Environment of New York City

File:Escalator under Water @ South Ferry (8141518609).jpg in Manhattan during Hurricane Sandy]]

{{See also|Climate of New York City|Climate change in New York City}}The climate of New York City features a humid subtropical variety, with parts of the city transitioning into a humid continental climate, giving the city cool, wet winters and hot, humid summers with plentiful rainfall all year round.{{cite web |last1=Peel |first1=M.C. |last2=Finlayson |first2=B.L. |title=World Map of Köppen-Geiger climate classification |url=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Koppen_World_Map_%28retouched_version%29.png |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113015116/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Koppen_World_Map_%28retouched_version%29.png |archive-date=January 13, 2015 |access-date=27 June 2020 |publisher=The University of Melbourne}}

In September 1821, a hurricane moved up the east coast of the United States, producing a {{convert|13|ft|m|abbr=on}} rise of water – storm surge – in the span of one hour at Battery Park. Water levels reached as far inland as Canal Street.{{cite web|author=Aaron Naparstek |date=2005-07-20 |title=The Big One for New York City |publisher=The New York Press |access-date=2008-01-10 |url=http://www.nypress.com/18/29/news&columns/aaronnaparstek.cfm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230031244/http://www.nypress.com/18/29/news%26columns/aaronnaparstek.cfm |archive-date=30 December 2007 |url-status=dead }} The next hurricane in the city was in August 1893, which knocked down power and telegraph lines, and destroyed several houses.{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1893/08/25/archives/swept-by-wind-and-rain-a-west-indian-cycolone-brings-ruin-in-its.html|title=Swept by Wind and Rain|date=August 25, 1893|access-date=2017-05-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726103805/https://www.nytimes.com/1893/08/25/archives/swept-by-wind-and-rain-a-west-indian-cycolone-brings-ruin-in-its.html|archive-date=2018-07-26|work=The New York Times|via=Newspapers.com {{open access}}}} [https://www.newspapers.com/clip/10725625/new_york_hurricane_of_wed_aug_23thu/ Alt URL] During Hurricane Hazel in 1954, winds at The Battery reached {{convert|113|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}.{{cite web | url=https://www.weather.gov/mhx/Oct151954EventReview | title=Hurricane Hazel, October 15, 1954 }} A nor'easter in December 1992 produced record high tides, with a water level of {{convert|8.04|ft|m|abbr=on}} at The Battery. Floods inundated low-lying areas, and at least 50 cars on Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive required rescue.{{cite web|author=Thomas P. Suro|publisher=United States Geological Survey|title=Maximum tide elevations prior to and during December 11–12, 1992, in New Jersey|date=2008-09-17|access-date=2012-03-09|url=http://ks.water.usgs.gov/pubs/reports/wsp.2499.tab31.pdf}}{{cite journal|title=New York City's Vulnerability to Coastal Flooding|author=Brian A. Colle|date=June 2008|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society|volume=89|issue=6|pages=829–842|publisher=American Meteorological Society|doi=10.1175/2007BAMS2401.1|display-authors=etal|bibcode = 2008BAMS...89..829C |doi-access=free}} The 1992 storm was surpassed by former Hurricane Sandy in October 2012, which rose water levels to {{convert|14.06|ft|m|abbr=on}} above the average low tide. Floodwaters covered about 17% of New York City, imparting about $19 billion in damage, including $5 billion to transportation infrastructure. The floods affected the homes of more than 443,000 people and more than 23,400 businesses. There were 43 deaths in the city related to Sandy.{{Cite web |url=https://www1.nyc.gov/site/sirr/report/report.page |title=A Stronger, More Resilient New York |date=June 11, 2013 |website=NYC Special Initiative for Rebuilding and Resiliency |publisher=Office of the NYC Mayor |access-date=March 17, 2021}}{{cite report|author=Blake, Eric S|author2=Kimberlain, Todd B|author3=Berg, Robert J|author4=Cangialosi, John P|author5=Beven II, John L|date=February 12, 2013|type=Tropical Cyclone Report|format=PDF|title=Hurricane Sandy: October 22 – 29, 2012|author6=National Hurricane Center|access-date=February 17, 2013|url={{NHC TCR url|id=AL182012_Sandy}}|publisher=United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service}} In September 2021, former Hurricane Ida set a rainfall record when it dropped {{convert|3.15|in|cm}} of precipitation in one hour.[https://www.nbcchicago.com/weather/hurricane-ida-new-york-gets-as-much-rain-in-an-hour-as-chicago-averages-in-a-month/2603866/?amp Hurricane Ida: New York Gets as Much Rain in an Hour as Chicago Averages in a Month], NBC 5 Chicago, September 1, 2021 The storm killed 13 people in the city, several of them due to drowning in basement apartments. Floods also shut down roads and the subway.{{cite news|title=13 dead from Ida flooding in NYC, most in basement apartments; DOB to investigate|publisher=WABC Eyewitness News|url=https://abc7ny.com/nyc-flooding-deadly-13-killed-basement-apartments-flood/10995579/|last=Waller|first=Derick|date=September 3, 2021|access-date=September 3, 2021}}

