2009| issn = 0036-8733| bibcode = 2009SciAm.301e..80D| doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican1109-80| pmid = 19873908}} Deforestation and desertification caused by agricultural encroachment on natural biomes could be avoided. Producing food indoors reduces or eliminates conventional plowing, planting, and harvesting by farm machinery, protecting soil and reducing emissions.

The scarcity of fertilizer components like phosphorus{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/03/100311092124.htm|title=Scarcity of phosphorus threat to global food production|website=ScienceDaily}} poses a threat to industrial agriculture. The closed-cycle design of vertical farm systems minimizes the loss of nutrients, while traditional field agriculture loses nutrients to runoff and leeching.{{Cite journal|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/WR009i003p00658|title=Nitrogen and phosphorus losses in surface runoff from agricultural land as influenced by placement of broadcast fertilizer|first1=D. R.|last1=Timmons|first2=R. E.|last2=Burwell|first3=R. F.|last3=Holt|date=20 June 1973|journal=Water Resources Research|volume=9|issue=3|pages=658–667|via=CrossRef|doi=10.1029/WR009i003p00658|bibcode=1973WRR.....9..658T }}

Withdrawing human activity from large areas of the Earth's land surface may be necessary to address anthropogenic mass extinctions.

Traditional agriculture disrupts wild populations and may be unethical given a viable alternative. One study showed that wood mouse populations dropped from 25 per hectare to 5 per hectare after harvest, estimating 10 animals killed per hectare each year with conventional farming.{{cite conference | author=S.L. Davis | date=2001 | title=The least harm principle suggests that humans should eat beef, lamb, dairy, not a vegan diet | book-title=Proceedings of the Third Congress of the European Society for Agricultural and Food Ethics

| pages=449–450}} In comparison, vertical farming would cause nominal harm to wildlife.{{cite journal

|last1=Navarro |first1=L.M. |last2=Pereira |first2=H.M. |name-list-style=amp | date=2012 | title=Rewilding Abandoned Landscapes in Europe |journal=Ecosystems |volume=15 |issue=6 | pages=900–912 |doi=10.1007/s10021-012-9558-7 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2012Ecosy..15..900N }}

Traditional farming is a hazardous occupation that often affects the health of farmers. Such risks include: exposure to infectious agents such as malaria and schistosomes, as well as soil-borne microbes, exposure to toxic pesticides and fungicides, confrontations with wildlife such as venomous snakes, and injuries that can occur when using large industrial farming equipment. VF reduces some of these risks. The modern industrial food system makes unhealthy food cheap while fresh produce is more expensive, encouraging poor eating habits. These habits lead to health problems such as obesity, heart disease and diabetes.

Food insecurity is one of the primary factors leading to absolute poverty. Constructing farms will allow continued growth of culturally significant food items without sacrificing sustainability or basic needs, which can be significant to the recovery of a society from poverty.{{cite web|url=http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/anthropology/21a-265-food-and-culture-spring-2011/|title=Food and Culture Spring 2011 course|work=ocw.mit.edu}}

Vertical farming, used in conjunction with other technologies and socioeconomic practices, could allow cities to expand while remaining substantially self-sufficient in food. This would allow large urban centers to grow without food constraints.

Vertical farms could exploit methane digesters to generate energy. Methane digesters could be built on site to transform the organic waste generated at the farm into biogas that is generally composed of 65% methane along with other gases. This biogas could then be burned to generate electricity for the greenhouse.Case Study — Landfill Power Generation, H. Scott Matthews, Green Design Initiative, Carnegie Mellon University. {{cite web |url=http://gdi.ce.cmu.edu/gd/education/landfill-case.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2009-02-09 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203061623/http://gdi.ce.cmu.edu/gd/education/landfill-case.pdf |archivedate=2008-12-03 }} Retrieved 07.02.09

Vertical farms require substantial start-up funding and some start-up companies have not been able to achieve a profit before going bankrupt.{{cite news |last1=Baraniuk |first1=Chris |date=17 July 2023 |title=Lean times hit the vertical farming business |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-66173872 |access-date=22 February 2024 |work=BBC News}}

