English settlement of Belize

{{blockquote|text=The romantic but commonly held view of the history of Belize begins with a haven of free-spirited and adventuresome pirates occasionally sneaking out of hiding amid the cay[e]s and reef system to perform piratical acts of independence against Britain's economic oppression and Spain's cultural conceit. They eventually become attached to the place so they find legitimate livelihoods, prosper, form a government, and are eventually rewarded with the status of a colony of the British Empire.|author=Daniel R. Finamore in 1994.{{sfn|Finamore|1994|p=2}}}}

In November{{nbnd}}December 1544, a patax of 22 French corsairs, mates of a captain called Pedro Braques by the Spanish, were apprehended off the coast of colonial Honduras. Their arrival marked the beginning of over three centuries of piracy in the Bay of Honduras.{{sfn|De la O Torres|2016|p=43}}{{sfn|De la O Torres|2020|p=183}}{{sfn|Chamberlain|1953|p=225}}{{notetag|French entrance to the Bay dated 1537 by {{harvnb|Marcus|1990|pp=67, 101}}. It has been suggested that French corsairs were seeking to advance their country's cause during the Habsburg–Valois Wars. These early cruises prompted the construction of the Santa Barbara Fortress in Trujillo in 1550 {{harv|Chamberlain|1953|pp=225, 231}}. No (successful) piratical raids are noted in the Bay in 1543{{nbnd}}1554. Eight (French) were noted in 1555{{nbnd}}1561. None in 1562{{nbnd}}1566. One (French) in 1567{{nbnd}}1571. Twelve (three French, eight English, one unknown) in 1572{{nbnd}}1582 {{harv|De la O Torres|2020|pp=193, 197-203, 220-228, 232-241, 268-280, 288-301}}.}} French corsairs were (belatedly) followed into the Bay by Elizabethan Sea Dogs three decades later. The earliest of these is thought to have been either Sir Francis Drake in the Minion, or John Oxenham in the Beare, who during 23 February 1573 – 22 March 1573 cruised the Bay and watered at Guanaxa.{{sfn|Marley|2008|pp=102-103}}{{sfn|Wright|1932|loc=pt. 1 doc. no. 29}} English buccaneering activities in the Bay intensified in the ensuing decades.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} Notably, during October 1577 – April 1578, an English pirate or privateer, called Francisco de Acles by the Spanish, with 60 men aboard two ships, sacked Puerto Caballos and Bacalar, possibly marking the earliest entrance of such sea dogs into Bacalar's [ie present-day Belize's] waters.{{sfn|De la O Torres|2020|pp=285-286}}{{sfn|Wright|1932|pp=102–108, 196–198}}{{sfn|Figueroa|Johnson|Goodwin|2021|pp=186-187}} It is commonly thought that, upon the 1570s discovery of the intricate, secluded reefs, cayes, and coastline which characterised the waters of Bacalar, English buccaneers promptly opted to base their operations in this portion of the Bay, it affording them safe haven and quick access to Spanish ports.{{sfn|Finamore|1994|pp=21-22}}{{sfn|Calderón Quijano|1944|pp=40-41}}{{sfn|Gerhard|1979|p=70}}{{sfn|Lauterpacht|Schwebel|Rosenne|Orrego Vicuña|2001|p=87}}

File:A view of Truxillo, a city belonging to the Spaniards in the Bay of Honduras LCCN2003666724.png

Prior to 1630, Spanish smuggling with Anglo-Dutch pirate-merchants at ports in the Bay of Honduras is thought to have 'amounted to little more than evasion of duties and taxes,' with typical cases described as 'not spectacular.'{{sfn|MacLeod|1973|p=355}} However – {{blockquote|text=The situation altered significantly after 1630 as it became obvious that the flota system was decaying and the Spanish economy declining. Between 1630 and 1680 there seems to have been a slow increase in the volume of smuggling [in colonial Central America], and gradually smuggling became more important than simple fraud [eg tax evasion] [...]. So Central American merchants and indigo plantation owners in the middle years of the seventeenth century found themselves with a fairly viable export crop, [...] and few means of disposing of it. [...] Legal trade to the official ports in the Bay of Honduras had fallen away to a trickle, [...]. Between the early 1630s and the 1680s Central America searched desperately, often beyond the law, for ways of disposing of export crops while obtaining money or goods in exchange.|author=Murdo J. MacLeod in 1973.{{sfn|MacLeod|1973|p=355}}}}

