Docking and berthing of spacecraft#Adapters

{{More citations needed section|date=October 2018}}

File:Gemini 8 docking.jpg and an uncrewed Agena Target Vehicle on March 16, 1966.]]

Spacecraft docking capability depends on space rendezvous, the ability of two spacecraft to find each other and station-keep in the same orbit. This was first developed by the United States for Project Gemini. It was planned for the crew of Gemini 6 to rendezvous and manually dock under the command of Wally Schirra, with an uncrewed Agena Target Vehicle in October 1965, but the Agena vehicle exploded during launch. On the revised mission Gemini 6A, Schirra successfully performed a rendezvous in December 1965 with the crewed Gemini 7, approaching to within {{convert|1|ft|m|order=flip|sigfig=1}}, but there was no docking capability between two Gemini spacecraft. The first docking with an Agena was successfully performed under the command of Neil Armstrong on Gemini 8 on March 16, 1966. Manual dockings were performed on three subsequent Gemini missions in 1966.

The Apollo program depended on lunar orbit rendezvous to achieve its objective of landing men on the Moon. This required first a transposition, docking, and extraction maneuver between the Apollo command and service module (CSM) mother spacecraft and the Lunar Module (LM) landing spacecraft, shortly after both craft were sent out of Earth orbit on a path to the Moon. Then after completing the lunar landing mission, two astronauts in the LM had to rendezvous and dock with the CSM in lunar orbit, in order to be able to return to Earth. The spacecraft were designed to permit intra-vehicular crew transfer through a tunnel between the nose of the Command Module and the roof of the Lunar Module. These maneuvers were first demonstrated in low Earth orbit on March 7, 1969, on Apollo 9, then in lunar orbit in May 1969 on Apollo 10, then in six lunar landing missions, as well as on Apollo 13 where the LM was used as a rescue vehicle instead of making a lunar landing.

Unlike the United States, which used manual piloted docking throughout the Apollo, Skylab, and Space Shuttle programs, the Soviet Union employed automated docking systems from the beginning of its docking attempts. The first such system, Igla, was successfully tested on October 30, 1967, when the two uncrewed Soyuz test vehicles Kosmos 186 and Kosmos 188 docked automatically in orbit.{{cite web |title=Mir Hardware Heritage Part 1: Soyuz |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4225/documentation/mhh/mirhh-part1.pdf |publisher=NASA |access-date=3 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226011559/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4225/documentation/mhh/mirhh-part1.pdf |archive-date=26 December 2017 |page=10}}{{cite web|url=http://www.niitp.ru/en/directions/02/history/ |access-date=June 23, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424051917/http://www.niitp.ru/en/directions/02/history/ |archive-date=April 24, 2008|title=History}} This was the first successful Soviet docking. Proceeding to crewed docking attempts, the Soviet Union first achieved rendezvous of Soyuz 3 with the uncrewed Soyuz 2 craft on October 25, 1968; docking was unsuccessfully attempted. The first crewed docking was achieved on January 16, 1969, between Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5.{{cite web | title=Model of a Soyuz-4-5 spacecraft | website=MAAS Collection | url=https://collection.maas.museum/object/157010 | access-date=Oct 22, 2021}} This early version of the Soyuz spacecraft had no internal transfer tunnel, but two cosmonauts performed an extravehicular transfer from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4, landing in a different spacecraft than they had launched in.{{cite web | title=NSSDCA – Spacecraft – Details | website=NASA | url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1969-004A | language=no | access-date=Oct 22, 2021}}

In the 1970s, the Soviet Union upgraded the Soyuz spacecraft to add an internal transfer tunnel and used it to transport cosmonauts during the Salyut space station program with the first successful space station visit beginning on 7 June 1971, when Soyuz 11 docked to Salyut 1. The United States followed suit, docking its Apollo spacecraft to the Skylab space station in May 1973. In July 1975, the two nations cooperated in the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, docking an Apollo spacecraft with a Soyuz using a specially designed docking module to accommodate the different docking systems and spacecraft atmospheres.

