Error-related negativity

The ERN was first discovered in 1968 by Natalia Bekhtereva and was called "error detector".{{Cite journal| vauthors = Bechtereva NP, Gretchin VB| year = 1968 |title = Physiological foundations of mental activity|url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4887001|journal=International Review of Neurobiology|language=en|volume=11|pages=329–352| doi = 10.1016/s0074-7742(08)60392-x | pmid = 4887001 | isbn = 978-0-12-366811-0 |issn=0074-7742|archivedate=2019-02-02|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202042002/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4887001}}{{Cite journal|vauthors=Bechtereva NP, Shemyakina NV, Starchenko MG, Danko SG, Medvedev SV|year = 2005| title=Error detection mechanisms of the brain: Background and prospects|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0167876005001789|journal=International Journal of Psychophysiology|volume=58|issue=2–3|pages=227–234|doi=10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2005.06.005|archivedate=2018-04-21|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180421094627/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0167876005001789|url-access=subscription}} Later in 1990 ERN was developed by two independent research teams; Michael Falkenstein, J. Hohnsbein, J. Hoormann, & L. Blanke (1990) at the Institute for Work Physiology and Neurophysiology in Dortmund, Germany (who called it the "Ne"), and W.J. "Bill" Gehring, M.G.H. Coles, D.E. Meyer & E. Donchin (1990) at the University of Michigan, USA.{{Cite journal|last1=Gehring|first1=William J.|last2=Goss|first2=Brian|last3=Coles|first3=Michael G. H.|last4=Meyer|first4=David E.|last5=Donchin|first5=Emanuel|date=1 March 2018|title=The Error-Related Negativity|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617715310|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|pages=200–204|doi=10.1177/1745691617715310|pmid=29592655 |s2cid=4459484 |issn=1745-6916|url-access=subscription}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Gehring WJ, Coles M, Meyer D, Donchin E | year = 1990 | title = The error-related negativity: an event-related brain potential accompanying errors | journal = Psychophysiology | volume = 27 | page = 34 }} The ERN was observed in response to errors committed by study participants during simple choice response tasks.

The ERN is a sharp negative going signal which begins about the same time an incorrect motor response begins, (response locked event-related potential), and typically peaks from 80 to 150 milliseconds (ms) after the erroneous response begins (or 40–80 ms after the onset of electromyographic activity).{{cite thesis | vauthors = Gehring WJ | year = 1993 | title = The error-related negativity: Evidence for a neural mechanism for error-related processing. | degree = PhD | publisher = University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign | url = https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/handle/2142/72113 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Gehring WJ, Goss B, Coles MG, Meyer DE | year = 1993 | title = A neural system for error detection and compensation | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 4 | issue = 6| pages = 385–390 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.1993.tb00586.x| s2cid = 17422146 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Dikman ZV, Allen JJ | title = Error monitoring during reward and avoidance learning in high- and low-socialized individuals | journal = Psychophysiology | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 43–54 | date = January 2000 | pmid = 10705766 | doi = 10.1111/1469-8986.3710043 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Luu P, Flaisch T, Tucker DM | title = Medial frontal cortex in action monitoring | journal = The Journal of Neuroscience | volume = 20 | issue = 1 | pages = 464–9 | date = January 2000 | pmid = 10627622 | pmc = 6774138 | doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-01-00464.2000 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Falkenstein M, Hoormann J, Christ S, Hohnsbein J | title = ERP components on reaction errors and their functional significance: a tutorial | journal = Biological Psychology | volume = 51 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 87–107 | date = January 2000 | pmid = 10686361 | doi = 10.1016/S0301-0511(99)00031-9 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.463.5431 | s2cid = 8569230 }} The ERN is the largest at frontal and central electrode sites. A typical method for determining the average ERN amplitude for an individual involves calculating the peak-to-peak difference in voltage between the average of the most negative peaks 1–150 ms after response onset, and the average amplitude of positive peaks 100–0 ms before response onset.{{cite journal | vauthors = Gentsch A, Ullsperger P, Ullsperger M | title = Dissociable medial frontal negativities from a common monitoring system for self- and externally caused failure of goal achievement | journal = NeuroImage | volume = 47 | issue = 4 | pages = 2023–30 | date = October 2009 | pmid = 19486945 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.05.064 | s2cid = 1269317 }} For optimal resolution of the signal, reference electrodes are typically placed behind both ears using either hardware or arithmetically linked mastoid electrodes.

