Diet and cancer

It is a popular misconception that cancer can be treated by "starving" a tumour or restricting carbohydrate intake, when in reality the health of people with cancer is best served by following a healthy diet.{{cite journal |vauthors=Grimes DR, O'Riordan E |title=Starving cancer and other dangerous dietary misconceptions |journal=Lancet Oncol |volume=24 |issue=11 |pages=1177–1178 |date=November 2023 |pmid=37922928 |doi=10.1016/S1470-2045(23)00483-7 |url=}} A number of specific diets and diet-based regimes have been claimed to be useful against cancer, including the Breuss diet, Gerson therapy, the Budwig protocol and the macrobiotic diet. None of these diets has been found to be effective, and some of them have been found to be harmful.{{cite journal | vauthors = Hübner J, Marienfeld S, Abbenhardt C, Ulrich CM, Löser C | title = [How useful are diets against cancer?] | journal = Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift | volume = 137 | issue = 47 | pages = 2417–2422 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 23152069 | doi = 10.1055/s-0032-1327276 | s2cid = 76124925 }}

Nutritional epidemiologists use multivariate statistics, such as principal components analysis and factor analysis, to measure how patterns of dietary behavior influence the risk of developing cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Edefonti V, Randi G, La Vecchia C, Ferraroni M, Decarli A | title = Dietary patterns and breast cancer: a review with focus on methodological issues | journal = Nutrition Reviews | volume = 67 | issue = 6 | pages = 297–314 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19519672 | doi = 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00203.x }} (The most well-studied dietary pattern is the Mediterranean diet.) Based on their dietary pattern score, epidemiologists categorize people into quantiles. To estimate the influence of dietary behavior on risk of cancer, they measure the association between quantiles and the distribution of cancer prevalence (in case–control studies) and cancer incidence (in longitudinal studies). They usually include other variables in their statistical model to account for the other differences between people with and without cancer (confounders). For breast cancer, there is a replicated trend for women with a more "prudent or healthy" diet, i.e. higher in fruits and vegetables, to have a lower risk of cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Brennan SF, Cantwell MM, Cardwell CR, Velentzis LS, Woodside JV | title = Dietary patterns and breast cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 91 | issue = 5 | pages = 1294–1302 | date = May 2010 | pmid = 20219961 | doi = 10.3945/ajcn.2009.28796 | doi-access = free }}

Unhealthy dietary patterns are associated with a higher body mass index suggesting a potential mediating effect of obesity on cancer risk.{{cite journal|author=Grosso G, Bella F, Godos J, Sciacca S, Del Rio D, Ray S, Galvano F, Giovannucci EL.|year=2017|title=Possible role of diet in cancer: systematic review and multiple meta-analyses of dietary patterns, lifestyle factors, and cancer risk|journal=Nutrition Reviews|url=https://academic.oup.com/nutritionreviews/article/75/6/405/3861189|volume=75|issue=6|pages=405–419|doi=10.1093/nutrit/nux012|pmid=28969358}}