The hottest day on record in the city was July 9, 1936, when Central Park recorded a high temperature of {{convert|106|F|C|abbr=on}}.{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/11/weekinreview/11backthen.html | title=So Hot That | newspaper=The New York Times | date=10 July 2010 }} A heat wave in August 1896 killed 1,500 people in the city.{{cite web | url=https://www.npr.org/2010/08/11/129127924/the-heat-wave-of-1896-and-the-rise-of-roosevelt | title=The Heat Wave of 1896 and the Rise of Roosevelt | website=NPR.org }} The coldest day on record was February 9, 1934, with a temperature of {{Convert|-15|F|C|abbr=on}}.{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/02/06/nyregion/but-what-about-february-9-1934.html#:~:text=By%207%20A.M.%2C%20it%20was,said%20it%20was%2014.3%20below | title=But What About February 9, 1934 . .. | newspaper=The New York Times | date=6 February 1996 | last1=Stout | first1=David }} In March 1888, a blizzard dropped {{convert|21|in|mm|abbr=on}} of snowfall, killing 200 people across the city.{{cite web | url=https://www.nydailynews.com/news/worst-new-york-snowstorms-gallery-1.2092689 | title=Worst snowstorms in New York City history | website=New York Daily News | date=7 January 2022 }} A tropical storm in 1882 dropped {{convert|8.28|in|mm|abbr=on}} of rainfall on September 23, which was the wettest calendar day on record, going back to 1869.{{cite web | url=https://www.nbcnewyork.com/weather/ida-remnants-could-bring-up-to-5-inches-of-rain-in-parts-of-tri-state-on-wednesday/3246481/ | title=Historic Flooding, Destructive Tornadoes Hit Tri-State; NYC Issued 1st-Ever Flash Flood Emergency | date=30 August 2021 }}{{cite web |author1=David Roth |author2=Hugh Cobb |name-list-style=amp |title=Virginia Hurricane History |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |accessdate=January 14, 2008 |url=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/roth/valate19hur.htm| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080108155833/http://www.hpc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/roth/valate19hur.htm| archivedate= January 8, 2008 | url-status= live}} A January 2016 blizzard dropped {{convert|30.5|in|cm|abbr=on}} of snowfall at JFK airport, the highest amount recorded from a single storm.{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2016/01/25/the-12-best-meteorological-images-of-the-blizzard-of-2016/ |title=The 12 best meteorological images of the Blizzard of 2016 |date=2021-12-04 |orig-date=2016-01-25 |author1=Ian Livingston |newspaper=The Washington Post |place=Washington, D.C. |issn=0190-8286 |oclc=1330888409}}{{WaPoCheckDates}} There have been at least 12 tornadoes in the city since 1974.{{cite web |date=November 2014 |url=https://www1.nyc.gov/assets/em/downloads/pdf/hazard_mitigation/nycs_risk_landscape_chapter_4.4_strongwindstorms.pdf |title=NYC's Risk Landscape |page=89 |publisher=New York City Emergency Management}}

{{see also|List of New York City parks|List of tree species in New York City}}

As New York City grew into a city, the surrounding environment was altered by the growing demands of the human population. The ecosystem of New York City is consistently maintained to support a growing population in the city. In the last 400 years since the original ecological systems as researched by the Mannahatta Project, the growth and development of the New York City water supply system, the New York City waste management system, Transportation in New York City, and Food and water in New York City has greatly altered the environment of New York City.

