Fuel cell vehicle#Fuel economy

{{further|Fuel cell}}

All fuel cells are made up of three parts: an electrolyte, an anode and a cathode.[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/basics.html "Basics"], U.S. Department of Energy, Retrieved on: 2008-11-03. In principle, a hydrogen fuel cell functions like a battery, producing electricity, which can run an electric motor. Instead of requiring recharging, however, the fuel cell can be refilled with hydrogen.[http://www.fuelcells.org/basics/how.html "What Is a Fuel Cell?"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081106102819/http://www.fuelcells.org/basics/how.html |date=2008-11-06 }}, The Online Fuel Cell Information Resource, Retrieved on: 2008-11-03. Different types of fuel cells include polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells, direct methanol fuel cells, phosphoric acid fuel cells, molten carbonate fuel cells, solid oxide fuel cells, reformed methanol fuel cell and Regenerative Fuel Cells.[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/fc_types.html "Types of Fuel Cells"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609041046/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/fc_types.html |date=2010-06-09 }}, U.S. Department of Energy, Retrieved on: 2008-11-03.

File:1966 GM Electrovan - Fuel cell.jpg|page= 10|access-date= December 2, 2010|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120711002448/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/deer_2004/session1/2004_deer_fairbanks.pdf|archive-date= July 11, 2012}}]]

The concept of the fuel cell was first demonstrated by Humphry Davy in 1801, but the invention of the first working fuel cell is credited to William Grove, a chemist, lawyer, and physicist. Grove's experiments with what he called a "gas voltaic battery" proved in 1842 that an electric current could be produced by an electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen over a platinum catalyst.{{cite web |url=http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/history |title = Fuel Cell History - Fuel Cell Today}} English engineer Francis Thomas Bacon expanded on Grove's work, creating and demonstrating various alkaline fuel cells from 1939 to 1959.{{cite web |title=History of Hydrogen Cars and Technology, from 1802 to present! |url=https://www.greencarfuture.com/hydrogen/2018/10/30/history-of-hydrogen-cars.html#historical-times-1802-to-1999 |website=Green Car Future |access-date=November 10, 2018}}

The first modern fuel cell vehicle was a modified Allis-Chalmers farm tractor, fitted with a 15 kilowatt fuel cell, around 1959.Wand, George. [http://www.fuelcelleducation.org/wp-content/themes/sandbox/pdf/Fuel%20Cell%20History%20article.pdf “Fuel Cell History, Part 2”] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402160546/http://www.fuelcelleducation.org/wp-content/themes/sandbox/pdf/Fuel%20Cell%20History%20article.pdf |date=2015-04-02 }}. “Fuel Cell Today”, April 2006, accessed August 2, 2011 The Cold War Space Race drove further development of fuel cell technology. Project Gemini tested fuel cells to provide electrical power during crewed space missions.[http://americanhistory.si.edu/fuelcells/pem/pemmain.htm “PEM Fuel Cells”]. “Smithsonian Institution”, 2004, accessed August 2, 2011Dumoulin, Jim. [http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/gemini/gemini-v/gemini-v.html “Gemini-V Information”]. NASA - Kennedy Space Center, August 25, 2000, accessed August 2, 2011 Fuel cell development continued with the Apollo Program. The electrical power systems in the Apollo capsules and lunar modules used alkali fuel cells. In 1966, General Motors developed the first fuel cell road vehicle, the Chevrolet Electrovan.{{cite web|title=Fuel cell electric vehicles and hydrogen infrastructure: status 2012|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233987484|last1=Eberle|first1=Ulrich|first2=Bernd|last2=Mueller|first3=Rittmar|last3=von Helmolt|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |date=2012-07-15| access-date=2013-01-08}} It had a PEM fuel cell, a range of 120 miles and a top speed of 70 mph. There were only two seats, as the fuel cell stack and large tanks of hydrogen and oxygen took up the rear portion of the van. Only one was built, as the project was deemed cost-prohibitive.[http://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/gm-electrovan.htm “1966 GM Electrovan”]. “Hydrogen Fuel Cars Now”, accessed August 2, 2011

General Electric and others continued working on PEM fuel cells in the 1970s. Fuel cell stacks were still limited principally to space applications in the 1980s, including the Space Shuttle. However, the closure of the Apollo Program sent many industry experts to private companies. By the 1990s, automobile manufacturers were interested in fuel cell applications, and demonstration vehicles were readied. In 2001, the first 700 Bar (10000 PSI) hydrogen tanks were demonstrated, reducing the size of the fuel tanks that could be used in vehicles and extending the range.[https://web.archive.org/web/20120301170908/http://www.h2.re.kr/lib/download.asp?path=tech_pds%5C&filename=2%BC%F6%BC%D2%C0%CC%C1%DF%C8%F1.pdf “Hydrogen Storage Technology for the Hydrogen Economy”] . “Iljin Composite”, KCR, Korea, accessed August 2, 2011

{{Further|List of fuel cell vehicles}}

There are fuel cell vehicles for all modes of transport. The most prevalent fuel cell vehicles are cars, buses, forklifts and material handling vehicles.[http://www.environmentalleader.com/2011/07/20/hydrogen-fueling-stations-could-reach-5200-by-2020/ "Hydrogen Fueling Stations Could Reach 5,200 by 2020"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723085520/http://www.environmentalleader.com/2011/07/20/hydrogen-fueling-stations-could-reach-5200-by-2020/ |date=2011-07-23 }}. Environmental Leader: Environmental & Energy Management News, July 20, 2011, accessed August 2, 2011

File:FCX-Honda.JPG, along with the Toyota FCHV, is the world's first government-certified commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicle.]]