{{excerpt|Western pattern diet|Cancer}}

{{excerpt|Mediterranean diet|Cancer}}

{{Main|Alcohol and cancer|Alcohol and breast cancer}}

Alcohol is associated with an increased risk of a number of cancers.{{Cite journal |author= National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) |author-link= National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism |title= Alcohol and Cancer |url=http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa21.htm |journal= Alcohol Alert |volume= 21 |page= PH 345 |date= July 1993 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20051223104745/http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa21.htm |archive-date= 2005-12-23 |url-status= live}} It has been reported that 3.6% of all cancer cases and 3.5% of cancer deaths worldwide are attributable to drinking of alcohol.{{cite journal | vauthors = Boffetta P, Hashibe M, La Vecchia C, Zatonski W, Rehm J | title = The burden of cancer attributable to alcohol drinking | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 119 | issue = 4 | pages = 884–887 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16557583 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.21903 | hdl-access = free | s2cid = 14938863 | hdl = 2434/22728 }} Breast cancer in women is linked with alcohol intake.{{cite journal | vauthors = Seitz HK, Pelucchi C, Bagnardi V, La Vecchia C | title = Epidemiology and pathophysiology of alcohol and breast cancer: Update 2012 | journal = Alcohol and Alcoholism | volume = 47 | issue = 3 | pages = 204–212 | date = May–June 2012 | pmid = 22459019 | doi = 10.1093/alcalc/ags011 | doi-access = free }} Alcohol also increases the risk of cancers of the mouth, esophagus, pharynx and larynx,{{Cite book | vauthors = Marmot M, Atinmo T, Byers T, Chen J, Hirohata T, Jackson A, James W, Kolonel L, Kumanyika S, Leitzmann C, Mann J, Powers H, Reddy K, Riboli E, Rivera JA, Schatzkin A, Seidell J, Shuker D, Uauy R, Willett W, Zeisel S |display-authors= 6 |year= 2007 |chapter= Ch. 4: Food and Drinks §8: Alcoholic drinks |title= Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective |publisher= AICR |series= World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR) Expert Reports |volume= 2 |location= Washington, DC |isbn= 978-0-9722522-2-5 |url= http://www.aicr.org/assets/docs/pdf/reports/Second_Expert_Report.pdf |chapter-url= http://www.aicr.org/assets/docs/pdf/reports/Second_Expert_Report.pdf#182 |pages= 157–71 |ref= {{Sfnref|Marmot et al.|2007}} |access-date= 2014-08-29 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160507140127/http://www.aicr.org/assets/docs/pdf/reports/Second_Expert_Report.pdf |archive-date= 2016-05-07 }} colorectal cancer,{{cite journal | vauthors = Su LJ, Arab L | title = Alcohol consumption and risk of colon cancer: evidence from the national health and nutrition examination survey I epidemiologic follow-up study | journal = Nutrition and Cancer | volume = 50 | issue = 2 | pages = 111–119 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15623458 | doi = 10.1207/s15327914nc5002_1 | s2cid = 25461607 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Cho E, Smith-Warner SA, Ritz J, van den Brandt PA, Colditz GA, Folsom AR, Freudenheim JL, Giovannucci E, Goldbohm RA, Graham S, Holmberg L, Kim DH, Malila N, Miller AB, Pietinen P, Rohan TE, Sellers TA, Speizer FE, Willett WC, Wolk A, Hunter DJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol intake and colorectal cancer: a pooled analysis of 8 cohort studies | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 140 | issue = 8 | pages = 603–613 | date = April 2004 | pmid = 15096331 | doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-140-8-200404200-00007 | s2cid = 37915731 | url = https://cris.maastrichtuniversity.nl/en/publications/c334e177-5e5d-4b7a-87e4-56dad81a520b }} liver cancer,{{cite journal | vauthors = Voigt MD | title = Alcohol in hepatocellular cancer | journal = Clinics in Liver Disease | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 151–169 | date = February 2005 | pmid = 15763234 | doi = 10.1016/j.cld.2004.10.003 | doi-access = free }} stomach{{cite journal | vauthors = Benedetti A, Parent ME, Siemiatycki J | title = Lifetime consumption of alcoholic beverages and risk of 13 types of cancer in men: results from a case-control study in Montreal | journal = Cancer Detection and Prevention | volume = 32 | issue = 5–6 | pages = 352–362 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19588541 | doi = 10.1016/j.canep.2009.03.001 }} and ovaries.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bagnardi V, Blangiardo M, La Vecchia C, Corrao G | title = Alcohol consumption and the risk of cancer: a meta-analysis | journal = Alcohol Research & Health | volume = 25 | issue = 4 | pages = 263–270 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11910703 | pmc = 6705703 | url = http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh25-4/263-270.htm | access-date = 2012-11-25 | archive-date = 2019-06-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190620155512/https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh25-4/263-270.htm | url-status = dead }} The International Agency for Research on Cancer (Centre International de Recherche sur le Cancer) of the World Health Organization has classified alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen. Its evaluation states, "There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of alcoholic beverages in humans. ... Alcoholic beverages are carcinogenic to humans (Group 1)."{{Cite book |title= Alcohol Drinking |chapter= Ch. 6: Summary of Data Reported and Evaluation §5: Evaluation |chapter-url= http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol44/mono44-10.pdf |series= IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans |volume= 44 |publisher= International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC): World Health Organization |location= Lyon |date= 1988 |isbn= 978-92-832-1244-7 |url= https://archive.org/details/alcoholdrinking0044iarc/page/258 | collaboration = IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Alcohol Drinking | vauthors = Berrino F, Grant M, Griciute L, Holmberg B, McMichael AJ, Møller-Jensen O, Nykänen L, Obe G, Reddy JK, Room R, Salaspuro M, Sancho-Garnier H, Schwetz BA, Sullivan FM, Thurman RG, Trichopoulos D, Waters MD, Willett W, Wouterson RA |display-authors= 6 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/alcoholdrinking0044iarc/page/258 258–9] }}