In 2017, CCNY entomologist and Professor of Biology David Lohman discovered a new species of fly living in Central Park.{{Cite web |last=York |first=The City College of New |date=2017 |title=New Central Park fly species gets CCNY professor's moniker |url=https://www.ccny.cuny.edu/news/new-central-park-fly-species-gets-ccny-professor%E2%80%99s-moniker |url-status=usurped |access-date=2022-04-10 |website=The City College of New York |language=en-us}} The fly, Themira lohmanus, has evolved to only breed on duck dung.

File:Smog obscures view of Chrysler Building from Empire State Building.jpg from the Empire State Building during a six-day smog in November 1953, estimated to have caused at least 200 deaths.{{cite web| last=Iglauer| first=Edith| url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1968/04/13/the-ambient-air| url-access=subscription| title=The Ambient Air| magazine=The New Yorker| publisher=The New Yorker Magazine, Inc.| date=April 13, 1968}}]]

{{main|Environmental issues in New York City}}

{{see also|List of Superfund sites in New York}}New York's population density has environmental pros and cons. It facilitates the highest mass transit use in the United States, but also concentrates pollution. Gasoline consumption in the city is at the rate the national average was in the 1920s,{{cite book |last=Jervey |first=Ben |url=https://archive.org/details/biggreenappleyou00jerv |title=The Big Green Apple: Your Guide to Eco-Friendly Living in New York City |publisher=Globe Pequot Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7627-3835-9 |url-access=registration}} and greenhouse gas emissions are a fraction of the national average, at 7.1 metric tons per person per year, below San Francisco, at 11.2 metric tons, and the national average, at 24.5 metric tons.{{cite news |author=New York City Office of Long-term Planning and Sustainability |date=April 2007 |title=Inventory of New York City Greenhouse Gas Emissions |url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/om/pdf/ccp_report041007.pdf |access-date=April 11, 2007}} New York City accounts for only 1% of United States greenhouse gas emissions while housing 2.7% of its population. In September 2012, New York was named the #1 "America's Dirtiest City," by a Travel+Leisure readership survey that rated the environmental quality of 35 prominent cities in the United States.

{{see also|New York City's waste management system}}

New York City's waste management system is a refuse removal system primarily run by the New York City Department of Sanitation (DSNY). The department maintains the waste collection infrastructure and hires public and private contractors who remove the city's waste. This waste, created by New York City's population of more than eight million, can amount to more than ten thousand tons a day.{{Cite web |date=2015-12-23 |title=Garbage Gridlock |url=https://www.city-journal.org/html/garbage-gridlock-12673.html |access-date=2020-04-04 |website=City Journal |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=DSNY - The City of New York Department of Sanitation |url=https://www1.nyc.gov/assets/dsny/site/collectionSchedule |access-date=2020-04-04 |website=www1.nyc.gov}}{{Cite news |author=The Editorial Board |date=2019-10-29 |title=Opinion {{!}} Why New York Can't Pick Up Its Trash |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/29/opinion/nyc-sanitation.html |access-date=2020-04-04 |issn=0362-4331}}{{Cite book |last=Nagle, Robin. |title=Picking up : on the streets and behind the trucks with the sanitation workers of New York City |date=2013 |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |isbn=978-0-374-29929-3 |edition=1st |location=New York |oclc=795174388}}

Waste management has been an issue for New York City since its New Amsterdam days.{{Cite news |last=Goodyear |first=Sarah |title=Life Inside the Drunk, Rowdy World of New Amsterdam |url=http://www.citylab.com/crime/2014/12/life-inside-the-drunk-rowdy-world-of-new-amsterdam/383427/ |access-date=2020-04-04 |newspaper=Bloomberg.com |date=5 December 2014 |language=en}} As a 1657 New Amsterdam ordinance states, “It has been found, that within this City of Amsterdam in New Netherland many burghers and inhabitants throw their rubbish, filth, ashes, dead animals and suchlike things into the public streets to the great inconvenience of the community".{{Cite web |date=2019-08-09 |title=Talking Trash: A History of New York City Sanitation |url=https://www.boweryboyshistory.com/2019/08/talking-trash-a-history-of-new-york-city-sanitation.html |access-date=2020-04-04 |website=The Bowery Boys: New York City History |language=en-US}}