Any paradigm in which mistakes are made during motor responses can be used to measure the ERN. Natural keyboarding is one such example where typing errors are shown to elicit ERN.{{cite journal |last1=Kalfaoglu |first1=C |last2=Stafford |first2=T |last3=Milne |first3=L |title=Frontal theta band oscillations predict error correction and post-error slowing in typing. |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance |date=2018 |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=69–88 |doi=10.1037/xhp0000417 |pmid=28447844 |s2cid=7855008 |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/112945/1/JEP_HPP_MS_accepted.pdf }} The most important feature of any ERN paradigm is obtaining a sufficient number of errors in the participant's responses, and the number of trials needed to obtain reliable scores can vary widely, which is particularly relevant for studies of individual differences.{{Cite journal|last=Clayson|first=Peter E.|title=Moderators of the internal consistency of error-related negativity scores: A meta-analysis of internal consistency estimates|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/psyp.13583|journal=Psychophysiology|year=2020|volume=57|issue=8|language=en|pages=e13583|doi=10.1111/psyp.13583|pmid=32324305|s2cid=216084678 |issn=1469-8986}} Early experiments identifying the component used a variety of techniques, including word and tone identification, and categorical discrimination (e.g. are the following an animal?).{{cite book | vauthors = Gehring WJ, Coles MG, Meyer DE, Donchin E | date = 1995 | chapter = A brain potential manifestation of error-related processing. | veditors = Karmos G, Molnár M, Csép V, Czigler I, Desmedt JE | title = Perspectives of Event-Related Potential Research | volume = Supplement 44 | pages = 261–272 | location = New York | publisher = Oxford }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Hohnsbein J, Falkensetin M, Hoormann J | year = 1989 | title = Error processing in visual and auditory choice reaction tasks | journal = Psychophysiology | volume = 3 | page = 32 }} However, the majority of experimental paradigms that elicit ERN deflections have been a variant on the Eriksen "Flanker",{{cite journal | vauthors = Jodo E, Kayama Y | title = Relation of a negative ERP component to response inhibition in a Go/No-go task | journal = Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology | volume = 82 | issue = 6 | pages = 477–82 | date = June 1992 | pmid = 1375556 | doi = 10.1016/0013-4694(92)90054-L }} and "Go/NoGo".{{cite journal | vauthors = Ruchsow M, Spitzer M, Grön G, Grothe J, Kiefer M | title = Error processing and impulsiveness in normals: evidence from event-related potentials | journal = Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research | volume = 24 | issue = 2 | pages = 317–25 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 15993769 | doi = 10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.02.003 }} In addition to responses with the hands, the ERN can also be measured in paradigms where the task is performed with the feet{{cite journal | vauthors = Holroyd CB, Dien J, Coles MG | title = Error-related scalp potentials elicited by hand and foot movements: evidence for an output-independent error-processing system in humans | journal = Neuroscience Letters | volume = 242 | issue = 2 | pages = 65–8 | date = February 1998 | pmid = 9533395 | doi = 10.1016/S0304-3940(98)00035-4 | hdl = 1854/LU-8650250 | s2cid = 18103169 | hdl-access = free }} or with vocal responses as in the Stroop paradigm.{{cite journal | vauthors = Masaki H, Tanaka H, Takasawa N, Yamazaki K | title = Error-related brain potentials elicited by vocal errors | journal = NeuroReport | volume = 12 | issue = 9 | pages = 1851–5 | date = July 2001 | pmid = 11435911 | doi = 10.1097/00001756-200107030-00018 | s2cid = 31526106 }}

A standard Flanker task involves discerning the central "target" letter from a string of distracting "flanker" letters which surround it. For example, congruous letter strings such as "SSSSS" or "HHHHH" and incongruous letter strings such as "HHSHH" or "SSHSS" may be presented on a computer screen. Each target letter would be assigned a key stroke response on a keyboard, such as "S" = right shift key and "H" = left shift key. Presentation of each letter string is brief, generally less than 100 ms, and central on the screen. Participants have approximately 2000 ms to respond before the next presentation.

The most simple Go/NoGo tasks involve assigning a property of discernment to responding "Go" or not responding "NoGo." For example, again congruous letter strings such as "SSSSS" or "HHHHH" and incongruous letter strings such as "HHSHH" or "SSHSS" may be presented on a computer screen. The participant could be instructed to respond by pressing the space bar, only for congruous strings, and to not respond when presented with incongruous letter strings. More complicated Go/NoGo tasks are usually created when the ERN is the component of interest however, because to observe the robust negativity errors must be made.