{{excerpt|Egg as food|Cancer}}

There is strong evidence that processed meat and red meat intake increases risk of colorectal cancer.{{Cite web|date=25 June 2019|title=Does eating processed and red meat cause cancer?|url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/does-eating-processed-and-red-meat-cause-cancer|access-date=30 December 2022|website=Cancer Research UK|language=en}}{{Cite web|title=Red Meat (Beef, Pork, Lamb): Increases Risk of Colorectal Cancer|url=https://www.aicr.org/cancer-prevention/food-facts/red-meat-beef-pork-lamb/|access-date=30 December 2022|website=American Institute for Cancer Research|language=en-US}}{{Cite web|title=Limit red and processed meat|url=https://www.wcrf.org/diet-activity-and-cancer/cancer-prevention-recommendations/limit-red-and-processed-meat/|access-date=30 December 2022|website=WCRF International|language=en-US}} The American Cancer Society in their "Diet and Physical Activity Guideline", stated "evidence that red and processed meats increase cancer risk has existed for decades, and many health organizations recommend limiting or avoiding these foods."{{cite journal |title=American Cancer Society guideline for diet and physical activity for cancer prevention |journal=CA |date=2020 |doi=10.3322/caac.21591 |last1=Rock |first1=Cheryl L. |last2=Thomson |first2=Cynthia |last3=Gansler |first3=Ted |last4=Gapstur |first4=Susan M. |last5=McCullough |first5=Marjorie L. |last6=Patel |first6=Alpa V. |last7=Andrews |first7=Kimberly S. |last8=Bandera |first8=Elisa V. |last9=Spees |first9=Colleen K. |last10=Robien |first10=Kimberly |last11=Hartman |first11=Sheri |last12=Sullivan |first12=Kristen |last13=Grant |first13=Barbara L. |last14=Hamilton |first14=Kathryn K. |last15=Kushi |first15=Lawrence H. |last16=Caan |first16=Bette J. |last17=Kibbe |first17=Debra |last18=Black |first18=Jessica Donze |last19=Wiedt |first19=Tracy L. |last20=McMahon |first20=Catherine |last21=Sloan |first21=Kirsten |last22=Doyle |first22=Colleen |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=245–271 |pmid=32515498 |s2cid=219550658|doi-access=free }}

On October 26, 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization reported that eating processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) or red meat was linked to some cancers and classed them as Group 1 (carcinogenic to humans) and Group 2a (probably carcinogenic to humans) carcinogens respectively.{{cite news |author=Staff |title=World Health Organization - IARC Monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat |url=http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf |date=October 26, 2015 |work=International Agency for Research on Cancer |access-date=October 26, 2015 }} There is some evidence that suggests that heme and nitrite are involved in the processes linking red and processed meat intake with colorectal cancer. Heme is present in particular in red meat and nitrite is used as curing salt in many processed meats.