Beginning with Salyut 6 in 1978, the Soviet Union began using the uncrewed Progress cargo spacecraft to resupply its space stations in low earth orbit, greatly extending the length of crew stays. As an uncrewed spacecraft, Progress rendezvoused and docked with the space stations entirely automatically. In 1986, the Igla docking system was replaced with the updated Kurs system on Soyuz spacecraft. Progress spacecraft received the same upgrade several years later.{{rp|7}} The Kurs system is still used to dock to the Russian Orbital Segment of the International Space Station.

File:HST_Flight_Support_Structure_(STS-109).jpg.]]Berthing of spacecraft can be traced at least as far back as the berthing of payloads into the Space Shuttle payload bay.{{cite web|url=http://everyspec.com/NASA/NASA-NSTS-ISS-PUBS/NSTS_21492_2333/|title=NSTS 21492 Space Shuttle Program Payload Bay Payload User's Guide (Basic)}}(Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston Texas, 2000) Such payloads could be either free-flying spacecraft captured for maintenance/return, or payloads temporarily exposed to the space environment at the end of the Remote Manipulator System. Several different berthing mechanisms were used during the Space Shuttle era. Some of them were features of the Payload Bay (e.g., the Payload Retention Latch Assembly), while others were airborne support equipment (e.g., the Flight Support Structure used for HST servicing missions).

{{Wiktionary|androgynous}}

Docking/berthing systems may be either androgynous (ungendered) or non-androgynous (gendered), indicating which parts of the system may mate together.

Early systems for conjoining spacecraft were all non-androgynous docking system designs. Non-androgynous designs are a form of gender mating where each spacecraft to be joined has a unique design (male or female) and a specific role to play in the docking process. The roles cannot be reversed. Furthermore, two spacecraft of the same gender cannot be joined at all.

Androgynous docking (and later androgynous berthing) by contrast has an identical interface on both spacecraft. In an androgynous interface, there is a single design which can connect to a duplicate of itself. This allows system-level redundancy (role reversing) as well as rescue and collaboration between any two spacecraft. It also provides more flexible mission design and reduces unique mission analysis and training.

A docking or berthing adapter is a mechanical or electromechanical device that facilitates the connection of one type of docking or berthing interface to a different interface. Such interfaces may be docking/docking, docking/berthing, or berthing/berthing. Previously launched and planned to be launched adapters are listed below:

• ASTP Docking Module: An airlock module that converted U.S. Probe and Drogue to APAS-75. Built by Rockwell International for the 1975 Apollo–Soyuz Test Project mission.{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/a/apolloastpdockingmodule.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227202153/http://astronautix.com/a/apolloastpdockingmodule.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 27, 2016 |title=Apollo ASTP Docking Module |access-date=7 April 2018 |publisher=Astronautix}}
• Pressurized Mating Adapter (PMA): Converts an active Common Berthing Mechanism to APAS-95. Three PMAs are attached to the ISS, PMA-1 and PMA-2 were launched in 1998 on STS-88, PMA-3 in late 2000 on STS-92. PMA-1 is used to connect the Zarya control module with Unity node 1, Space Shuttles used PMA-2 and PMA-3 for docking.
• International Docking Adapter (IDA):{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/672214main_1-Hartman_July12_NAC_Final_508.pdf|title=International Space Station Program Status|last=Hartman|first=Dan|date=23 July 2012|publisher=NASA|access-date=10 August 2012|archive-date=April 7, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130407033118/http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/672214main_1-Hartman_July12_NAC_Final_508.pdf|url-status=dead}} Converts APAS-95 to the International Docking System Standard. IDA-1 was planned to be launched on SpaceX CRS-7 until its launch failure, and attached to Node-2's forward PMA.{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/files/ISS-USOS-Program-Status-NAC-Public-July-2014.pdf|title=Status of the ISS USOS|last=Hartman|first=Daniel|date=July 2014|publisher=NASA Advisory Council HEOMD Committee|access-date=26 October 2014|archive-date=February 18, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218101921/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/files/ISS-USOS-Program-Status-NAC-Public-July-2014.pdf|url-status=dead}} IDA-2 was launched on SpaceX CRS-9 and attached to Node-2's forward PMA. IDA-3, the replacement for IDA-1 launched on SpaceX CRS-18 and attached to Node-2's zenith PMA.{{cite web |title=United States Commercial ELV Launch Manifest |url=http://www.sworld.com.au/steven/space/uscom-man.txt |first=Steven |last=Pietrobon |date=August 20, 2018 |access-date=August 21, 2018}} The adapter is compatible with the International Docking System Standard (IDSS), which is an attempt by the ISS Multilateral Coordination Board to create a docking standard.{{cite web|url=http://commercialcrew.nasa.gov/document_file_get.cfm?docid=107|title=Commercial Crew Program: Key Driving Requirements Walkthrough|last=Bayt|first=Rob|date=2011-07-26|publisher=NASA|access-date=27 July 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328055242/http://commercialcrew.nasa.gov/document_file_get.cfm?docid=107|archive-date=28 March 2012|format=PowerPoint}}
• APAS to SSVP: Converts passive Hybrid Docking System to passive SSVP-G4000.{{Cite web|title=Новости. "Прогресс МС-17" освободил место для нового модуля|url=https://www.roscosmos.ru/33452/|access-date=2021-11-27|website=www.roscosmos.ru}} The docking ring initially used for Soyuz MS-18 and Progress MS-17 docking on Nauka until detached by Progress MS-17 for Prichal module arrived on ISS.{{Cite web|title=Новости. Новый модуль вошел в состав российского сегмента МКС|url=https://www.roscosmos.ru/33473/|access-date=2021-11-27|website=www.roscosmos.ru}} This adapter is termed as SSPA-GM. It was made for the Nauka nadir and Prichal nadir ports of the International Space Station, where Soyuz and Progress spacecraft had to dock to a port designated for modules. Before removal of SSPA-GM, the docking ring is {{cvt|80|cm}} in diameter; that becomes {{cvt|120|cm}} after removal.