The classic Stroop paradigm involves a color-word task. Color words such as "red, yellow, orange, green" are presented centrally on a computer screen either in a color congruent with the word, ("red" in the color red) or in a color incongruent with the word ("red" in the color yellow). Participants may be asked to verbalize the color each word is written in. Incongruent and congruent presentations of the words can be manipulated to different rates, such as 25/75, 50/50, 30/70 etc. Studies of ERN across flanker, Stroop, and Go/NoGo tasks support convergent validity of ERN, but convergent validity of ERN difference scores is not supported, suggesting there might task-specific differences in ERN difference scores.{{Cite journal |last1=Clayson |first1=Peter E. |last2=Mcdonald |first2=Julia B. |last3=Park |first3=Bohyun |last4=Holbrook |first4=Amanda |last5=Baldwin |first5=Scott A. |last6=Riesel |first6=Anja |last7=Larson |first7=Michael J. |date=28 December 2023 |title=Registered replication report of the construct validity of the error-related negativity ( ERN ): A multi-site study of task-specific ERN correlations with internalizing and externalizing symptoms |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/psyp.14496 |journal=Psychophysiology |volume=62 |language=en |doi=10.1111/psyp.14496 |pmid=38155370 |issn=0048-5772}}

The amplitude of the ERN is sensitive to the intent and motivation of participants. When a participant is instructed to strive for accuracy in responses, observed amplitudes are typically larger than when participants are instructed to strive for speed. Monetary incentives typically result in larger amplitudes as well.{{cite journal | vauthors = Pailing PE, Segalowitz SJ | title = The error-related negativity as a state and trait measure: motivation, personality, and ERPs in response to errors | journal = Psychophysiology | volume = 41 | issue = 1 | pages = 84–95 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14693003 | doi = 10.1111/1469-8986.00124 | url = http://www.science.mcmaster.ca/pnb/department/seminars/readings/Pailing%20%26%20Segalowitz%20(2004).pdf }} Latency of the ERN peak amplitude can also vary between subjects, and does so reliably in special populations such as those diagnosed with ADHD, who show shorter latencies.{{cite journal | vauthors = Chang W, Davies PL, Gavin WJ | year = 2009 | title = Error monitoring in college students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | journal = Journal of Psychophysiology | volume = 23 | issue = 3| pages = 113–125 | doi=10.1027/0269-8803.23.3.113}} Participants with clinically diagnosed Obsessive Compulsive Disorder have exhibited ERN deflections with increased amplitude, prolonged latency, and a more posterior topography compared to clinically normal participants.{{cite journal | vauthors = Johannes S, Wieringa BM, Nager W, Rada D, Dengler R, Emrich HM, Münte TF, Dietrich DE | title = Discrepant target detection and action monitoring in obsessive-compulsive disorder | journal = Psychiatry Research | volume = 108 | issue = 2 | pages = 101–10 | date = November 2001 | pmid = 11738544 | doi = 10.1016/S0925-4927(01)00117-2 | s2cid = 21537300 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Ruchsow M, Grön G, Reuter K, Spitzer M, Hermle L, Kiefer M | year = 2005 | title = Error-related brain activity in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder and in healthy controls | journal = Journal of Psychophysiology | volume = 19 | issue = 4| pages = 298–304 | doi=10.1027/0269-8803.19.4.298}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Endrass T, Schuermann B, Kaufmann C, Spielberg R, Kniesche R, Kathmann N | title = Performance monitoring and error significance in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder | journal = Biological Psychology | volume = 84 | issue = 2 | pages = 257–63 | date = May 2010 | pmid = 20152879 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.02.002 | s2cid = 2634362 }} ERN latency has been manipulated through rapid feedback, wherein participants who received rapid feedback regarding the incorrect response subsequently showed shorter ERN peak latencies.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fiehler K, Ullsperger M, von Cramon DY | title = Electrophysiological correlates of error correction | journal = Psychophysiology | volume = 42 | issue = 1 | pages = 72–82 | date = January 2005 | pmid = 15720582 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2005.00265.x }} Additionally, a heightened ERN amplitude during social situations has been linked to anxiety symptoms in both childhood and adulthood.{{cite journal | vauthors = Buzzell GA, Troller-Renfree SV, Barker TV, Bowman LC, Chronis-Tuscano A, Henderson HA, Kagan J, Pine DS, Fox NA | title = A Neurobehavioral Mechanism Linking Behaviorally Inhibited Temperament and Later Adolescent Social Anxiety | journal = Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry | volume = 56 | issue = 12 | pages = 1097–1105 | date = December 2017 | pmid = 29173744 | pmc = 5975216 | doi = 10.1016/j.jaac.2017.10.007 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Barker TV, Troller-Renfree SV, Bowman LC, Pine DS, Fox NA | title = Social influences of error monitoring in adolescent girls | journal = Psychophysiology | volume = 55 | issue = 9 | pages = e13089 | date = April 2018 | pmid = 29682751 | pmc = 6113062 | doi = 10.1111/psyp.13089 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Barker TV, Troller-Renfree S, Pine DS, Fox NA | title = Individual differences in social anxiety affect the salience of errors in social contexts | journal = Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience | volume = 15 | issue = 4 | pages = 723–35 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 25967929 | pmc = 4641754 | doi = 10.3758/s13415-015-0360-9 }}