Processed and unprocessed red meat intake is associated with an increased risk of breast cancer.{{cite journal|author=Farvid MS, Sidahmed E, Spence ND, Mante Angua K, Rosner BA, Barnett JB.|year=2021|title=Consumption of red meat and processed meat and cancer incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies|journal=European Journal of Epidemiology|volume=36|issue=9|pages=937–951|doi=10.1007/s10654-021-00741-9|pmid=34455534|s2cid=237343954 }}{{cite journal|author=Sivasubramanian BP, Dave M, Panchal V, Saifa-Bonsu J, Konka S, Noei F, Nagaraj S, Terpari U, Savani P, Vekaria PH, Samala Venkata V, Manjani L.| year=2023|title=Comprehensive Review of Red Meat Consumption and the Risk of Cancer|journal=Cureus|volume=15|issue=9|pages=e45324|doi=10.7759/cureus.45324| doi-access=free|pmid=37849565|pmc=10577092}}

The World Health Organization has found that the consumption of processed meat, and potentially red meat, promote carcinogenesis and can increase the risk of colorectal cancer.{{cite journal |vauthors=Jeyakumar A, Dissabandara L, Gopalan V |title=A critical overview on the biological and molecular features of red and processed meat in colorectal carcinogenesis |journal=J Gastroenterol |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=407–418 |date=April 2017 |pmid=27913919 |doi=10.1007/s00535-016-1294-x |url=}} Colorectal cancer is the second most common cause of cancer death in the world.{{cite journal |vauthors=Kossenas K, Constantinou C |title=Epidemiology, Molecular Mechanisms, and Clinical Trials: an Update on Research on the Association Between Red Meat Consumption and Colorectal Cancer |journal=Curr Nutr Rep |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=435–467 |date=December 2021 |pmid=34665439 |doi=10.1007/s13668-021-00377-x |url=}} A 2023 systematic review and meta analysis found that meat consumption was associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer, colon cancer and rectal cancer.{{cite journal |vauthors=Di Y, Ding L, Gao L, Huang H |title=Association of meat consumption with the risk of gastrointestinal cancers: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=BMC Cancer |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=782 |date=August 2023 |pmid=37612616 |pmc=10463360 |doi=10.1186/s12885-023-11218-1 |doi-access=free |url=}} A meta analysis reported in 2024, provided evidence that consumption of high levels of red meat increased the risk of developing esophageal, pancreatic, liver, colon, rectal and colorectal cancers, and that consumption of processed meat (as distinct from red meat) also increased the levels of pancreatic colon, rectal and colorectal cancers.{{cite journal |vauthors=Poorolajal J, Mohammadi Y, Fattahi-Darghlou M, Almasi-Moghadam F |title=The association between major gastrointestinal cancers and red and processed meat and fish consumption: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the observational studies |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=e0305994 |date=2024 |pmid=38924054 |pmc=11207151 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0305994 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024PLoSO..1905994P |url=}} In contrast, high consumption of fish significantly reduced the risk of colon, rectal and colorectal cancers.

A metabolic link has been suggested between a fat- and meat rich diet and cancer associated gut microbes that convert primary bile acids into secondary carcinogenic bile acids.{{cite journal |vauthors=Wirbel J, Pyl PT, Kartal E, Zych K, Kashani A, Milanese A, Fleck JS, Voigt AY, Palleja A, Ponnudurai R, Sunagawa S, Coelho LP, Schrotz-King P, Vogtmann E, Habermann N, Niméus E, Thomas AM, Manghi P, Gandini S, Serrano D, Mizutani S, Shiroma H, Shiba S, Shibata T, Yachida S, Yamada T, Waldron L, Naccarati A, Segata N, Sinha R, Ulrich CM, Brenner H, Arumugam M, Bork P, Zeller G |title=Meta-analysis of fecal metagenomes reveals global microbial signatures that are specific for colorectal cancer |journal=Nat Med |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=679–689 |date=April 2019 |pmid=30936547 |pmc=7984229 |doi=10.1038/s41591-019-0406-6 |url=}}

