Corinth Canal

File:Isthmus of Corinth.svg

Several rulers of antiquity dreamed of digging a cutting through the isthmus. The first to propose such an undertaking was the tyrant Periander in the 7th century BC. The project was abandoned and Periander instead constructed a simpler and less costly overland portage road, named the Diolkos or stone carriageway, along which ships could be towed from one side of the isthmus to the other.Verdelis, Nikolaos: "Le diolkos de L'Isthme", {{Ill|Bulletin de correspondance hellénique|fr}}, Vol. 81 (1957), pp. 526–529 (526)Cook, R. M.: "Archaic Greek Trade: Three Conjectures 1. The Diolkos", Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 99 (1979), pp. 152–155 (152)Drijvers, J.W.: "Strabo VIII 2,1 (C335): Porthmeia and the Diolkos", Mnemosyne, Vol. 45 (1992), pp. 75–76 (75)Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M.: "Le Diolkos de l’Isthme à Corinthe: son tracé, son fonctionnement", Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, Vol. 117 (1993), pp. 233–261 (256)Lewis, M. J. T., [http://www.sciencenews.gr/docs/diolkos.pdf "Railways in the Greek and Roman world"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721083013/http://www.sciencenews.gr/docs/diolkos.pdf |date=21 July 2011 }}, in Guy, A. / Rees, J. (eds), Early Railways. A Selection of Papers from the First International Early Railways Conference (2001), pp. 8–19 (11) Periander's change of heart is attributed variously to the great expense of the project, a lack of labour or a fear that a canal would have robbed Corinth of its dominant role as an entrepôt for goods.Werner, Walter: "[https://www.academia.edu/3153768/The_largest_ship_trackway_in_ancient_times_the_Diolkos_of_the_Isthmus_of_Corinth_Greece_and_early_attempts_to_build_a_canal The largest ship trackway in ancient times: the Diolkos of the Isthmus of Corinth, Greece, and early attempts to build a canal]", The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 26, No. 2 (1997), pp. 98–119 Remnants of the Diolkos still exist next to the modern canal.Verdelis, Nikolaos: "Le diolkos de L'Isthme", Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique (1957, 1958, 1960, 1961, 1963)Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M.: "Le Diolkos de l’Isthme à Corinthe: son tracé, son fonctionnement", Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, Vol. 117 (1993), pp. 233–261

The Diadoch Demetrius Poliorcetes (336–283 BC) planned to construct a canal as a means to improve his communication lines, but dropped the plan after his surveyors, miscalculating the levels of the adjacent seas, feared heavy floods.Gerster, Béla, "L'Isthme de Corinthe: tentatives de percement dans l'antiquité", Bulletin de correspondance hellénique (1884), Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 225–232 (in French)

The philosopher Apollonius of Tyana prophesied that anyone who proposed to dig a Corinthian canal would be met with illness. Three Roman rulers considered the idea but all suffered violent deaths; the historians Plutarch and Suetonius both wrote that the Roman dictator Julius Caesar considered digging a canal through the isthmus but was assassinated before he could begin the project.{{Cite web|title=Plutarch • Life of Caesar|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html|access-date=2020-08-03|website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}Suetonius, "[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Suet.+Jul.+44 Lives of the Caesars: Julius Caesar]", 44.3 Caligula, the third Roman Emperor, commissioned a study in 40 AD from Egyptian experts who claimed incorrectly that the Corinthian Gulf was higher than the Saronic Gulf. As a result, they concluded, if a canal were dug the island of Aegina would be inundated. Caligula's interest in the idea got no further as he too was assassinated before making any progress.{{cite book|title=Peloponnese & Athens|author1=Facaros, Dana|author2=Theodorou, Linda|pages=155–156|publisher=New Holland Publishers|year=2008|isbn=978-1-86011-396-3}}

Image:Remains of Nero's Isthmus Canal in 1881.jpg's canal project in 1881]]

The emperor Nero was the first to attempt to construct the canal, personally breaking the ground with a pickaxe and removing the first basket-load of soil in 67 AD,{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Suet.+Nero+19|title=C. Suetonius Tranquillus, Nero, chapter 19|author=Suetonius|author-link=Suetonius|website=www.Perseus.Tufts.edu|access-date=25 July 2017}} but the project was abandoned when he died shortly afterwards. The Roman workforce, consisting of 6,000 Judean prisoners of war, started digging {{convert|40|to|50|m|ft|adj=mid|-wide}} trenches from both sides, while a third group at the ridge drilled deep shafts for probing the quality of the rock (which were reused in 1881 for the same purpose). According to Suetonius, the canal was dug to a distance of four stades – approximately {{convert|700|m|ft}} – or about a tenth of the total distance across the isthmus. A memorial of the attempt in the form of a relief of Hercules was left by Nero's workers and can still be seen in the canal cutting today.{{cite book|title=Pausanias' Greece: Ancient Artists and Roman Rulers|last=Arafat|first=K. W.|page=151|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-521-60418-5}} Other than this, as the modern canal follows the same course as Nero's, no remains have survived.