Developmental studies have shown that the ERN emerges throughout childhood and adolescence becoming more negative in amplitude and with a more defined peak.{{Cite journal|date=1 March 2017|title=Conflict and performance monitoring throughout the lifespan: An event-related potential (ERP) and temporospatial component analysis|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S030105111730025X|journal=Biological Psychology|language=en|volume=124|pages=87–99|doi=10.1016/j.biopsycho.2017.01.012|issn=0301-0511|last1=Clawson |first1=Ann |last2=Clayson |first2=Peter E. |last3=Keith |first3=Cierra M. |last4=Catron |first4=Christina |last5=Larson |first5=Michael J. |pmid=28143802 |s2cid=24643120 |url-access=subscription }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Davies PL, Segalowitz SJ, Gavin WJ | title = Development of response-monitoring ERPs in 7- to 25-year-olds | journal = Developmental Neuropsychology | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 355–76 | date = June 2004 | pmid = 15148003 | doi = 10.1207/s15326942dn2503_6 | s2cid = 17152414 }} The ERN appears to be modulated by the environment during childhood, with children who experience early adversity showing evidence of less negative ERN amplitudes.{{cite journal | vauthors = Troller-Renfree S, Nelson CA, Zeanah CH, Fox NA | title = Deficits in error monitoring are associated with externalizing but not internalizing behaviors among children with a history of institutionalization | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume = 57 | issue = 10 | pages = 1145–53 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 27569003 | pmc = 5047056 | doi = 10.1111/jcpp.12604 }}

Although it is difficult to localize the origin of an ERP signal, extensive empirical research indicates that the ERN is most likely generated in the Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) area of the brain. This conclusion is supported by fMRI,{{cite journal | vauthors = Ito S, Stuphorn V, Brown JW, Schall JD | title = Performance monitoring by the anterior cingulate cortex during saccade countermanding | journal = Science | volume = 302 | issue = 5642 | pages = 120–2 | date = October 2003 | pmid = 14526085 | doi = 10.1126/science.1087847 | bibcode = 2003Sci...302..120I | s2cid = 20984400 }}Holroyd, C. B., Nieuwenhuis, S., Mars, R. B., & Coles, M. G. H. (2004). Anterior cingulate cortex, selection for action, and error processing. In M. I. Posner (Ed.), Cognitive neuroscience of attention. (pp. 219–231). New York, NY, US: Guilford Press. and brain lesion research,{{cite journal | vauthors = Stemmer B, Segalowitz SJ, Witzke W, Schönle PW | title = Error detection in patients with lesions to the medial prefrontal cortex: an ERP study | journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 42 | issue = 1 | pages = 118–30 | date = 2004 | pmid = 14615082 | doi = 10.1016/s0028-3932(03)00121-0 | s2cid = 34604786 }} as well as dipole source modeling.{{cite journal | vauthors = Dehaene S, Posner MI, Tucker DM | year = 1994 | title = Localization of a neural system for error detection and compensation | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 5 | issue = 5| pages = 303–305 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.1994.tb00630.x| s2cid = 144007484 }} The Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) may also be involved in the generation of the ERN to some degree, and it has been found that persons with higher levels of "absent-mindedness" have their ERN sourced more from that region.{{cite journal | vauthors = Hester R, Foxe JJ, Molholm S, Shpaner M, Garavan H | title = Neural mechanisms involved in error processing: a comparison of errors made with and without awareness | journal = NeuroImage | volume = 27 | issue = 3 | pages = 602–8 | date = September 2005 | pmid = 16024258 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.04.035 | hdl = 2262/30186 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.688.5110 | s2cid = 15497532 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Roche RA, Garavan H, Foxe JJ, O'Mara SM | title = Individual differences discriminate event-related potentials but not performance during response inhibition | journal = Experimental Brain Research | volume = 160 | issue = 1 | pages = 60–70 | date = January 2005 | pmid = 15480606 | doi = 10.1007/s00221-004-1985-z | s2cid = 24173453 }}