{{excerpt|Salted fish|Health effects}}

There is strong evidence that consumption of dietary fiber reduces risk of colorectal cancer.[https://www.wcrf.org/diet-activity-and-cancer/risk-factors/wholegrains-vegetables-fruit-and-cancer-risk/ "Wholegrains, vegetables, fruit and cancer risk"]. wcrf.org. Retrieved 13 April 2023.[https://www.wcrf.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Wholegrains-veg-and-fruit.pdf "Wholegrains, vegetables and fruit and the risk of cancer"]. wcrf.org. Retrieved 13 April 2023. Two 2020 meta-analyses found that a high fiber intake was associated with a lower risk of both premenopausal and postmenopausal breast cancers{{cite journal | vauthors = Farvid MS, Spence ND, Holmes MD, Barnett JB | title = Fiber consumption and breast cancer incidence: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies | journal = Cancer | volume = 126 | issue = 13 | pages = 3061–3075 | date = July 2020 | pmid = 32249416 | doi = 10.1002/cncr.32816 | s2cid = 214809009 | doi-access = free }} and a higher survival rate in patients with breast cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Jayedi A, Emadi A, Khan TA, Abdolshahi A, Shab-Bidar S | title = Dietary Fiber and Survival in Women with Breast Cancer: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies | journal = Nutrition and Cancer | volume = 73 | issue = 9 | pages = 1570–1580 | date = 2020 | pmid = 32795218 | doi = 10.1080/01635581.2020.1803928 | s2cid = 221132662 }}

A 2021 review found that there is moderate-quality evidence 200g of fruit intake per day is associated with a lower risk of breast cancer.{{cite journal|vauthors=Sun L, Liang X|year=2021|title=Fruit consumption and multiple health outcomes: An umbrella review|journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0924224421005471|volume=118|issue=|pages=505–528|doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2021.09.023|s2cid=244212291 |url-access=subscription}} Another review found that high total fruit and vegetable consumption are associated with reduced risk of breast cancer.{{cite journal|vauthors=Farvid MS, Barnett JB, Spence ND|year=2021|title=Fruit and vegetable consumption and incident breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies|journal=Br J Cancer|url=|volume=125|issue=2|pages=284–298|doi=10.1038/s41416-021-01373-2|pmid=34006925|pmc=8292326}} A 2024 review found convincing evidence for high dietary fiber intake associated with lower breast cancer risk.{{cite journal|author=Yiallourou A, Pantavou K, Markozannes G, Pilavas A, Georgiou A, Hadjikou A, Economou M, Christodoulou N, Letsos K, Khattab E, Kossyva C, Constantinou M, Theodoridou M, Piovani D, Tsilidis KΚ, Bonovas S, Nikolopoulos GK.|year=2024|title=Non-genetic factors and breast cancer: an umbrella review of meta-analyses|journal=BMC Cancer|volume=24|issue=1|pages=903|doi=10.1186/s12885-024-12641-8|doi-access=free |pmid=39061008|pmc=11282738 }}

{{excerpt|Pickling|Possible health hazards of pickled vegetables}}

Flavonoids (specifically flavonoids such as the catechins) are "the most common group of polyphenolic compounds in the human diet and are found ubiquitously in plants."{{cite journal | vauthors = Spencer JP | title = Flavonoids: modulators of brain function? | journal = The British Journal of Nutrition | volume = 99 E Suppl 1 | issue = E Suppl 1 | pages = ES60–ES77 | date = May 2008 | pmid = 18503736 | doi = 10.1017/S0007114508965776 | doi-access = free }} While some studies have suggested flavonoids may have a role in cancer prevention, others have been inconclusive or suggested they may be harmful.{{cite journal | vauthors = Romagnolo DF, Selmin OI | title = Flavonoids and cancer prevention: a review of the evidence | journal = Journal of Nutrition in Gerontology and Geriatrics | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 206–238 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22888839 | doi = 10.1080/21551197.2012.702534 | s2cid = 205960210 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Jin H, Leng Q, Li C | title = Dietary flavonoid for preventing colorectal neoplasms | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2012 | issue = 8 | pages = CD009350 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22895989 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD009350.pub2 | department = Colorectal Cancer Group | pmc = 11457294 }}