The Greek philosopher and Roman senator Herodes Atticus is known to have considered digging a canal in the 2nd century AD, but did not get a project under way.{{cite book|title=The land of the ancient Corinthians|last=Wiseman|first=James|publisher=P. Åström|year=1978|page=50|isbn=978-91-85058-78-5}} The Venetians also considered it in 1687 after their conquest of the Peloponnese but likewise did not initiate any work on the ground.{{Venice, Austria, and the Turks in the Seventeenth Century|page=344}}

File:Korinthosz - panoramio.jpg

The idea of a canal was revived after Greece gained formal independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1830. The Greek statesman Ioannis Kapodistrias asked a French engineer to assess the feasibility of the project but had to abandon it when its cost was assessed at 40 million gold francs—far too expensive for the newly independent country. Fresh impetus was given by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, and, the following year, the government of Prime Minister Thrasyvoulos Zaimis passed a law authorizing the construction of a Corinth canal. French entrepreneurs were put in charge but, following the bankruptcy of the French company that had attempted to dig the Panama Canal, French banks refused to lend money, and the company went bankrupt as well. A fresh concession was granted to the Société Internationale du Canal Maritime de Corinthe in 1881, which was commissioned to construct the canal and operate it for the next 99 years. Construction was formally inaugurated on 23 April 1882 in the presence of King George I of Greece.{{cite web|url=http://www.aedik.gr/frontend/articles.php?cid=44&scid=51|title=The Countdown|access-date=25 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328044804/http://www.aedik.gr/frontend/articles.php?cid=44&scid=51|archive-date=28 March 2012|url-status=dead}}

File:Canal Maritime de Corinthe 1882.JPG

The company's initial capital was 30,000,000 francs (US$6.0 million in the money of the day), but after eight years of work, it ran out of money, and a bid to issue 60,000 bonds of 500 francs each flopped when less than half of the bonds were sold. The company's head, István Türr, went bankrupt, as did the company itself and a bank that had agreed to raise additional funds for the project.{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Emory Richard|title=Principles of Ocean Transportation|url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofocea00johnuoft|pages=[https://archive.org/details/principlesofocea00johnuoft/page/99 99]–102|publisher=D. Appleton|location=New York|year=1920}} Construction resumed in 1890, when the project was transferred to a Greek company, and was completed on 25 July 1893 after eleven years' work.

The canal experienced financial and operational difficulties after completion. The narrowness of the canal makes navigation difficult. Its high walls funnel wind along its length, and the different times of the tides in the two gulfs cause strong tidal currents in the channel. For these reasons, many ship operators were unwilling to use the canal, and traffic was far below predictions. Annual traffic of just under 4 million net tons had been anticipated, but by 1906 traffic had reached only half a million net tons annually. By 1913, the total had risen to 1.5 million net tons, but the disruption caused by World War I resulted in a major decline in traffic.

File:Canal of korinth greece.jpg

Another persistent problem was the heavily faulted nature of the sedimentary rock, in an active seismic zone, through which the canal is cut."[http://www.aapg.org/athens/fieldtrip2.cfm Geology and Ancient Culture Along the Corinth Canal] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080117115438/http://www.aapg.org/athens/fieldtrip2.cfm |date=17 January 2008 }}" The canal's high limestone walls have been persistently unstable from the start. Although it was formally opened in July 1893 it was not opened to navigation until the following November, due to landslides. It was soon found that the wake from ships passing through the canal undermined the walls, causing further landslides. This required further expense in building retaining walls along the water's edge for more than half of the length of the canal, using 165,000 cubic metres of masonry."Corinth Canal". Johnson's Universal Cyclopedia: A New Edition, Vol. 7, p. 484. A.J. Johnson & Co., 1895 Between 1893 and 1940, it was closed for a total of four years for maintenance to stabilise the walls. In 1923 alone, 41,000 cubic metres of material fell into the canal, which took two years to clear out.{{Cite web|url=http://www.corinthcanal.com/history3.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071117071010/http://www.corinthcanal.com/history3.html|url-status=dead|title=Corinth Canal History: 1923 A.C. — Nowadays|archivedate=17 November 2007}}