There is some debate within the field about what the ERN reflects (see especially Burle, et al.{{cite journal | vauthors = Burle B, Roger C, Allain S, Vidal F, Hasbroucq T | title = Error negativity does not reflect conflict: a reappraisal of conflict monitoring and anterior cingulate cortex activity | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | volume = 20 | issue = 9 | pages = 1637–55 | date = September 2008 | pmid = 18345992 | doi = 10.1162/jocn.2008.20110 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.471.7640 | s2cid = 13944789 }}) Some researchers maintain that the ERN is generated during the detection of or response to errors.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bernstein PS, Scheffers MK, Coles MG | title = "Where did I go wrong?" A psychophysiological analysis of error detection | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance | volume = 21 | issue = 6 | pages = 1312–22 | date = December 1995 | pmid = 7490583 | doi = 10.1037/0096-1523.21.6.1312 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Coles MG, Scheffers MK, Holroyd CB | title = Why is there an ERN/Ne on correct trials? Response representations, stimulus-related components, and the theory of error-processing | journal = Biological Psychology | volume = 56 | issue = 3 | pages = 173–89 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11399349 | doi = 10.1016/s0301-0511(01)00076-x | s2cid = 247129 }} Others argue that the ERN is generated by a comparison process or a conflict monitoring system,{{Cite journal|date=1 September 2014|title=Making sense of all the conflict: A theoretical review and critique of conflict-related ERPs|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016787601400141X|journal=International Journal of Psychophysiology|language=en|volume=93|issue=3|pages=283–297|doi=10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2014.06.007|issn=0167-8760|last1=Larson |first1=Michael J. |last2=Clayson |first2=Peter E. |last3=Clawson |first3=Ann |pmid=24950132 |url-access=subscription}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Botvinick MM, Cohen JD, Carter CS | title = Conflict monitoring and anterior cingulate cortex: an update | journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences | volume = 8 | issue = 12 | pages = 539–46 | date = December 2004 | pmid = 15556023 | doi = 10.1016/j.tics.2004.10.003 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.335.6481 | s2cid = 6185169 }} and not specific to errors. In contrast to the above cognitive theories, new models suggest that the ERN may reflect the motivational significance of a task{{cite journal | vauthors = Hajcak G, Moser JS, Yeung N, Simons RF | title = On the ERN and the significance of errors | journal = Psychophysiology | volume = 42 | issue = 2 | pages = 151–60 | date = March 2005 | pmid = 15787852 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2005.00270.x | citeseerx = 10.1.1.718.1750 }} or perhaps the emotional reaction to making an error.{{cite journal | vauthors = Inzlicht M, Al-Khindi T | title = ERN and the placebo: a misattribution approach to studying the arousal properties of the error-related negativity | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology. General | volume = 141 | issue = 4 | pages = 799–807 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 22390264 | doi = 10.1037/a0027586 }} This later view is consistent with findings linking errors and the ERN to autonomic arousal{{cite journal | vauthors = Hajcak G, McDonald N, Simons RF | title = To err is autonomic: error-related brain potentials, ANS activity, and post-error compensatory behavior | journal = Psychophysiology | volume = 40 | issue = 6 | pages = 895–903 | date = November 2003 | pmid = 14986842 | doi = 10.1111/1469-8986.00107 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.533.4268 }} and defensive motivated states,{{cite journal | vauthors = Hajcak G, Foti D | title = Errors are aversive: defensive motivation and the error-related negativity | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 103–8 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 18271855 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02053.x | s2cid = 16118604 }} and with findings suggesting that the ERN is dissociable from cognitive factors, but not affective ones.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bartholow BD, Henry EA, Lust SA, Saults JS, Wood PK | title = Alcohol effects on performance monitoring and adjustment: affect modulation and impairment of evaluative cognitive control | journal = Journal of Abnormal Psychology | volume = 121 | issue = 1 | pages = 173–86 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 21604824 | pmc = 4254813 | doi = 10.1037/a0023664 }} Unfortunately, it is still unclear how to interpret differences in sizes of ERN, as both smaller and larger ERN have been interpreted as "better".{{Cite journal|date=1 July 2021|title=A commentary on establishing norms for error-related brain activity during the arrow flanker task among young adults|journal=NeuroImage|language=en|volume=234|pages=117932|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117932|issn=1053-8119|doi-access=free|last1=Clayson |first1=Peter E. |last2=Kappenman |first2=Emily S. |last3=Gehring |first3=William J. |last4=Miller |first4=Gregory A. |last5=Larson |first5=Michael J. |pmid=33677074 }}