Consequently, post-1630 smuggling in the Bay is thought to have been 'sporadic but fairly frequent,' especially in indigo and logwood, 'large quantities' of which [illicitly] found their way to non-Spanish markets.{{sfn|MacLeod|1973|p=358}}{{sfn|Zahedieh|1986|pp=216-218}}{{sfn|Obando Andrade|2016|pp=12-16}}{{sfn|García Paláez|1852a|pp=122-126}}

File:NaturalhistoryCc1v2Cate 0207.jpg

The earliest logwood cutting near the Bay of Honduras is commonly dated to 1562, and attributed to the Spanish conquistador Marcos de Ayala Trujeque of Valladolid, Yucatán.{{sfn|McJunkin|1991|pp=41, 79-80, 88-89}} By the 1570s, Yucatanese encomenderos were shipping to Spain some 200 tonnes of logwood per annum, principally via Campeche.{{sfn|McJunkin|1991|pp=87, 89-90}} During this same decade, English pirates, privateers, or buccaneers are thought to have first recognised the commercial value of logwood, and consequently, to have increasingly sought it as prize.{{sfn|McJunkin|1991|pp=100, 102-103}}{{sfn|Finamore|1994|p=19}}{{notetag|Pirates' recognition of logwood's value dated 1585 and attributed to Sir Francis Drake by {{harvnb|McJunkin|1991|p=102}}, but dated 1570s and attributed to John Chilton by {{harvnb|Finamore|1994|p=19}}. Chilton visited Yucatán in June–July 1572, and noted 'the chiefest merchandize which they lade there in small frigats, is a certeine wood called campeche, (wherewith they vse to die) as also hides and annile' per {{harvnb|Hakluyt|1589|p=559}}. {{harvnb|McJunkin|1991|p=80}} notes that notices of logwood 'show up more frequently in records of capture [of Spanish cargo] by foreigners than they do in the internal records of Yucatán,' though note this might be 'simply a matter of differential preservation.' Logwood was prohibited in England by 23 Eliz. 1 ch. 9 passed during 21 March 1580 – 20 March 1581 per {{harvnb|McJunkin|1991|p=96}} and {{harvnb|Raithby|1819a|p=671}}. {{harvnb|McJunkin|1991|p=96}} states that this Act is the first reference to logwood in English records. The Act cites 'false and deceitful colours' as the reason for prohibiting logwood dyes, though {{harvnb|McJunkin|1991|p=96}} notes that these 'were a result of using alum as a mordant or of not using any mordant at all.' The prohibition was strengthened in 1583 by proclamation per {{harvnb|McJunkin|1991|p=98}}, and in 1597 per 39 Eliz. 1 ch. 11 in {{harvnb|Raithby|1819a|pp=911-912}}. Licensed importation of logwood was allowed in 29 February 1620 per {{harvnb|Green|1858|loc=vol. 112}}, while the ban on unlicensed importation was tightened in 1630 and 1636 by proclamation per {{harvnb|McJunkin|1991|p=98}}. The prohibition was finally lifted by 14 Chas. 2 ch. 11 passed sometime during 7 January 1662 – 3 May 1662 per {{harvnb|Raithby|1819b|pp=393-400}}, {{harvnb|Green|1861|loc=vol. 54 no. 12}}, and {{harvnb|McJunkin|1991|p=100}}.}}

It is uncertain when and where exactly English pirates or buccaneers first began surreptitiously cutting logwood, as opposed to merely seizing Spanish-cut logwood.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} Proposals range geographically from Campeche to Belize, and temporally from 1599 to 1670.{{notetag|Chronologically, the proposals regarding the earliest dates and places of logwood cutting include (non-exhaustively) –