Opponents question the potential profitability of vertical farming.{{cite web |author=Clive Clifton says |date=2009-08-24 |title=Vertical Farming: Too Far Outside the Box? |url=http://e4capital.com/2009/08/24/vertical-farming/ |accessdate=2010-11-10 |publisher=E4capital.com}} Its economic and environmental benefits rest partly on the concept of minimizing food miles, the distance that food travels from farm to consumer.{{original research inline|date=September 2011}} However, a recent analysis suggests that transportation is only a minor contributor to the economic and environmental costs of supplying food to urban populations. The analysis concluded that "food miles are, at best, a marketing fad".Evans, P. (22 July 2009). Local food no green panacea: professor. CBC News https://www.cbc.ca/news/local-food-no-green-panacea-professor-1.827317 Thus the facility would have to lower costs or charge higher prices to justify remaining in a city.

Similarly, if power needs are met by fossil fuels, the environmental effect may be a net loss;{{cite news |date=2010-12-09 |title=Does it really stack up? |url=http://www.economist.com/node/17647627?story_id=17647627&fsrc=rss |newspaper=The Economist}} even building low-carbon capacity to power the farms may not make as much sense as simply leaving traditional farms in place, while burning less coal.

The initial building costs would exceed $100 million for a 60-hectare vertical farm.{{cite web |date=2003-07-28 |title=Starting a Commercial Greenhouse Business |url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/greenbus.htm |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051024230113/http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/greenbus.htm |archivedate=2005-10-24 |accessdate=2010-11-10 |publisher=Omafra.gov.on.ca}} Office occupancy costs can be high in major cities, with office space in cities such as Tokyo, Moscow, Mumbai, Dubai, Milan, Zurich, and São Paulo ranging from $1850 to $880 per square metre.Pocket World in Figures, The Economist, 2011 ed. pg 64

The developers of the TerraFarm system produced from second hand, 40 foot shipping containers claimed that their system "has achieved cost parity with traditional, outdoor farming".

During the growing season, the sun shines on a vertical surface at an extreme angle such that much less light is available to crops than when they are planted on flat land. Therefore, supplemental light would be required. Bruce Bugbee claimed that the power demands of vertical farming would be uncompetitive with traditional farms using only natural light.{{cite news |last=Roach |first=J. |date=30 June 2009 |title=High-Rise Farms: The Future of Food? |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/06/090630-farm-towers-locally-grown.html |publisher=National Geographic News}} Environmental writer George Monbiot calculated that the cost of providing enough supplementary light to grow the grain for a single loaf would be about $15.{{cite web |date=16 August 2010 |title=George Monbiot – Towering Lunacy |url=http://www.monbiot.com/archives/2010/08/16/towering-lunacy/ |accessdate=2013-06-12 |publisher=Monbiot.com}} An article in the Economist argued that "even though crops growing in a glass skyscraper will get some natural sunlight during the day, it won't be enough" and "the cost of powering artificial lights will make indoor farming prohibitively expensive".{{cite news |date=9 December 2010 |title=Vertical farming: Does it really stack up? |url=http://www.economist.com/node/17647627 |publisher=The Economist}}

As "The Vertical Farm" proposes a controlled environment, heating and cooling costs will resemble those of any other tower. Plumbing and elevator systems are necessary to distribute nutrients and water. In the northern continental United States, fossil fuel heating cost can be over $200,000 per hectare.{{cite web |title=Crops {{pipe}} Greenhouse {{pipe}} Greenhouse Energy Calculations {{pipe}} Manitoba Agriculture, Food and Rural Initiatives {{pipe}} Province of Manitoba |url=https://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/crops/greenhouse/bng01s01.html |accessdate=2010-11-10 |publisher=Gov.mb.ca}}

Jones Food Company in Gloucestershire, England opened a farm in 2024 with {{convert|14500|m2|sqft}} of growing space, powered only by renewable electricity.{{Cite web |date=20 February 2024 |title=Gloucestershire vertical farm is one of UK's 'most advanced' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-gloucestershire-68341208 |website=BBC News}}{{Cite web |date=20 February 2024 |title='Coming of age for UK farming tech': Jones Food Company opens second vertical farm in UK |url=https://www.businessgreen.com/news/4175669/coming-age-uk-farming-tech-jones-food-company-vertical-farm-uk |website=Business Green}}

Depending on the method of electricity generation used, greenhouse produce can create more greenhouse gases than field produce,{{cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://www.lcafood.dk/Material/How%20to%20prepare.pdf |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719125741/http://www.lcafood.dk/Material/How%20to%20prepare.pdf |archivedate=2011-07-19 |accessdate=2010-11-09}} largely due to higher energy use per kilogram. Vertical farms require much greater energy per kilogram versus regular greenhouses, mainly through increased lighting. The amount of pollution produced is dependent on how the energy is generated.