File:FCX Clarity.jpg]]

Honda established the world's first fuel cell vehicle dealer network in 2008, and at the time was the only company able to lease hydrogen fuel cell vehicles to private customers.{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/aug/24/hydrogen-powered-vehicles-on-horizon/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930034059/https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/aug/24/hydrogen-powered-vehicles-on-horizon |title=Hydrogen-powered vehicles on horizon|website=The Washington Times |publisher=|date=24 August 2009|archive-date=30 September 2022}}{{cite web|url=https://www.thecarconnection.com/news/1015667_honda-sets-up-worlds-first-fuel-cell-dealer-network|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521025801/https://www.thecarconnection.com/news/1015667_honda-sets-up-worlds-first-fuel-cell-dealer-network|title=Honda Sets Up World's First Fuel Cell Dealer Network |publisher=The Car Connection|date=16 June 2018|archive-date=21 May 2022}} The Honda FCX Clarity was introduced in 2008 for leasing by customers in Japan and Southern California and discontinued by 2015. From 2008 to 2014, Honda leased a total of 45 FCX units in the US.{{cite web| url=http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1092683_honda-ends-three-green-models-for-2015-insight-fit-ev-fcx-clarity |title=Honda Ends Three Green Models For 2015: Insight, Fit EV, FCX Clarity|author=John Voelcker|publisher=Green Car Reports|date=2014-07-29| access-date=2014-08-20}} Over 20 other FCEV prototypes and demonstration cars were released in that time period,[http://www.netinform.net/H2/H2Mobility/Default.aspx?ID=431&CATID=0 "Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Vehicles Worldwide"]. TÜV SÜD Industrie Service GmbH, accessed on August 2, 2011 including the GM HydroGen4, and Mercedes-Benz F-Cell.

The Hyundai ix35 FCEV Fuel Cell vehicle was available for lease from 2014 to 2018,Voelcker, John. [http://www.hyundai.ie/car/new-hyundai-ix35 "The New Hyundai ix35"], Hyundai, accessed December 7, 2014 when 54 units were leased.[https://autos.yahoo.com/news/plug-electric-car-sales-continue-rise-2014-100-144042666.html "Plug-In Electric Car Sales Continue Rise In 2014: 100,000-Plus Last Year"], Green Car Reports, January 5, 2015 In 2018, Hyundai introduced the Nexo.Panait, Mircea. [https://www.autoevolution.com/news/2019-hyundai-nexo-fuel-cell-vehicle-features-370-miles-of-range-122672.html "2019 Hyundai Nexo Fuel Cell Vehicle Features 370 Miles of Range"], AutoEvolution, January 9, 2018 In 2024, Hyundai recalled all 1600 Nexo vehicles sold in the US to that time due to a risk of fuel leaks and fire from a faulty "pressure relief device".[https://www.boston.com/news/business/2024/10/18/hyundai-recalls-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-due-to-fire-risk-and-tells-owners-to-park-them-outdoors "Hyundai recalls hydrogen fuel cell vehicles due to fire risk and tells owners to park them outdoors"], Associated Press, via Boston.com, October 18, 2024

Sales of the Toyota Mirai to customers began in Japan in December 2014.{{cite news| url=https://blogs.wsj.com/japanrealtime/2014/12/15/toyotas-fuel-cell-powered-mirai-hits-showrooms/|title=Toyota's Fuel-Cell Car Mirai Goes on Sale|author=Yoko Kubota|work=Japan Real Time (Wall Street Journal) |date=2014-12-15|access-date=2014-12-29}} Pricing started at {{currency|6.7 million|JPY}} (~{{USD|57,400}}) before taxes and a government incentive of {{currency|2 million|JPY}} (~{{USD|19,600}}).{{cite news|url=http://www.myfoxchicago.com/story/27410215/toyota-to-launch-fuel-cell-car-next-month|title=Toyota to start sales of fuel cell car next month|author=Ken Moritsugu|agency=Associated Press|publisher=Fox News Chicago|date=2014-11-18|access-date=November 19, 2014|url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129040514/http://www.myfoxchicago.com/story/27410215/toyota-to-launch-fuel-cell-car-next-month|archive-date=November 29, 2014}} Former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimated that Toyota initially would lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold.Ayre, James. [http://cleantechnica.com/2014/11/19/toyota-lose-100000-every-hydrogen-fcv-sold/ "Toyota To Lose $100,000 On Every Hydrogen FCV Sold?"], CleanTechnica.com, November 19, 2014; and Blanco, Sebastian. [http://green.autoblog.com/2014/11/12/bibendum-2014-toyota-lose-100000-euros-fcv-hydrogen-car "Bibendum 2014: Former EU President says Toyota could lose 100,000 euros per hydrogen FCV sedan"], GreenAutoblog.com, November 12, 2014 {{As of|2017|12}}, global sales totaled 5,300 Mirais. The top selling markets were the U.S. with 2,900 units, Japan with 2,100 and Europe with 200.{{cite press release | title=Toyota sells 1.52 million electrified vehicles in 2017, three years ahead of 2020 target |url=https://newsroom.toyota.co.jp/en/corporate/20966057.html?adid=ag478_mail&padid=ag478_mail | publisher=Toyota |location=Toyota City, Japan |date=2018-02-02 |access-date=2018-02-03}}