1. by 1599 in Yucatán (generally), by Thomas Burward and the Antelope crew {{harv|McJunkin|1991|pp=105-106}},
2. by 1618 on New River, by English privateers ({{harvnb|Gerhard|1979|p=70}}, {{harvnb|Marcus|1990|p=102}}),
3. by 29 May 1652 on Belize River, by English privateers {{harv|RWJ|1732|p=3}},
4. after 1655 in Cape Catoche (first) and Campeche (later), by Anglo-Jamaican privateers ({{harvnb|Dampier|1700|loc=pt. 2 pp. 46-48}}, {{harvnb|Finamore|1994|p=19}}),
5. by 1660 on New or Hondo Rivers, by English privateers {{harv|Rushton|2014|p=133}},
6. in 14 Aug. 1660 – 29 Dec. 1662 in Campeche and 'a point on the eastern coast [of Yucatán] near Belize, by English 'filibusters' {{harv|Molina Solís|1910|pp=244, 246, 249-250}}
7. by 1662 in Cape Catoche, by Anglo-Jamaican privateers ({{harvnb|Bulmer-Thomas|Bulmer-Thomas|2016|p=156}}, {{harvnb|Ancona|1878|p=371}}, {{harvnb|Fancourt|1854|p=v}}, {{harvnb|Calderón Quijano|1944|p=42}}),
8. by 1663 in Campeche, by Jamaican privateers ({{harvnb|Aliphat Fernández|Caso Barrera|2013|pp=858–861}}, {{harvnb|González Díaz|Lázaro de la Escosura|2010|p=164}}),
9. by 30 Nov. 1669 in Campeche and Cape Catoche, by Jamaican privateers {{harv|Sainsbury|1889|loc=sec. 'Nov. 1669' entry no. 129, and various subsequent entries}},
10. by 1670 in Campeche, by Anglo-Jamaican privateers {{harv|Sloane|1707|p=lxxxiii}}.

}}

The earliest English settlement near the Bay is thought to have been Old Providence.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} Anglo-Dutch buccaneers are known to have watered or camped in the island, and Cape Gracias a Dios, since at least 1616.{{sfn|Genkins|2018|pp=51–53}}{{sfn|De la O Torres|2020|p=336}}{{sfn|González Díaz|Lázaro de la Escosura|2010|pp=182–183}}{{notetag|Event dated by some to the 1600s or earlier, as in {{harvnb|Reichert|2017|p=23}}, {{harvnb|Luján Muñoz|2005|p=822}}, {{harvnb|Levy|1873|p=37}}, {{harvnb|Ibarra Rojas|2011|p=xxviii}}.}} English presence intensified shortly upon the 4 December 1630 chartering of the Old Providence Company.{{sfn|Newton|1914|p=86}} In 1631, Anthony Hilton's settlement in Tortuga was made a dependency of the Company.{{sfn|Newton|1914|p=103}}{{sfn|Genkins|2018|p=69|loc=fn. no. 55}} In 1633, Sussex Cammock established a trading post in Cape Gracias a Dios for Old Providence.{{sfn|Naylor|1989|pp=30-31}}{{sfn|Marcus|1990|pp=71-73}} By 29 January 1636, the Company was granted letters of reprisal against the Spanish.{{sfn|Newton|1914|p=207}}{{sfn|Genkins|2018|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Offen|2011|p=23}}{{sfn|Campbell|2011|pp=129-130, 138}}{{notetag|The Company's first privateers were despatched in May 1636 {{harv|Newton|1914|p=226}}. Their last privateers were despatched in July 1638 {{harv|Newton|1914|p=266}}. Privateers were instructed, among other things, to impress Spanish pilots, including those familiar with the Bay of Honduras ({{harvnb|Newton|1914|pp=224–226, 229, 230, 232}}, {{harvnb|Genkins|2018|pp=87-88}}, {{harvnb|Offen|2011|p=32}}).}} On 8 June 1638, the Company granted William Claiborne letters patent to settle Roatan.{{sfn|Kupperman|1993|pp=213, 280–281}}{{sfn|Newton|1914|pp=267, 315}}{{sfn|Ibarra Rojas|2011|p=82}}{{sfn|Davidson|1974|p=49}}{{sfn|Mihok|2013|pp=92-93}} And shortly after 17 May 1641, Old Providence refugees are thought to have established themselves at Cape Gracias a Dios or Roatan.{{sfn|Naylor|1989|p=34}}{{sfn|Davidson|1974|p=49}}{{sfn|Campbell|2011|p=129}}{{sfn|Marcus|1990|p=74}}