File:Apollo-soyuz cropped.jpg|ASTP Docking Module

File:Space Shuttle docked to station - further cropped and rotated.jpg|Pressurized Mating Adapter

File:IDA attached to PMA.png|International Docking Adapter

File:1637984492234 Progress MS 17 undocking and Nauka nadir temporary docking adapter Removal 02.jpg|APAS to SSVP (SSVPA-GM) Docking Ring

File:Hubble Space Telescope Final Mission.png. The SCM allows both crewed and uncrewed spacecraft that utilize the NASA Docking System (NDS) to dock with Hubble.]]

For the first fifty years of spaceflight, the main objective of most docking and berthing missions was to transfer crew, construct or resupply a space station, or to test for such a mission (e.g. the docking between Kosmos 186 and Kosmos 188). Therefore, commonly at least one of the participating spacecraft was crewed, with a pressurized habitable volume (e.g. a space station or a lunar lander) being the target—the exceptions were a few fully uncrewed Soviet docking missions (e.g. the dockings of Kosmos 1443 and Progress 23 to an uncrewed Salyut 7 or Progress M1-5 to an uncrewed Mir). Another exception were a few missions of the crewed US Space Shuttles, like berthings of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) during the five HST servicing missions. The Japanese ETS-VII mission (nicknamed Hikoboshi and Orihime) in 1997 was designed to test uncrewed rendezvous and docking, but launched as one spacecraft which separated to join back together.

Changes to the crewed aspect began in 2015, as a number of economically driven commercial dockings of uncrewed spacecraft were planned. In 2011, two commercial spacecraft providers{{which|date=March 2019}} announced plans to provide autonomous/teleoperated uncrewed resupply spacecraft for servicing other uncrewed spacecraft. Notably, both of these servicing spacecraft were intending to dock with satellites that weren't designed for docking, nor for in-space servicing.

The early business model for these services was primarily in near-geosynchronous orbit, although large delta-v orbital maneuvering services were also envisioned.

Building off of the 2007 Orbital Express mission—a U.S. government-sponsored mission to test in-space satellite servicing with two vehicles designed from the ground up for on-orbit refueling and subsystem replacement—two companies announced plans for commercial satellite servicing missions that would require docking of two uncrewed vehicles.