Greenhouses commonly supplement CO₂ levels to three–four times the atmospheric rate. This increase in CO₂ increases photosynthesis rates by 50%, contributing to higher yields.{{cite web |last=Blom |first=T.J. |author2=W.A. Straver |author3=F.J. Ingratta |author4=Shalin Khosla |author5=Wayne Brown |date=December 2002 |title=Carbon Dioxide In Greenhouses |url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/00-077.htm |accessdate=2010-10-10}} Some greenhouses burn fossil fuels purely for this purpose, as other CO₂ sources, such as those from furnaces, contain pollutants such as sulphur dioxide and ethylene which significantly damage plants. This means a vertical farm requires a CO₂ source, most likely from combustion. Also, necessary ventilation may allow CO₂ to leak into the atmosphere.

Greenhouse growers commonly exploit photoperiodism in plants to control whether the plants are in a vegetative or reproductive stage. As part of this control, the lights stay on past sunset and before sunrise or periodically throughout the night. Single-storey greenhouses have attracted criticism over light pollution.{{cite book |last1=Narisada |first1=Kohei |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=61B_RV3EdIcC|page=163}} |title=Light pollution handbook – Google Books |last2=Schreuder |first2=Duco |date=2004 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-2665-2 |accessdate=2010-11-10}}

Hydroponic greenhouses regularly change the water, producing water containing fertilizers and pesticides that must be disposed of. The most common method of spreading the effluent over neighbouring farmland or wetlands would be more difficult for an urban vertical farm.{{cite web |title=Treating and Recycling Irrigation Runoff |url=http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/nursery/environ/wmrecyc.html |accessdate=2013-06-12 |publisher=Aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu}}

Vertical farming relies on the use of various physical methods to become effective. Combining these technologies and devices in an integrated whole is necessary to make Vertical Farming a reality. Various methods are proposed and under research. The most common technologies suggested are:{{cite journal |last1=Oh |first1=Soojin |last2=Lu |first2=Chungui |title=Vertical farming - smart urban agriculture for enhancing resilience and sustainability in food security |journal=The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology |date=2023 |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=133–140 |doi=10.1080/14620316.2022.2141666 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2023JHSB...98..133O }}

• Greenhouses
• The Folkewall and other vertical growing architectures{{cite web|author=Folke Günther |url=http://www.holon.se/folke/projects/openliw/openlev_en.shtml |title=The folkewall, greywater purification AND vertical growing |publisher=Holon.se |date=2013-01-06 |accessdate=2013-06-12}}
• Aeroponics
• Agricultural robot
• Aquaponics
• Composting
• Controlled-environment agriculture
• Flower pots
• Grow lights
• Hydroponics
• Phytoremediation
• Precision agriculture
• Skyscrapers

Developers and local governments in multiple cities have expressed interest in establishing a vertical farm: Incheon (South Korea), Abu Dhabi (United Arab Emirates), Dongtan (China),{{cite web |last= McConnell |first= Kathryn |title= Vertical Farms Grow Food by Growing Up, Not Out |work= Bureau of International Information Programs |publisher= United States Department of State |date= 2008-07-01 |url= http://www.america.gov/st/foraid-english/2008/July/20080630192325AKllennoCcM0.5946161.html |accessdate= 2008-08-12 |url-status= dead |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080814122514/http://www.america.gov/st/foraid-english/2008/July/20080630192325AKllennoCcM0.5946161.html |archivedate= 2008-08-14 }} New York City, Portland, Oregon, Los Angeles, Las Vegas,{{cite web|url=http://www.nextenergynews.com/news1/next-energy-news-las-vegas-vertical-farm-1.2b.html |title=Las Vegas to Build World's First 30 Story Vertical Farm |publisher=Nextenergynews.com |accessdate=2013-06-12}} Seattle, Surrey, B.C., Toronto, Paris, Bangalore, Dubai, Shanghai and Beijing.{{cite web|last=Despommier |first=Dickson |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-rise-of-vertical-farms |title=Dickson Despommier. November 2009. "Growing Skyscrapers: The Rise of Vertical Farms." |publisher=Scientificamerican.com |date=2010-06-15 |accessdate=2010-11-10}}