{{main|1638 Tipu revolt}}

The 1638 Tipu rebellion against Bacalar, possibly (indirectly) aided by piratical raids of coastal and riverine Maya hamlets in that district, is thought to have significantly eroded Spanish dominion and presence in Bacalar's waters.{{sfn|Jones|1989|pp=189–191, 204–210}}{{sfn|López de Cogolludo|1688|loc=lib. 11 cap. 12}}{{sfn|Vazquez Barke|2012|p=50}}{{sfn|Cárdenas Valencia|1937|p=97}}{{sfn|Gerhard|1979|p=72}}{{sfn|Calderón Quijano|1944|pp=41-42}}

Belize is traditionally held to have been among the first English settlements in the Bay of Honduras, along with Roatan.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} It is commonly thought to have been settled by Peter Wallace and his crew of 80 buccaneers, aboard the Swallow, in 1638.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} No records of this landing have been discovered, however, and it is commonly thought that none are extant, or that the story is apocryphal.{{sfn|Finamore|1994|p=21}}{{sfn|Bridges|1828|p=134}}

{{blockquote|text=When, then, did the British begin to settle in the part of Yucatan we call Belize today? This is an even more stubborn question than that of Spanish settlement of the territory, and we will probably never be able to answer it precisely. We may have to rely on Sir Harry Luke's proposition that "[a]s a British Colony British Honduras, like Topsy, 'never was born' but just 'grow'd'." This is in contrast to the more regularly established British colonies in the region, which were acquired either by royal patents or by conquest and settlement.|author=Mavis C. Campbell in 2011.{{sfn|Campbell|2011|p=95}}}}

{{blockquote|text=All Caribbean countries, with one exception, can document the date of first permanent settlement by Europeans with some accuracy. [...] The one exception is Belize, whose British origins have been shrouded in a mixture of fact, myth, legend, naivety and dishonesty.|author=Barbara & Victor Bulmer-Thomas in 2016.{{sfn|Bulmer-Thomas|Bulmer-Thomas|2016|p=138}}{{notetag|{{harvnb|Bulmer-Thomas|Bulmer-Thomas|2016|p=138}} continue, noting 'we will never know with certainty who the first [British] settlers [of Belize] were,' noting that there is 'a certain justice in this, however, since we will also never know who were the first Palaeo-Indians or Maya in Belize.'}}}}

The traditional story of the English settlement of Belize is the most commonly given account in scholarly literature, though historians often qualify it, given the lack of primary sources.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}{{notetag|For instance, a recent report for the Belizean Foreign Office stated – {{blockquote|text=As early as 1638 British settlers appear to have developed logwood activities in present day Belize; and it is certain that between 1662 and 1670 this activity became regular.|author={{harvnb|Lauterpacht|Schwebel|Rosenne|Orrego Vicuña|2001|pp=87-88}}}}.}} A variety of competing accounts have been proffered since the 18th century, none of which have gained widespread scholarly favour.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} Despite this, most scholarly accounts seem to favour a second- or third-quarter-of-the-17th century date, with responsibility attributed to pirate's-haven-seeking, logwood-seeking, or shipwrecked buccaneers.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

{{notefoot}}

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|date= January–June 2016

|title= La presencia de corsarios franceses en el Golfo-Caribe entre 1536-1566 : una propuesta de análisis espacial

|jstor=

|url= https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=5589881

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}}

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|jstor=

|journal= Historelo revista de historia regional y local

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|volume= 11

|issue= 2

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|s2cid= 198778698

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}}

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|date= July 1965

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|first1= Manuel

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1. {{cite journal

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1. {{cite journal

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|first1= Eric

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1. {{cite journal

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1. {{cite journal

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|date= 11 June 1858

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|journal= Journal of the Society of Arts