• Space Infrastructure Servicing (SIS) is a spacecraft that was being developed by Canadian aerospace firm MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates (MDA)—maker of Canadarm—to operate as a small-scale in-space refueling depot for communication satellites in geosynchronous orbit. Intelsat was a requirements and funding partner for the initial demonstration satellite, intended for launch in 2015.{{cite web |title=Intelsat Picks MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates Ltd. for Satellite Servicing |url=http://www.canadanewswire.ca/en/releases/archive/March2011/15/c2866.html |work=press release |publisher=CNW Group |access-date=2011-03-15 |quote=MDA planned to launch its Space Infrastructure Servicing ("SIS") vehicle into near geosynchronous orbit, where it would service commercial and government satellites in need of additional fuel, re-positioning or other maintenance. The first refueling mission was to be available 3.5 years following the commencement of the build phase. ... The services provided by MDA to Intelsat under this agreement are valued at more than US$280 million. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512175952/http://www.canadanewswire.ca/en/releases/archive/March2011/15/c2866.html |archive-date=2011-05-12 |url-status=dead }}

{{cite news |last=de Selding|first=Peter B. |title=Intelsat Signs Up for Satellite Refueling Service |url=http://www.spacenews.com/satellite_telecom/intelsat-signs-for-satellite-refueling-service.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120524111321/http://www.spacenews.com/satellite_telecom/intelsat-signs-for-satellite-refueling-service.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 24, 2012 |access-date=2011-03-15 |newspaper=Space News |date=2011-03-14 |quote=if the MDA spacecraft performed as planned, Intelsat would pay a total of some $200 million to MDA. This assumed that four or five satellites would be given around 200 kilograms each of fuel.}}

• Mission Extension Vehicle (MEV){{cite web |title=ViviSat Corporate Overview |url=http://www.usspacellc.com/in-orbit-servicing/vivisat |work=company website |publisher=ViviSat |access-date=2011-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124183419/http://www.usspacellc.com/in-orbit-servicing/vivisat |archive-date=2018-01-24 |url-status=dead }} was a spacecraft being developed in 2011 by the U.S. firm ViviSat, a 50/50 joint venture of aerospace firms U.S. Space and ATK, to operate as a small-scale in-space satellite-refueling spacecraft.

{{cite news |last=Morring|first=Frank Jr. |title=An End to Space Trash? |url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news/awst/2011/03/21/AW_03_21_2011_p23-297586.xml&headline=An%20End%20to%20Space%20Trash?&channel=awst |access-date=2011-03-21 |newspaper=Aviation Week |date=2011-03-22 |quote=ViviSat, a new 50-50 joint venture of U.S. Space and ATK, is marketing a satellite-refueling spacecraft that connects to a target spacecraft using the same probe-in-the-kick-motor approach as MDA, but does not transfer its fuel. Instead, the vehicle becomes a new fuel tank, using its own thrusters to supply attitude control for the target. ... [the ViviSat] concept is not as far along as MDA. ... In addition to extending the life of an out-of-fuel satellite, the company could also rescue fueled spacecraft like AEHF-1 by docking with it in its low orbit, using its own motor and fuel to place it in the right orbit, and then moving to another target.}} MEV would dock but would not transfer fuel. Rather it would use "its own thrusters to supply attitude control for the target."

The SIS and MEV vehicles each planned to use a different docking technique.

SIS planned to utilize a ring attachment around the kick motor

{{cite news

|last=de Selding

|first=Peter B.

|title=Intelsat Signs Up for MDA's Satellite Refueling Service

|url=http://www.sbv.spacenews.com/satellite_telecom/110318intelsat-signs-for-mdas-satellite-refueling-service.html

|access-date=2011-03-20

|newspaper=Space News

|date=2011-03-18

|quote=more than 40 different types of fueling systems ... SIS will be carrying enough tools to open 75 percent of the fueling systems aboard satellites now in geostationary orbit. ... MDA will launch the SIS servicer, which will rendezvous and dock with the Intelsat satellite, attaching itself to the ring around the satellite's apogee-boost motor. With ground teams governing the movements, the SIS robotic arm will reach through the nozzle of the apogee motor to find and unscrew the satellite's fuel cap. The SIS vehicle will reclose the fuel cap after delivering the agreed amount of propellant and then head to its next mission. ... Key to the business model is MDA's ability to launch replacement fuel canisters that would be grappled by SIS and used to refuel dozens of satellites over a period of years. These canisters would be much lighter than the SIS vehicle and thus much less expensive to launch.

|url-status=dead

|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120321160118/http://www.sbv.spacenews.com/satellite_telecom/110318intelsat-signs-for-mdas-satellite-refueling-service.html

|archive-date=2012-03-21

}}

while the Mission Extension Vehicle would use a somewhat more standard insert-a-probe-into-the-nozzle-of-the-kick-motor approach.