Serious damage was caused to the canal during World War II. On 26 April 1941, during the Battle of Greece between defending Allied troops and the invading forces of Nazi Germany, German parachutists and glider troops attempted to capture the main bridge over the canal. The bridge was defended by British and Anzac forces{{Cite web |title=CHAPTER 19 — The Corinth Canal {{!}} NZETC |url=https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Gree-c19.html |access-date=2023-06-03 |website=nzetc.victoria.ac.nz}} and had been wired for demolition. The Germans surprised the defenders with a glider-borne assault in the early morning of 26 April and captured the bridge, but the British set off the charges and destroyed the structure.{{cite book|title=Airborne Combat: Axis and Allied Glider Operations in World War II|last=Mrazek|first=James|pages=49–55|publisher=Stackpole Books|year=2011|isbn=978-0-8117-0808-1}} Other authors maintain that German pioneers cut the detonation wires, and a lucky hit by British artillery triggered the explosion,{{Cite web|url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/balkan/20_260_3.htm|title=108 Blau, George E. (1986) [1953]. The German Campaigns in the Balkans (Spring 1941) (Reissue ed.). Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 104-4.|access-date=15 September 2012|archive-date=27 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127042403/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/balkan/20_260_3.htm|url-status=dead}}{{cite book|title=Absprung über dem Isthmus, Hans Rechenberg, in: Wir kämpften auf dem Balkan: VIII Fliegerkorps|publisher=Dr. Güntz-Druck, Dresden|year=1941}} or that they were set off by a rifle shot from one of the British sappers. The bridge was replaced by a combined rail/road bridge built in 25 days by the IV Ferrovieri Battalion of the Royal Italian Army's Ferrovieri Engineer Regiment.{{cite book |last1=Franzosi |first1=Pier Giorgio |title=L'Arma del Genio |date=1991 |publisher=Esercito Italiano – Rivista Militare |location=Rome |page=224 |url=https://issuu.com/rivista.militare1/docs/1991-l-arma-del-genio-testo-low/224 |access-date=5 December 2019}} Following the Axis occupation of Greece the Allies made several attempts to block the canal but without success.{{Cite book |last=Alexiades |first=Platon |title=Target Corinth Canal 1940 - 1944: Mike Cumberlege and the attempts to block the Corinth Canal |date=2015 |publisher=Pen & Sword Military |isbn=978-1-4738-2756-1 |edition=1. publ. in Great Britain |location=Barsnley}}

In October 1944, as German forces retreated from Greece, the canal was put out of action by German "scorched earth" operations. German forces used explosives to trigger landslides to block the canal, destroyed the bridges and dumped locomotives, bridge wreckage and other infrastructure into the canal to hinder repairs. The United States Army Corps of Engineers began to clear the canal in November 1947 and reopened it for shallow-draft traffic by 7 July 1948, and for all traffic by that September.{{cite book|title=Bricks, Sand, and Marble: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Construction in the Mediterranean and Middle East, 1947–1991 | url=https://history.army.mil/html/books/bricks_sand_and_marble/CMH_45-2-1.pdf#page=13 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100608064234/http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/bricks_sand_and_marble/CMH_45-2-1.pdf#page=13 | url-status=dead | archive-date=8 June 2010 | author1=Robert P. Grathwol|author2=Donita M. Moorhus|page=13|publisher=Government Printing Office | year=2010|isbn=978-0-16-081738-0}}

Because the canal is difficult to navigate for large vessels, it is mostly used by smaller recreational boats. A notable exception occurred on 9 October 2019, when the cruise ship MS Braemar became the widest and longest ship to transit the canal.{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/cruise-ship-squeeze-canal-intl-scli/index.html|title=Huge cruise ship squeezes through Greek canal to claim record|last=Woodyatt|first=Amy|date=12 October 2019|website=CNN Travel|language=en|access-date=12 October 2019}}