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1. {{cite journal

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|first1= Robert

|date= 18 June 1858

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1. {{cite journal

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1. {{cite book

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1. {{cite book

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1. {{cite book

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1. {{cite book

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|series= The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft

|volume = 7

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|location= San Francisco

|title=History of Central America. Vol. II. 1530–1800

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1. {{cite book

|last1=Bolland

|first1=Nigel Orlando

|title=Formation of a Colonial Society

|date=1977

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|series= Johns Hopkins studies in Atlantic history and culture

|volume=

|url=https://archive.org/details/formationofcolon0000boll

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1. {{cite book

|editor-last1= Brandow

|editor-first1= James C.

|editor-last2= Hotten

|editor-first2= John Camden

|title= Omitted chapters from Hotten's original lists of persons of quality and others who went from Great Britain to the American plantations, 1600-1700: census returns, parish registers, and militia rolls from the Barbados census of 1679/80

| date= 1982

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}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Bridges

|first1= George Wilson

|title= The annals of Jamaica

|date= 1828

|volume= 2

|publisher= John Murray

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|edition= 1st

|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=twakS8tGd_sC

|oclc= 4612281

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Bristowe

|first1= Lindsay W.

|last2= Wright

|first2= Philip

|title= The Handbook of British Honduras for 1888-89 : Comprising Historical, Statistical, and General Information Concerning the Colony, Compiled from Official and Other Reliable Records

|date= 1888

|publisher= William Blackwood & Sons

|location= Edinburgh & London

|edition= 1st

|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5YvAAAAMAAJ

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}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Brockhaus

|first1= Friedrich Arnold

|title= Bd. 2. Arago bis Belgrad

|series= Allgemeine deutsche Real-Encyklopädie für die gebildeten Stände : Conversations-Lexikon

|date= 1864

|volume= 2

|publisher= F.A. Brockhaus

|location= Leipzig

|edition= Revised, expanded 11th

|url= https://www.enzyklothek.de/allgemeinenzyklop%C3%A4dien/deutsche-enzyklop%C3%A4dien/alphabetische-enzyklop%C3%A4dien/allgemeine-deutsche-real

|oclc= 39355449

|access-date= 3 May 2022

|archive-date= 18 June 2021

|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210618114346/https://www.enzyklothek.de/allgemeinenzyklop%C3%A4dien/deutsche-enzyklop%C3%A4dien/alphabetische-enzyklop%C3%A4dien/allgemeine-deutsche-real

|url-status= dead

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Burdon

|first1= John Alder

|title= Brief Sketch of British Honduras

|date= 1927

|publisher= The West India Committee

|location= London

|edition= 1st

|oclc= 11423776

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Burdon

|first1= John Alder

|title= Archives of British Honduras ... : being extracts and précis from records, with maps

|volume = 1

|date= 1931

|publisher= Sifton, Praed & Co.

|location= London

|edition= 1st

|oclc= 3046003

}}

1. {{cite book

|last= Calderón Quijano

|first=José Antonio

|title= Belice 1663 (?)-1821

|date= 1944

|publisher= Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos

|location= Seville

|edition= 1st

|hdl=

|url= http://simurg.bibliotecas.csic.es/viewer/image/CSIC000048031/1/

|oclc= 2481064

|series= Publicaciones de la Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos de la Universidad de Sevilla

|volume= 5

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Campbell

|first1= Mavis C.

|title= Becoming Belize: A History of an Outpost of Empire Searching for Identity, 1528-1823

|date= 2011

|volume=

|publisher= University of the West Indies Press

|location= Kingston, Jamaica

|edition= 1st

|url= https://hdl-handle-net.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/2027/heb34625.0001.001

|url-access=subscription

|oclc=

|isbn= 9789766402464

}}

1. {{cite book

|last= Cárdenas Valencia

|first=Francisco de

|title= Relación historial eclesiástica de la provincia de Yucatán de la Nueva España, escrita el año de 1639

|date= 1937

|publisher= Antigua Librería Robredo, J. Porrúa e Hijos

|location= Mexico City

|edition=1st

|hdl=

|series= Biblioteca histórica mexicana de obras inéditas

|volume= 3

|oclc= 4660610

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Cardona Amaya

|first1= José Manuel

|title= Invasiones de corsarios a la Honduras de Felipe IV (1633-1643)

|date= 2020

|publisher= Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras

|location= Tegucigalpa

|edition= 1st

|url= https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02540842

|oclc= 1192967317

}}

1. {{cite book

|last= Carillo y Ancona

|first= Crescencio

|title= Compendio de la historia de Yucatan; precedido del de su geografía y dispuesto en forma de lecciones

|date= 1871

|publisher= J.D. Espinosa é hijos

|location= Merida, Yuc.