A prominent spacecraft that received a mechanism for uncrewed dockings is the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). In 2009 the STS-125 shuttle mission added the Soft-Capture Mechanism (SCM) at the aft bulkhead of the space telescope. The SCM is meant for unpressurized dockings and will be used at the end of Hubble's service lifetime to dock an uncrewed spacecraft to de-orbit Hubble. The SCM used was designed to be compatible to the NASA Docking System (NDS) interface to reserve the possibility of a servicing mission.{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/servicing/SM4/main/SCRS_FS_HTML.html|title=The Soft Capture and Rendezvous System|access-date=May 22, 2009|publisher=NASA|year=2008|author=NASA|archive-date=September 11, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080911224222/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/servicing/SM4/main/SCRS_FS_HTML.html|url-status=dead}}

The SCM will, compared to the system used during the five HST Servicing Missions to capture and berth the HST to the Space Shuttle,{{Citation needed|date=August 2012|reason=Citation needed for the previous system; The rest of the sentence is from the "softcap" citation.}}

significantly reduce the rendezvous and capture design complexities associated with such missions. The NDS bears some resemblance to the APAS-95 mechanism, but is not compatible with it.{{cite web|url=http://dockingstandard.nasa.gov/Documents/AIAA_ATS_NDS-IDSS_Overview_Draft1.pdf|title=Overview of the NASA Docking System and the International Docking System Standard|last=Parma|first=George|date=2011-05-20|publisher=NASA|access-date=11 April 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111015075220/http://dockingstandard.nasa.gov/Documents/AIAA_ATS_NDS-IDSS_Overview_Draft1.pdf|archive-date=15 October 2011}}

Docking with a spacecraft (or other human made space object) that does not have an operable attitude control system might sometimes be desirable, either in order to salvage it, or to initiate a controlled de-orbit. Some theoretical techniques for docking with non-cooperative spacecraft have been proposed so far.{{cite book |last=Ma |first=Zhanhua |author2=Ma, Ou |author3=Shashikanth, Banavara |title=2006 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems |chapter=Optimal Control for Spacecraft to Rendezvous with a Tumbling Satellite in a Close Range |name-list-style=amp |chapter-url=http://mae.nmsu.edu/~oma/Papers/Paper_Optimal_Ctrl_IROS06.pdf |date=October 2006 |pages=4109–4114 |doi=10.1109/IROS.2006.281877 |isbn=1-4244-0258-1 |s2cid=12165186 |access-date=2011-08-09 |quote=One of the most challenging tasks for satellite on-orbit servicing is to rendezvous and capture a non-cooperative satellite such as a tumbling satellite. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605184656/http://mae.nmsu.edu/~oma/Papers/Paper_Optimal_Ctrl_IROS06.pdf |archive-date=2013-06-05 }} Yet, with the sole exception of the Soyuz T-13 mission to salvage the crippled Salyut 7 space station, {{as of|2006|lc=y}}, all spacecraft dockings in the first fifty years of spaceflight had been accomplished with vehicles where both spacecraft involved were under either piloted, autonomous or telerobotic attitude control.

In 2007, however, a demonstration mission was flown that included an initial test of a non-cooperative spacecraft captured by a controlled spacecraft with the use of a robotic arm.

Research and modeling work continues to support additional autonomous noncooperative capture missions in the coming years.{{cite journal|last1=Xu|first1=Wenfu|title=Autonomous rendezvous and robotic capturing of non-cooperative target in space|journal=Robotica|date=September 2010|volume=28|issue=5|pages=705–718|doi=10.1017/S0263574709990397|s2cid=43527059|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=7871150&fileId=S0263574709990397|access-date=2014-11-16}}{{cite journal|last1=Yoshida|first1=Kazuya|title=Dynamics, control and impedance matching for robotic capture of a non-cooperative satellite|journal=Advanced Robotics|date=2004|volume=18|issue=2|pages=175–198|doi=10.1163/156855304322758015|s2cid=33288798}}