The canal closed at the beginning of 2021 after a landslide.{{Cite web |title=Press Release: Information on Corinth Canal's transit suspension due to landslide {{!}} Α.Ε.ΔΙ.Κ. |url=http://aedik.gr/2021/01/18/press-release-information-on-corinth-canals-transit-suspension-due-to-landslide/?lang=en |access-date=2022-06-03 |language=en-US}} It re-opened in June 2022 until October 2022. After further safety measures, the canal reopened on June 1, 2023.{{cite web | url=https://www.keeptalkinggreece.com/2023/05/19/corinth-canal-reopens-june-1-2023/#:~:text=The%20Corinth%20Canal%20will%20reopen,managing%20company%20announced%20on%20Friday. | title=Corinth Canal reopens for traffic on June 1 | date=19 May 2023 }}{{Cite web|url=https://greekreporter.com/2023/06/01/greece-reopens-corinth-canal/|title=Greece Reopens Corinth Canal for the Tourist Season}}

The sea level canal consists of a single lock-free {{convert|6343|m|ft|abbr=on}} channel excavated {{convert|8|m|ft}} deep, {{convert|24.6|m|ft}} in breadth at the surface and {{convert|21.3|m|ft}} wide at the bottom. The rock walls, which rise {{convert|90|m|ft}} above sea level, are at a near-vertical 80° angle.{{cite web|url=http://www.aedik.gr/frontend/index.php|title=Corinth Canal|website=Aedik.gr|access-date=25 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906021853/http://www.aedik.gr/frontend/index.php|archive-date=6 September 2011|url-status=dead}}{{Cite web|url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/90261/corinth-canal|title=Corinth Canal|date=2017-04-13|access-date=2024-09-09|website=Earth Observatory|publisher=NASA|language=en}}{{cite book|title=The Central Greece earthquakes of February–March 1981|author1=Carydis, Panayotis G.|author2=Tilford, Norman R.|author3=Brandow, Gregg E.|author4=Jirsa, James O.|page=79|publisher=National Academy Press|location=Washington, D.C.|year=1982}} The canal is crossed by a railway line, a road and a motorway at a height of about {{convert|45|m|ft}}. In 1988, submersible bridges were installed at sea level at each end of the canal, by the eastern harbour of Isthmia and the western harbour of Poseidonia, providing two additional crossings for road traffic.{{cite book|title=Athens, Attica, and the Megarid: An Archaeological Guide|url=https://archive.org/details/athensmegarid00goet|url-access=limited|last=Goette|first=Hans Rupprecht|page=[https://archive.org/details/athensmegarid00goet/page/n338 322]|publisher=Routledge|year=2001}}

The canal saves a {{convert|700|km|adj=on}} journey around the Peloponnese for transiting vessels. It is too narrow and shallow for large, deep drafted oceangoing vessels, accommodating a maximum of {{convert|17.6|m|ft}} in width and {{convert|7.3|m|ft}} in draft. In October 2019, the {{convert|22.5|m|ft}} wide, {{convert|195|m|ft}} long 900-passenger Braemar cruise ship successfully set a new record for longest ship to pass through the canal.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

Ships can pass through the canal only one convoy at a time on a one-way system. Larger ships have to be towed by tugs. The canal is currently used mainly by tourist ships; around 11,000 ships per year travel through the waterway.{{cite news|url=https://www.intltravelnews.com/2014/02/corinth-canal|title=The Corinth Canal|work=International Travel News|date=February 2014|last=Bowman|first=Carol L.|page=12}}

File:Kanal-Korinth-2011.jpg|Aerial photograph of the Corinth Canal area (2011)

Image:BridgeSubmerging4.jpg|A submersible bridge at the entrance to the Corinth Canal

• Canal des Deux Mers
• Diolkos
• Portage railway

{{Reflist}}

{{Commonscat}}

• {{Official website|URL=http://www.aedik.gr}}
• [http://maps.google.co.uk/maps?hl=en&ie=UTF8&ll=37.93093,22.984257&spn=0.05619,0.133381&t=k&z=13 Corinth Canal on Google Maps]
• [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oPkrmTELao8 YouTube video of MS Braemar cruising the Corinth Canal]

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Category:1893 establishments in Greece

Category:Buildings and structures in Peloponnese (region)

Category:Canals in Greece

Category:Canals opened in 1893

Category:Charilaos Trikoupis

Category:Transport in Corinthia

Category:Cuts (earthmoving)

Category:Gulf of Corinth

Category:Saronic Gulf

Category:Ship canals

Category:Transport in Peloponnese (region)

Category:George I of Greece