A stimulus locked event-related potential is also observed following the presentation of negative feedback stimuli in a cognitive task indicating the outcome of a response, often referred to as the feedback ERN (fERN).{{cite journal | vauthors = Miltner WH, Braun CH, Coles MG | title = Event-related brain potentials following incorrect feedback in a time-estimation task: evidence for a "generic" neural system for error detection | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | pages = 788–98 | date = November 1997 | pmid = 23964600 | doi = 10.1162/jocn.1997.9.6.788 | s2cid = 25731024 }} This has led some researchers to extend the error-detection account of the response ERN (rERN) to a generic error detection system. This position has been elaborated into a reinforcement learning account of the ERN, arguing that both the rERN and the fERN are products of prediction error signals carried by the dopamine system arriving in the anterior cingulate cortex indicating that events have gone worse than expected.{{cite journal | vauthors = Holroyd CB, Coles MG | title = The neural basis of human error processing: reinforcement learning, dopamine, and the error-related negativity | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 109 | issue = 4 | pages = 679–709 | date = October 2002 | pmid = 12374324 | doi = 10.1037/0033-295x.109.4.679 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.334.5138 }} In this framework it is common to measure both the rERN and the fERN as the difference in voltage between correct and incorrect responses and feedback, respectively.

Debates about psychiatric disorders often become "chicken and egg" conundrums; a relationship complicated by an incomplete understanding of the functional significance of ERN. The ERN has been proposed as a potential arbitrator of this argument. A body of empirical research has shown that the ERN reflects a "trait" level difference in individual error processing; especially concerning anxiety, rather than a "state" level difference.{{cite journal | vauthors = Olvet DM, Hajcak G | title = The error-related negativity (ERN) and psychopathology: toward an endophenotype | journal = Clinical Psychology Review | volume = 28 | issue = 8 | pages = 1343–54 | date = December 2008 | pmid = 18694617 | pmc = 2615243 | doi = 10.1016/j.cpr.2008.07.003 }} For example; most people who experience depression do not feel depressed all of the time. Instead, they have periods of depressive "states" which may be minor and unique to an extreme situation such as death of a loved one, loss of employment, or major injury. However a person who has a depressive "trait" will have experienced more than one minor depressive "state" and usually at least one major depressive state, any of which may not be unique to an obviously extreme situation.{{cite journal | vauthors = Eaton WW, Shao H, Nestadt G, Lee HB, Lee BH, Bienvenu OJ, Zandi P | title = Population-based study of first onset and chronicity in major depressive disorder | journal = Archives of General Psychiatry | volume = 65 | issue = 5 | pages = 513–20 | date = May 2008 | pmid = 18458203 | pmc = 2761826 | doi = 10.1001/archpsyc.65.5.513 }} In fact, there is some evidence, albeit weak, that people with depression show small ERNs.{{Cite journal|last1=Moran|first1=Tim P.|last2=Schroder|first2=Hans S.|last3=Kneip|first3=Chelsea|last4=Moser|first4=Jason S.|date=1 January 2017|title=Meta-analysis and psychophysiology: A tutorial using depression and action-monitoring event-related potentials|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167876016301222|journal=International Journal of Psychophysiology|series=Rigor and Replication: Towards Improved Best Practices in Psychophysiological Research|language=en|volume=111|pages=17–32|doi=10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2016.07.001|pmid=27378538|issn=0167-8760|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite journal|last1=Clayson|first1=Peter E.|last2=Carbine|first2=Kaylie A.|last3=Larson|first3=Michael J.|date=1 April 2020|title=A registered report of error-related negativity and reward positivity as biomarkers of depression: P-Curving the evidence|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167876020300180|journal=International Journal of Psychophysiology|language=en|volume=150|pages=50–72|doi=10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.01.005|pmid=31987869|s2cid=210933345 |issn=0167-8760}} Scientists are exploring the use of the ERN and other ERP signals in identifying people at risk for psychiatric disorders in hopes of implementing early interventions. People with addictive behaviors such as smoking,{{cite journal | vauthors = Franken IH, van Strien JW, Kuijpers I | title = Evidence for a deficit in the salience attribution to errors in smokers | journal = Drug and Alcohol Dependence | volume = 106 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 181–5 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 19781864 | doi = 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.08.014 }} alcoholism,{{cite journal | vauthors = Fein G, Chang M | title = Smaller feedback ERN amplitudes during the BART are associated with a greater family history density of alcohol problems in treatment-naïve alcoholics | journal = Drug and Alcohol Dependence | volume = 92 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 141–8 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 17869027 | pmc = 2430520 | doi = 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.07.017 }} and substance abuse have also shown differential ERN responses compared to individuals without the same addictive behavior.