Restriction of methionine has been suggested as a strategy in cancer growth control in cancers that depend on methionine for survival and proliferation.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cavuoto P, Fenech MF | title = A review of methionine dependency and the role of methionine restriction in cancer growth control and life-span extension | journal = Cancer Treatment Reviews | volume = 38 | issue = 6 | pages = 726–736 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 22342103 | doi = 10.1016/j.ctrv.2012.01.004 }} According to a 2012 review, the effect of methionine restriction on cancer has yet to be studied directly in humans and "there is still insufficient knowledge to give reliable nutritional advice".

Reviews of epidemiological studies have found no association between dietary methionine and breast or pancreatic cancer risk.{{Cite journal|author=Wei DH, Mao QQ|year=2020 |title=Vitamin B6, vitamin B12 and methionine and risk of pancreatic cancer: a meta-analysis|journal=Nutrition Journal|volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=111|doi=10.1186/s12937-020-00628-7|doi-access=free |pmid=33012287|pmc=7534168 }}{{Cite journal|author=Van Puyvelde H, Dimou N, Katsikari A, Indave Ruiz BI, Godderis L, Huybrechts I, De Bacquer D.|year=2023 |title=The association between dietary intakes of methionine, choline and betaine and breast cancer risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis|journal= Cancer Epidemiol|volume=83 |issue= |pages=102322|doi=10.1016/j.canep.2023.102322 |pmid=36701983|s2cid=256295811 }}

According to Cancer Research UK, "there is currently no evidence that any type of mushroom or mushroom extract can prevent or cure cancer", although research into some species continues.{{cite web |url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative-therapies/individual-therapies/mushrooms-in-cancer-treatment |website= www.cancerresearchuk.org |title= Mushrooms in cancer treatment § Mushrooms and cancer |publisher= Cancer Research UK |date= 30 January 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140708071139/http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/cancer-questions/mushrooms-in-cancer-treatment |archive-date= 2014-07-08 |url-status= live}}

A 2020 review found that higher mushroom consumption is associated with lower risk of breast cancer.{{cite journal|vauthors=Ba DM, Ssentongo P, Beelman RB, Muscat J, Gao X, Richie JP |year=2020|title=Mushroom Consumption Is Associated with Low Risk of Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observation Studies|journal=Current Developments in Nutrition|url=https://academic.oup.com/cdn/article/4/Supplement_2/307/5845439|volume=4|issue=2|page=307|doi=10.1093/cdn/nzaa044_006|pmc=7258270}}

{{excerpt|Dairy product|Cancer}}

There is strong evidence that consumption of whole grains decreases risk of colorectal cancer.{{cite journal|vauthors= Clinton SK, Giovannucci EL, Hursting SD|year=2020|title=The World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research Third Expert Report on Diet, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Cancer: Impact and Future Directions|journal=The Journal of Nutrition|volume=150|issue=4|pages=663–671|doi=10.1093/jn/nxz268|pmid=31758189|pmc=7317613}}{{cite journal|vauthors=Papadimitriou N, Markozannes G, Kanellopoulou A, Critselis E, Alhardan S, Karafousia V, Kasimis JC, Katsaraki C, Papadopoulou A, Zografou M, Lopez DS, Chan DS, Kyrgiou M, Ntzani E, Cross AJ, Marrone MT, Platz EA, Gunter MJ, Tsilidis KK |year=2021|title=An umbrella review of the evidence associating diet and cancer risk at 11 anatomical sites|journal=Nature Communications|volume=12|issue=1|page=4579|doi=10.1038/s41467-021-24861-8|pmid=34321471|pmc=8319326 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.4579P}}{{cite journal|vauthors=Zhang XF, Wang XK, Tang YJ, Guan XX, Guo Y, Fan JM, Cui LL|year=2021|title=Association of whole grains intake and the risk of digestive tract cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Nutrition Journal|volume=19|issue=1|page=52|doi=10.1186/s12937-020-00556-6|pmid=32493399|pmc=7271550 |doi-access=free }}