{{main|Soyuz T-13}}

{{multiple image

| align = right

| image1 = USSR stamp Soyuz-27 1978 4k.jpg

| width1 = 150

| alt1 =

| caption1 = Commander Vladimir Dzhanibekov (left) with Oleg Grigoryevich Makarov (right) on a 1978 Soviet postage stamp

| image2 = 1981. Союз-Т4 - Салют-6. В.В. Коваленюк, В.П. Савиных (3).jpg

| width2 = 200

| alt2 =

| caption2 = Doctor of technical sciences Viktor Savinykh with Vladimir Kovalyonok pictured on a Soviet postage stamp commemorating a Salyut 6 mission

| footer =

}}

Salyut 7, the tenth space station of any kind launched, and Soyuz T-13 were docked in what author David S. F. Portree describes as "one of the most impressive feats of in-space repairs in history". Solar tracking failed and due to a telemetry fault the station did not report the failure to mission control while flying autonomously. Once the station ran out of electrical energy reserves it ceased communication abruptly in February 1985. Crew scheduling was interrupted to allow Soviet military commander Vladimir Dzhanibekov{{cite web |url=http://www.astronautix.com/d/dzhanibekov.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161211015153/http://www.astronautix.com/d/dzhanibekov.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 11, 2016 |title=Dzhanibekov |publisher=Astronautix.com |access-date=August 5, 2013 }} and technical science flight engineer Viktor Savinykh{{cite web |url=http://www.astronautix.com/s/savinykh.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161211015505/http://www.astronautix.com/s/savinykh.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 11, 2016 |title=Savinykh |publisher=Astronautix.com |access-date=August 5, 2013}} to make emergency repairs.

All Soviet and Russian space stations were equipped with automatic rendezvous and docking systems, from the first space station Salyut 1 using the IGLA system, to the Russian Orbital Segment of the International Space Station using the Kurs system. The Soyuz crew found the station was not broadcasting radar or telemetry for rendezvous, and after arrival and external inspection of the tumbling station, the crew judged proximity using handheld laser rangefinders.

Dzhanibekov piloted his ship to intercept the forward port of Salyut 7, matched the station's rotation and achieved soft dock with the station. After achieving hard dock they confirmed that the station's electrical system was dead. Prior to opening the hatch, Dzhanibekov and Savinykh sampled the condition of the station's atmosphere and found it satisfactory. Attired in winter fur-lined clothing, they entered the cold station to conduct repairs. Within a week sufficient systems were brought back online to allow robot cargo ships to dock with the station. Nearly two months went by before atmospheric conditions on the space station were normalized.

{{Globalize|article|USA|2name=the United States|date=March 2016}}

File:Orbital Express 2.png

Non-cooperative rendezvous and capture techniques have been theorized, and one mission has successfully been performed with uncrewed spacecraft in orbit.

{{cite news |last=Clark|first=Stephen |title=In-space satellite servicing tests come to an end |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n0707/04orbitalexpress/ |access-date=2014-03-20 |newspaper=Spaceflight Now |date=2007-07-04 }}

A typical approach for solving this problem involves two phases. First, attitude and orbital changes are made to the "chaser" spacecraft until it has zero relative motion with the "target" spacecraft. Second, docking maneuvers commence that are similar to traditional cooperative spacecraft docking. A standardized docking interface on each spacecraft is assumed.

{{cite web |title=Optimal Control of Rendezvous and Docking with a Non-Cooperative Satellite |url=http://mae.nmsu.edu/~oma/Posters/Satellite_RnD_Ma.pdf |publisher=New Mexico State University |quote=Most of the current research and all the past missions are aiming at capturing very cooperative satellites only. In the future, we may also need to capture non-cooperative satellites such as the ones tumbling in space or not designed for being captured. |access-date=2011-07-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605175755/http://mae.nmsu.edu/~oma/Posters/Satellite_RnD_Ma.pdf |archive-date=2013-06-05 }}