The ERN is often preceded by a small positive voltage deflection with a latency in the interval of −200 to −50 milliseconds in the response-locked ERP in channels over the scalp vertex, which is sometimes referred to as the "positive peak preceding the Ne" or "PNe",{{cite journal | vauthors = Albrecht B, Braindeis D, Uebel H, Heinrich H, Mueller U, Hasselhorn M, Steinhausen HC, Rothenberger A, Banaschewski T | title = Action monitoring in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, their nonaffected siblings, and normal control subjects: evidence for an endophenotype | journal = Biological Psychiatry | volume = 64 | issue = 7 | pages = 615–625 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.12.016 | pmid = 18339358 | pmc = 2580803 | year = 2008 }} but more generally thought to reflect the pre-movement positivity (PMP) described by Deecke et al. (1969).{{cite journal | vauthors = Deecke L, Scheid P, Kornhuber H | title = Distribution of readiness potential, pre-motion positivity, and motor potential of the human cerebral cortex preceding voluntary finger movements | journal = Experimental Brain Research | year = 1969 | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | pages = 158–168 | doi = 10.1007/BF00235441 | pmid = 5799432 | s2cid = 25140343 }} The PMP is thought to reflect a "go signal" by which pre-SMA and SMA permit a motor response to be carried out.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bortoletto M, Sarlo M, Poli S, Stegagno L | title = Pre-motion positivity during self-paced movements of finger and mouth | journal = NeuroReport | volume = 17 | issue = 9 | pages = 883–886 | doi = 10.1097/01.wnr.0000221830.95598.ea | pmid = 16738481 | year = 2006 | s2cid = 37340197 }} PMP is smaller before error motor responses than it is before correct motor responses, suggesting that it may be an important signal for discriminating erroneous from correct actions. Additionally, PMP is smaller in people who make more mistakes during the Flankers task and may have clinical utility in accident prone populations, such as youths with ADHD.{{cite journal | vauthors = Burwell S, Makeig S, Iacono W, Malone S | title = Reduced premovement positivity during the stimulus-response interval precedes errors: using single-trial and regression ERPs to understand performance deficits in ADHD | journal = Psychophysiology | volume = 56 | issue = 9 | pages = e13392 | doi = 10.1111/psyp.13392 | pmid = 31081153 | pmc = 6699894 | year = 2019 }}