In 2009, the world's first pilot production system was installed at Paignton Zoo Environmental Park in the United Kingdom. The project showcased vertical farming and provided a physical base to research sustainable urban food production. The produce is used to feed the zoo's animals while the project enables evaluation of the systems and provides an educational resource to advocate for change in unsustainable land use practices that affect global biodiversity and ecosystem services,{{cite web|url=http://www.bgci.org/files/Dublin2010/papers/Frediani-Kevin.pdf|title=Vertical plant production as a public exhibit at Paignton Zoo|publisher= Proceedings of the 4th World Botanic Garden Congress, Botanic Gardens Conservation International|date= June 2010 |accessdate=2013-01-27}}

In 2010 the Green Zionist Alliance proposed a resolution at the 36th World Zionist Congress calling on Keren Kayemet L'Yisrael (Jewish National Fund in Israel) to develop vertical farms in Israel.{{Cite web|url=https://www.greenprophet.com/2010/06/green-zionist-alliance-gza-resolutions/|title=Green Zionist Alliance (GZA) - Bold Resolutions for 36th World Zionist Congress - Green Prophet|first=Russel|last=Cohen|date=1 June 2010}}

In 2012, the world's first commercial vertical farm was opened in Singapore. Sky Greens Farms developed it, and it is three stories high.{{cite web |url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/1233261/1/.html |title=First commercial vertical farm opens in Singapore - Channel NewsAsia |accessdate=2012-10-27 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027232546/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/1233261/1/.html |archivedate=2012-10-27 }}{{cite web|url=http://io9.com/5954847/worlds-first-commercial-vertical-farm-opens-in-singapore |title=World's first commercial vertical farm opens in Singapore |date=25 October 2012 |publisher=Io9.com |accessdate=2013-06-12}} They currently have over 100 nine-metre-tall towers.{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/12/09/business/eco-singapore-vertical-farm |title=Urban farming looking up in Singapore – CNN.com |date=10 December 2012 |publisher=Edition.cnn.com |accessdate=2013-06-12}}

In 2013, the Association for Vertical Farming (AVF) was founded in Munich (Germany). By May 2015, the AVF had expanded with regional chapters across Europe, Asia, the USA, Canada, and the United Kingdom.{{cite web|url=http://agritecture.com/post/92942014432/vertical-farming-infoday-munich-what-is-the-avf4 |title= vertical farming infoday munich - agritecture.com | accessdate=2015-06-01}} This organization unites growers and inventors to improve food security and sustainable development. AVF focuses on advancing vertical farming technologies, designs, and businesses by hosting international info days, workshops, and summits.{{cite web|url=http://agritecture.com/post/87002187837/spring2014 |title= Vertical Farming technologies trends - agritecture.com | accessdate=2015-06-01}}

The world's largest vertical farm opened in Dubai in 2022. It produces more than one million kilograms of leafy greens per year, using 95% less water than traditional cultivation and saving 250 million litres of water per year.{{Cite web |title=The World's Largest Indoor Vertical Farm - Interesting Engineering |url=https://interestingengineering.com/culture/the-worlds-largest-vertical-farm-using-95-less-water-opens-in-dubai |access-date=2024-09-10 |website= interestingengineering.com }}

• Aeroponics
• Agriculture
• Aquaculture
• Aquaponics
• Arcology
• Association for Vertical Farming
• Development-supported agriculture
• Folkewall
• Foodscaping
• Green wall
• Pot farming
• Terrace (agriculture), Terrace (gardening), and Terrace (building)
• Urban horticulture

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Category:Agricultural economics

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