NASA has identified automated and autonomous rendezvous and docking — the ability of two spacecraft to rendezvous and dock "operating independently from human controllers and without other back-up, [and which requires technology] advances in sensors, software, and realtime on-orbit positioning and flight control, among other challenges" — as a critical technology to the "ultimate success of capabilities such as in-orbit propellant storage and refueling," and also for complex operations in assembling mission components for interplanetary destinations.{{cite web|last=Tooley|first=Craig|title=A New Space Enterprise of Exploration|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/458813main_FTD_AutomatedAutonomousRendezvousAndDockingVehicleOverview.pdf|date=2010-05-25|publisher=NASA|access-date=2012-06-25|archive-date=June 12, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120612022236/http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/458813main_FTD_AutomatedAutonomousRendezvousAndDockingVehicleOverview.pdf|url-status=dead}}

The Automated/Autonomous Rendezvous & Docking Vehicle (ARDV) is a proposed NASA Flagship Technology Demonstration (FTD) mission, for flight as early as 2014/2015. An important NASA objective on the proposed mission is to advance the technology and demonstrate automated rendezvous and docking. One mission element defined in the 2010 analysis was the development of a laser proximity operations sensor that could be used for non-cooperative vehicles at distances between {{convert|1|m}} and {{convert|3|km|sigfig=1|sp=us}}. Non-cooperative docking mechanisms were identified as critical mission elements to the success of such autonomous missions.

Grappling and connecting to non-cooperative space objects was identified as a top technical challenge in the 2010 NASA Robotics, tele-robotics and autonomous systems roadmap.{{cite web|last=Ambrose|first=Rob|title=Robotics, Tele-Robotics and Autonomous systems Roadmap (Draft)|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/501622main_TA04-Robotics-DRAFT-Nov2010-A.pdf|date=November 2010|publisher=NASA|access-date=2012-06-25|quote=A smaller common docking system for robotic spacecraft is also needed to enable robotic spacecraft AR&D within the capture envelopes of these systems. Assembly of the large vehicles and stages used for beyond LEO exploration missions will require new mechanisms with new capture envelopes beyond any docking system currently used or in development. Development and testing of autonomous robotic capture of non-cooperative target vehicles in which the target does not have capture aids such as grapple fixtures or docking mechanisms is needed to support satellite servicing/rescue.|archive-date=September 17, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917193338/http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/501622main_TA04-Robotics-DRAFT-Nov2010-A.pdf|url-status=dead}}

{{Unreferenced section|date=November 2020}}

A docking/berthing connection is referred to as either "soft" or "hard". Typically, a spacecraft first initiates a soft dock by making contact and latching its docking connector with that of the target vehicle. Once the soft connection is secured, if both spacecraft are pressurized, they may proceed to a hard dock where the docking mechanisms form an airtight seal, enabling interior hatches to be safely opened so that crew and cargo can be transferred.

Docking and undocking describe spacecraft using a docking port, without assistance and under their own power. Berthing takes place when a spacecraft or unpowered module cannot use a docking port or requires assistance to use one. This assistance may come from a spacecraft, such as when the Space Shuttle used its robotic arm to push ISS modules into their permanent berths. In a similar fashion the Poisk module was permanently berthed to a docking port after it was pushed into place by a modified Progress spacecraft which was then discarded. The Cygnus resupply spacecraft arriving at the ISS does not connect to a docking port, instead it is pulled into a berthing mechanism by the station's robotic arm and the station then closes the connection. The berthing mechanism is used only on the US segment of the ISS, the Russian segment of the ISS uses docking ports for permanent berths.

File:Small Pressurized Rover- components.jpg

Docking has been discussed by NASA in regards to a Crewed Mars rover, such as with Mars habitat or ascent stage.{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/464826main_SEV_Concept_FactSheet.pdf |title=Space Exploration Vehicle Concept 2010 |access-date=August 17, 2018 |archive-date=September 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925204215/https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/464826main_SEV_Concept_FactSheet.pdf |url-status=dead }} The Martian surface vehicle (and surface habitats) would have a large rectangular docking hatch, approximately {{convert|2|by|1|m|ft|sp=us}}.{{Failed verification|date=October 2020}}

ISS undocking - Timelapse 01 - 20180328 034651 547.gif|Timelapse of undocking of a Soyuz spacecraft from the International Space Station

{{Reflist}}

{{Spacecraft Docking Systems}}

Category:Space rendezvous

Category:Spacecraft components