|edition= 1st

|oclc= 13403072

|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zZkPgqPHFQwC

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1=Chamberlain

|first1=Robert Stoner

|title=The conquest and colonization of Yucatan, 1517–1550

|date=1948

|publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington

|location=Washington, DC

|url=

|series=Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication

|volume=582

|hdl=2027/txu.059173008409431

|edition=1st

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1=Chamberlain

|first1=Robert Stoner

|title=The conquest and colonization of Honduras, 1502–1550

|date=1953

|orig-date=

|publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington

|location=Washington, DC

|series=Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication

|volume=598

|url=

|hdl=2027/mdp.39015014261187

|edition=1st

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1=Chamberlain

|first1=Robert Stoner

|title=The conquest and colonization of Honduras, 1502–1550

|series=Carnegie Institution of Washington publicationno. 598

|date=1966

|orig-date= First published 1953 as Carnegie Publication 598

|publisher=Octagon Books

|location=New York

|url=

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|edition=Reprint of 1st

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Coxe

|first1= William

|title= Memoirs of the kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon, from the accession of Philip V. to the death of Charles III. 1700 to 1788. Drawn from the original and unpublished documents

|date= 1815

|volume= 3

|publisher= Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown

|location= London

|edition= 2nd

|oclc= 579462139

|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=sUAUAAAAYAAJ

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Dampier

|first1= William

|title= Voyages and descriptions, in three parts : to which is added a general index to both volumes

|date= 1700

|orig-date= First published 1699

|series=

|volume= 2

|publisher=Printed for James Knapton, at the Crown in St Paul's Church-yard

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}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Davidson

|first1= William V.

|title= Historical geography of the Bay Islands, Honduras : Anglo-Hispanic conflict in the western Caribbean

|date= 1974

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|location= Birmingham, Ala.

|edition= 1st

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|hdl=2027/txu.059173001361450

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= De la O Torres

|first1= Rodrigo Alejandro

|title= DE CORSARIOS, MARES Y COSTAS : El corso en la construcción del espacio y experiencias marítimas en el Golfo-Caribe, 1527-1620

|date= 2020

|volume=

|publisher= Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes

|location= Ciudad Universitaria, Aguascalientes

|edition= 1st

|url=

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}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Donohoe

|first1= William Arlington

|title= A History of British Honduras

|date= 1946

|publisher= Provincial Publishing Co.

|location= Montreal

|edition= 1st

|url= https://dloc.com/UF00099204/00001

|oclc= 1666407

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Egli

|first1= Johann Jacob

|title= Nomina geographica Versuch einer allgemeinen geographischen onomatologie

|date= 1872

|publisher= Friedrich Brandstetter

|location= Leipzig

|edition=

|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-F6BHaxT80gC

|oclc= 41195468

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Fancourt

|first1= Charles St. John

|title= The history of Yucatan : from its discovery to the close of the seventeenth century

|date= 1854

|publisher= John Murray

|location= London

|edition= 1st

|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lhguAAAAYAAJ

|oclc= 1908914

}}

1. {{cite book

|editor-last1= Figueroa

|editor-first1= Alejandro J.

|editor-last2= Johnson

|editor-first2= Erlend

|editor-last3= Goodwin

|editor-first3= Whitney A.

|title= Southeastern Mesoamerica : indigenous interaction, resilience, and change

|date= 2021

|volume=

|series=

|publisher= University Press of Colorado

|location= Louisville, Colorado

|edition= 1st

|url= https://muse-jhu-edu.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/book/82605

|url-access=subscription

|oclc= 1226797442

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= García Paláez

|first1= Francisco de Paula

|title=Tomo Segundo

|series=Memorias para la historia del antiguo reyno de Guatemala

|date=1852a

|orig-date=

|volume= 2

|publisher=Establecimiento tip. de L. Luna

|location=Guatemala City

|url= https://archive.org/details/memoriasparalahi02drfr

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}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= García Paláez

|first1= Francisco de Paula

|title=Tomo Tercero

|series=Memorias para la historia del antiguo reyno de Guatemala

|date=1852b

|orig-date=

|volume= 3

|publisher=Establecimiento tip. de L. Luna

|location=Guatemala City

|url= https://bibliotecadigital.aecid.es/bibliodig/es/consulta/registro.do?id=518