{{see also|List of New York City gardens}}

The Lenape peoples who inhabited the greater NYC area directly prior to European colonization cultivated the environment and land they lived on in New York City, historians believe they planted sunflowers at the edges of the maize fields alongside their villages. In addition, they relied on the many trees growing on what is now New York City for food, shelter, tool materials, fuel, and medicine.{{Cite web |title=Facts for Kids: Lenni Lenape Indian Tribe (Delaware Indians, Lenapes) |url=http://www.bigorrin.org/lenape_kids.htm |access-date=2020-04-24 |website=www.bigorrin.org}} The typical Lenape house, called a longhouse, relied on the bending of the trunks taken from small trees to create a series of arches to serve as the frame. The Lenape used the Zanthoxylum americanum tree as medicine for toothaches because chewing on the leaves or bark creates a tingling, or numbing effect in the mouth.{{Cite web |date=2019-03-13 |title=The Truth About Trees |url=https://urbanomnibus.net/2019/03/the-truth-about-trees/ |access-date=2020-04-24 |website=Urban Omnibus |language=en-US}}

• Environmental issues in New York City
• Rats in New York City
• Food and water in New York City
• Trees of New York City
• Wildlife in the Bronx
• Lower Manhattan Coastal Resiliency
• Birding in New York City
• New York City Department of Environmental Protection
• Oysters in New York City

{{Reflist}}

• Burnstein. Daniel Eli. Next to Godliness: Confronting Dirt and Despair in Progressive Era New York City (University of Illinois Press, 2006)
• [https://pix11.com/news/created-equal/environmental-racism-in-the-bronx-why-the-asthma-rate-is-so-high-in-the-borough/ Dow, J. (2020, October 19). Environmental racism in the Bronx: Why the asthma rate is so high in the borough. PIX 11 New York.]
• Glenna, Leland L. "Value-laden technocratic management and environmental conflicts: The case of the New York City watershed controversy." Science, technology, & human values 35.1 (2010): 81–112. [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0162243909340268 online]
• Hershkowitz, Allen. Bronx ecology: Blueprint for a new environmentalism (Island Press, 2002) [https://books.google.com/books?id=XYwlELNBtz8C&dq=environmentalism++%22New+York+City%22&pg=PR11 online].
• Kiechle, Melanie A. "The air we breathe": nineteenth-century Americans and the search for fresh air" (PhD. Diss. Rutgers University-Graduate School-New Brunswick, 2012) [https://rucore.libraries.rutgers.edu/rutgers-lib/38846/pdf/1/ online].
• Lifset, Robert D. Power on the Hudson: Storm King Mountain and the Emergence of Modern American Environmentalism (2014)
• Owen, David. "Green Manhattan." The New Yorker 80.31 (2004): 111–23. [http://www.contemporaryurbananthropology.org/pdfs/Owen,%20Green%20Manhattan.pdf online]
• Pfeffer, Max J., and J. Mayone Stycos. "Immigrant environmental behaviors in New York city." Social Science Quarterly 83.1 (2002): 64–81.
• Preston, Christopher J., and Steven H. Corey. "Public health and environmentalism: Adding garbage to the history of environmental ethics." Environmental ethics 27.1 (2005): 3-21.
• Rochard, Hugo. "Civic environmentalism and urban renaturation politics: case studies from the greater Paris and New York City." Journée du LIEPP 2021. [https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03272060/document online]
• {{cite book | editor-last=Zimring | editor-first=Carl A. | editor-last2=Corey | editor-first2=Steven H. | title=Coastal Metropolis: Environmental Histories of Modern New York City | publication-place=Pittsburgh, Pa. | date=2021 | isbn=978-0-8229-8798-7 | oclc=1241662670}}

• [https://www.nybg.org/content/uploads/2018/08/SCI_State-of-the-Citys-Plants-2018-FULL4.pdf STATE OF NEW YORK CITY’S PLANTS 2018] - report published by the New York Botanical Garden's New York City EcoFlora project
• [http://www.nyc.gov/html/oec/html/home/home.shtml New York City Office of Environmental Coordination]

{{New York City}}

Category:Environment of New York City

Category:Geography of New York City

Category:Environment by city