{{excerpt|Saturated fat|Cancer}}

The American Cancer Society have stated that "there is some evidence from human and lab studies that consuming traditional soy foods such as tofu may lower the risk of breast and prostate cancer, but overall the evidence is too limited to draw firm conclusions".{{cite web |url= https://www.cancer.org/cancer/risk-prevention/diet-physical-activity/acs-guidelines-nutrition-physical-activity-cancer-prevention/common-questions.html |website= www.cancer.org |title=Common Questions About Diet, Activity, and Cancer Risk |date=2022 |publisher= American Cancer Society |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201022937/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/risk-prevention/diet-physical-activity/acs-guidelines-nutrition-physical-activity-cancer-prevention/common-questions.html |archive-date= 2024-02-01 |url-status= live}}

A 2023 review found that soy protein lowers breast cancer risk.{{cite journal|author=Shin S, Fu J, Shin WK, Huang D, Min S, Kang D.|year=2023|title=Association of food groups and dietary pattern with breast cancer risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Clinical Nutrition|volume=42|issue=3|pages=282–297|doi=10.1016/j.clnu.2023.01.003|pmid=36731160|s2cid=255889638 }}

• Green tea consumption has no effect on cancer risk.{{cite journal | vauthors = Filippini T, Malavolti M, Borrelli F, Izzo AA, Fairweather-Tait SJ, Horneber M, Vinceti M | title = Green tea (Camellia sinensis) for the prevention of cancer | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 3 | issue = 11 | pages = CD005004 | date = March 2020 | pmid = 32118296 | pmc = 7059963 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD005004.pub3 }}{{cite web |url= http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/green-tea |website= www.cancer.org |title= Green Tea |date= 4 May 2012 |publisher= American Cancer Society |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140826230118/http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/green-tea |archive-date= 2014-08-26 |url-status= live}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhao LG, Li ZY, Feng GS, Ji XW, Tan YT, Li HL, Gunter MJ, Xiang YB | display-authors = 6 | title = Tea Drinking and Risk of Cancer Incidence: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies and Evidence Evaluation | journal = Advances in Nutrition | volume = 12 | issue = 2 | pages = 402–412 | date = March 2021 | pmid = 33002099 | pmc = 8009746 | doi = 10.1093/advances/nmaa117 }}
• A 2016 meta-analysis showed that women and men who drank coffee had a lower risk of liver cancer. An umbrella review of meta-analyses found that coffee was associated with a lower risk of liver and endometrial cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhao LG, Li ZY, Feng GS, Ji XW, Tan YT, Li HL, Gunter MJ, Xiang YB | display-authors = 6 | title = Coffee drinking and cancer risk: an umbrella review of meta-analyses of observational studies | journal = BMC Cancer | volume = 20 | issue = 1 | page = 101 | date = February 2020 | pmid = 32024485 | pmc = 7003434 | doi = 10.1186/s12885-020-6561-9 | doi-access = free }}
• A 2014 systematic review found, "no firm evidence that vitamin D supplementation affects cancer occurrence in predominantly elderly community-dwelling women."{{cite journal | vauthors = Bjelakovic G, Gluud LL, Nikolova D, Whitfield K, Krstic G, Wetterslev J, Gluud C | title = Vitamin D supplementation for prevention of cancer in adults | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2014 | issue = 6 | pages = CD007469 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 24953955 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD007469.pub2 | department = Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders Group | pmc = 11285304 }}

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• Alcohol and cancer
• Alcohol and breast cancer
• Acrylamide
• Bovine Meat and Milk Factors
• Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective

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• {{cite web |url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer |title=Diet, healthy eating and cancer |website=info.cancerresearchuk.org |publisher=Cancer Research UK |date=23 March 2015}}
• {{cite web |url=https://epic.iarc.fr/ |title=EPIC (European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition) Study |website=epic.iarc.fr |publisher=International Agency for Research on Cancer: World Health Organization}}

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Category:Health effects of food and nutrition

Category:Oncology

Category:Cancer research