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}}

1. {{cite book

|last= Gerhard

|first= Peter

|title= The Southeast Frontier of New Spain

|date= 1979

|publisher= Princeton University Press

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}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Gibbs

|first1= Archibald Robertson

|title= British Honduras: an historical and descriptive account of the colony from its settlement, 1670

|date= 1883

|publisher= Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington

|location= London

|edition= 1st

|oclc= 608881763

|url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/British_Honduras/UmhuYGCOdNQC

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= González Díaz

|first1= Falia

|last2=Lázaro de la Escosura

|first2=Pilar

|title= Mare clausum mare liberum : la pirateria en la América española

|date= 2010

|volume=

|publisher= Ministerio de Cultura

|location= Madrid

|edition= 1st

|url=

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|isbn=9788481814330

}}

1. {{cite book

|editor-last= Green

|editor-first=Mary Anne Everett

|title= Calendar of State Papers Domestic: James I, 1619-23

|date= 1858

|publisher= Her Majesty's Stationery Office

|location= London

|edition= 1st

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|url= https://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/domestic/jas1/1619-23

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}}

1. {{cite book

|editor-last= Green

|editor-first=Mary Anne Everett

|title= Calendar of State Papers Domestic: Charles II, 1661-2

|date= 1861

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|location= London

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|hdl=

|url= https://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/domestic/chas2/1661-2

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}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Gregg

|first1= Algar Robert

|title= British Honduras

|date= 1968

|publisher= Her Majesty's Stationery Office

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|series= The Corona Library

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}}

1. {{cite encyclopedia

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|first1= William J.

|last2= Alford

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|last3= Bolland

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|title= Belize

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|date= 10 January 2022

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}}

1. {{cite book

|editor-last1=Hakluyt

|editor-first1=Richard

|date= 1589

|publisher= By George Bishop and Ralph Newberie, deputies to Christopher Barker, printer to the Queenes most excellent Maiestie

|location= London

|title= The principal nauigations, voiages, traffiques and discoueries of the English nation made by sea or ouer-land, to the remote and farthest distant quarters of the earth, at any time within the compasse of these 1500. yeeres: deuided into three seuerall volumes, according to the positions of the regions, whereunto they were directed

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}}

1. {{cite book

|editor-last1=Hakluyt

|editor-first1=Richard

|date= 1600

|publisher= George Bishop, Ralfe Newberie, & Robert Barker

|location= London

|title= The principal nauigations, voiages, traffiques and discoueries of the English nation made by sea or ouer-land, to the remote and farthest distant quarters of the earth, at any time within the compasse of these 1500. yeeres: deuided into three seuerall volumes, according to the positions of the regions, whereunto they were directed

|volume= 3

|oclc= 252871354

|edition=2nd expanded

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}}

1. {{cite book

|editor-last=Hotten

|editor-first=John Camden

|title=The original lists of persons of quality; emigrants; religious exiles; political rebels; serving men sold for a term of years; apprentices; children stolen; maidens pressed; and others who went from Great Britain to the American plantations 1600-1700

|date=1874

|publisher=John Camden Hotten

|location=London

|edition=1st

|oclc= 919996346

|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VN_A5wlsjQQC

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Humphreys

|first1= R. A.