The ERN is often followed by a positivity, known as the error-related positivity or Pe. The Pe is a positive deflection with a centro-parietal distribution. When elicited, the Pe can occur 200-500ms after making an incorrect response, following the error negativity (Ne, ERN), but is not evident on all error trials. In particular, the Pe is dependent on awareness or ability to detect errors. Pe is basically the same as the P300 wave associated with conscious sensations.{{cite book|last1=Dehaene|first1=Stanislas|title=Consciousness and the Brain: Deciphering How the Brain Codes Our Thoughts|date=2014|publisher=Viking|isbn=978-0670025435}}{{rp|128}} Additionally, Vocat et al. (2008){{cite journal | vauthors = Vocat R, Pourtois G, Vuilleumier P | title = Unavoidable errors: a spatio-temporal analysis of time-course and neural sources of evoked potentials associated with error processing in a speeded task | journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 46 | issue = 10 | pages = 2545–55 | date = August 2008 | pmid = 18533202 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.04.006 | s2cid = 12322358 }} established the Ne and Pe not only have different topographical distributions, but have different generators. Source localization indicates that the Ne has a dipole in the anterior cingulate cortex and the Pe has a dipole in the posterior cingulate cortex. The Pe amplitude reflects the perception of the error, meaning with more awareness of the error, the amplitude of the Pe is larger. Falkenstein and colleagues (2000) have shown that the Pe is elicited on uncorrected trials and false alarm trials, suggesting it is not directly related to error correction. It thus seems to be related to error monitoring, albeit with different neural and cognitive roots from the error-related processing reflected in the Ne.

If the Pe reflects conscious error processing, then it might be expected to be different for people with deficits in conflict monitoring, such as ADHD and OCD. Whether this is true remains controversial. Some studies do indicate these conditions are associated with different Pe responses,{{cite journal | vauthors = Herrmann MJ, Saathoff C, Schreppel TJ, Ehlis AC, Scheuerpflug P, Pauli P, Fallgatter AJ | title = The effect of ADHD symptoms on performance monitoring in a non-clinical population | journal = Psychiatry Research | volume = 169 | issue = 2 | pages = 144–8 | date = September 2009 | pmid = 19700203 | doi = 10.1016/j.psychres.2008.06.015 | s2cid = 207446529 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Santesso DL, Segalowitz SJ, Schmidt LA | title = Error-related electrocortical responses are enhanced in children with obsessive-compulsive behaviors | journal = Developmental Neuropsychology | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | pages = 431–45 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16671860 | doi = 10.1207/s15326942dn2903_3 | s2cid = 26971925 }} whereas other studies have not replicated those findings.{{cite journal | vauthors = Wild-Wall N, Oades RD, Schmidt-Wessels M, Christiansen H, Falkenstein M | title = Neural activity associated with executive functions in adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | journal = International Journal of Psychophysiology | volume = 74 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–27 | date = October 2009 | pmid = 19607863 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2009.06.003 | url = https://duepublico2.uni-due.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/duepublico_derivate_00028098/Oades2009Neural.pdf }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Endrass T, Klawohn J, Schuster F, Kathmann N | title = Overactive performance monitoring in obsessive-compulsive disorder: ERP evidence from correct and erroneous reactions | journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 46 | issue = 7 | pages = 1877–87 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18514679 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.12.001 | s2cid = 10992143 }} The Pe has also been used to evaluate error processing in patients with severe brain traumatic injury. In a study using a variation of the Stroop task, patients with severe traumatic brain injury associated with deficits in error processing were found to show a significantly smaller Pe on error trials when compared against the healthy controls.{{cite journal | vauthors = Larson MJ, Perlstein WM | title = Awareness of deficits and error processing after traumatic brain injury | journal = NeuroReport | volume = 20 | issue = 16 | pages = 1486–90 | date = October 2009 | pmid = 19809369 | doi = 10.1097/wnr.0b013e32833283fe | s2cid = 31173397 }}

Some researchers argue that error-related negativity or error-related positivity is in fact, reward-related positivity. Reward-related positivity is also referred to as reward positivity, or RewP.{{cite journal |last1=Proudfit |first1=Greg Hajcak |title=The reward positivity: From basic research on reward to a biomarker for depression: The reward positivity |journal=Psychophysiology |date=April 2015 |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=449–459 |doi=10.1111/psyp.12370|pmid=25327938 }} It has been suggested that ERP data is depicting neural positivity to rewards (aka reward positivity) rather than neural negativity to loss (aka error-related negativity). Thus, this shift in how we conceptualize neural responses to gains/losses allows us to further understand the underlying neural processes.

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}

• Bereitschaftspotential
• C1 and P1
• Contingent negative variation
• Difference due to memory
• Early left anterior negativity
• Late positive component
• Lateralized readiness potential
• Mismatch negativity
• N2pc
• N100
• N170
• N200
• N400
• P3a
• P3b
• P200
• P300 (neuroscience)
• P600
• Somatosensory evoked potential
• Visual N1

{{div col end}}

{{reflist|30em}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Error-Related Negativity}}

Category:Electroencephalography

Category:Evoked potentials