|title= The Diplomatic History of British Honduras, 1638-1901

|date= 1961

|publisher= Oxford University Press

|location= London

|edition= 1st

|url= https://dloc.com/UF00099184/00001

|oclc= 484695

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Ibarra Rojas

|first1= Eugenia

|title= Del arco y la flecha a las armas de fuego : los indios mosquitos y la historia centroamericana 1633-1786

|date= 2011

|volume=

|publisher= Editorial UCR

|location= San José, Costa Rica

|edition= 1st

|isbn= 9789968462662

|oclc= 757112879

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Iyo

|first1= Joe

|last2= Tzalam

|first2= Froyla

|last3= Humphreys

|first3= Francis

|title= Belize, a new vision : African and Maya civilizations, the heritage of a new nation

|date= 2007

|volume=

|publisher= Factory Books

|location= Belize City

|edition= 1st

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}}

1. {{cite book

|last1=Jones

|first1=Grant D.

|title=Maya resistance to Spanish rule: time and history on a colonial frontier

|date=1989

|publisher=University of New Mexico Press

|location=Albuquerque, New Mex.

|isbn=082631161X

|oclc=20012099

|edition=1st

}}

1. {{cite encyclopedia

|editor-last1= Kinsbruner

|editor-first1= Jay

|editor-last2= Langer

|editor-first2= Erick Detlef

|title= Wallace, Peter

|encyclopedia= Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture

|year= 2008

|publisher= Cengage

|place= Detroit

|volume=6

|edition= 2nd

|url= https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/wallace-peter

|access-date= 8 April 2022

}}

1. {{cite book

|last1=Kupperman

|first1=Karen Ordahl

|title=Providence Island, 1630-1641

|date=1993

|orig-date=

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1. {{cite book

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1. {{cite book

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|last1= Rubio Alpuche

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1. {{cite book

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1. {{cite book

|last1=Sloane

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|title= A voyage to the islands Madera, Barbados, Nieves, S. Christophers and Jamaica, with the natural history of the Herbs and Trees, Four-Footed Beasts, Fishes, Birds, Insects, Reptiles, &c. of the last of those islands; to which is prefix'd an introduction, wherein is an account of the inhabitants, air, waters, diseases, trade, &c. of that Place, with some Relations concerning the Neighbouring Continent, and Islands of America. Illustrated with the figures of the things describ'd, which have not been heretofore engraved; In large Copper-Plates as big as the Life.

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|title= The states of Central America : their geography, topography, climate, population, resources, productions, commerce, political organization, aborigines, etc., etc., comprising chapters on Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Belize, the Bay Islands, the Mosquito Shore, and the Honduras Inter-Oceanic Railway

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}}

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1. {{cite book

|last1= Stephens

|first1= John L.

|title= Incidents of travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan

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}}

1. {{cite book

|last1= Ungewitter

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|date= 1872

|publisher= Gustav Dietze

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1. {{cite book

|last1= Uring

|first1= Nathaniel

|title= A history of the voyages and travels of Capt. Nathaniel Uring. With new draughts of the Bay of Honduras and the Caribbee Islands; and particularly of St. Lucia, and the Harbour of Petite Carenage; into which Ships may run in bad Weather, and be safe from all Winds and Storms. Very useful for Masters of Ships that use the Leeward Island Trade, or Jamaica

|date= 1726

|publisher= Printed by W. Wilkins, for J. Peele

|location= London

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}}

1. {{cite book

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|date=1701

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}}

1. {{cite web

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}}

1. {{cite book

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1. {{cite book

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}}

1. {{cite book

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|editor-first1= Irene A.

|title= Spanish documents concerning English voyages to the Caribbean, 1527-1568

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}}

1. {{cite book

|editor-last1= Wright

|editor-first1= Irene A.

|title= Documents concerning English voyages to the Spanish main, 1569-1580

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|location= London

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}}

1. {{cite book

|editor-last1= Wright

|editor-first1= Irene A.

|title= Further English voyages to Spanish America, 1583-1594 : documents from the Archives of the Indies at Seville illustrating English voyages to the Caribbean, the Spanish Main, Florida, and Virginia

|date= 1951

|volume=

|series=Works issued by the Hakluyt Society ; 2nd ser., no. 99

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|location= London

|edition= 1st

|hdl= 2027/mdp.39015026881790

|oclc= 1476734

}}

{{refend}}

{{British overseas territories}}

{{Spanish Empire}}

{{Pirates}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:History of Belize

Category:17th century in Belize

Category:Piracy in the Caribbean

Category:17th-century pirates

Category:Caribbean pirates

Category:English pirates