In 2015, Toyota announced that it would offer all 5,680 patents related to hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell charging station technology, which it has been researching for over 20 years, to its competitors free of charge in order to stimulate the market for hydrogen-powered vehicles.{{cite web|url=https://time.com/3654899/toyota-mirai-patents-hydrogen-power/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707054645/https://time.com/3654899/toyota-mirai-patents-hydrogen-power/|title=Toyota Wants Everyone to Know How It Made Its Hydrogen-Powered Car|publisher=Time|date=5 January 2015|archive-date=7 July 2022}} The Honda Clarity Fuel Cell was produced from 2016 to 2021.{{cite web| url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Automobiles/Honda-discontinues-fuel-cell-car-Clarity-on-weak-demand | title=Honda discontinues fuel cell car Clarity on weak demand|date=June 16, 2021| access-date=July 29, 2021}}{{cite web | url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2016/12/20161220-clarity.html | title=Southern California customers take delivery of new 2017 Honda Clarity Fuel Cell sedan | first=Mike | last=Millikin | publisher=Green Car Congress | date=2016-12-20|access-date=2016-12-24}} The 2017 Clarity had the highest combined and city fuel economy ratings among all hydrogen fuel cell cars rated by the EPA that year, with a combined city/highway rating of 67 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPGe), and 68 MPGe in city driving. In 2019, Katsushi Inoue, the president of Honda Europe, stated, "Our focus is on hybrid and electric vehicles now. Maybe hydrogen fuel cell cars will come, but that's a technology for the next era."Allen, James. [https://www.driving.co.uk/news/honda-embracing-electrified-cars-now-right-time "Honda: Now Is The Right Time to Embrace Electric Cars"], The Sunday Times, November 4, 2019

By 2017, Daimler phased out its FCEV development, citing declining battery costs and increasing range of EVs,{{cite news |url= http://www.fleeteurope.com/en/news/hydrogen-bmw-yes-daimler-not-anymore |title= Hydrogen: BMW yes, Daimler not anymore |website= fleeteurope.com |first= Dieter |last= Quartier |date= 2017-04-04 |access-date= 2017-07-17 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170802045018/http://www.fleeteurope.com/en/news/hydrogen-bmw-yes-daimler-not-anymore |archive-date= 2017-08-02 |url-status= dead }} and most of the automobile companies developing hydrogen cars had switched their focus to battery electric vehicles.Williams, Keith. [https://seekingalpha.com/article/4103682-switch-hydrogen-electric-vehicles-continues-now-hyundai-makes-move "The Switch from Hydrogen to Electric Vehicles Continues, Now Hyundai Makes the Move"], Seeking Alpha, September 1, 2017 By 2020, only three car makers were still manufacturing, or had active manufacturing programs for hydrogen cars.Morris, Charles. [https://cleantechnica.com/2021/10/14/why-are-3-automakers-still-hyping-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles "Why Are 3 Automakers Still Hyping Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles?"], CleanTechnica, October 14, 2021 In 2023, 3,143 hydrogen cars were sold in the US compared with 380,000 BEVs.Woody, Todd. [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2024-04-04/california-s-hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars-lose-traction-against-battery-models "Few Stations and $200 to Fill Up: Life on California’s 'Hydrogen Highway'"], Bloomberg, April 4, 2024 The Clarity was later discontinued, but the Honda CR-V e:FCEV became available, for lease only, in very limited quantities in 2024. In 2024 (through November), Toyota's worldwide sales fell to 1,702 hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.{{cite news |last=Dnistran |first=Iulian |url=https://insideevs.com/news/745570/toyota-fcev-sales-november-2024/ |title=Toyota's Hydrogen Car Dream Is Falling Apart |work=Inside EVs |location=US |date=2024-12-27}}

A significant number of the public hydrogen fuel stations in California are not able to dispense hydrogen. In 2024, Mirai owners filed a class action lawsuit in California over the lack of availability of hydrogen for fuel cell electric cars, alleging, among other things, fraudulent concealment and misrepresentation as well as violations of California’s false advertising law and breaches of implied warranty.

The following table compares EPA's fuel economy expressed in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPGe) for the two models of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles rated by the EPA {{as of|2021|09|lc=y}}, and available in California.{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/fcv_sbs.shtml |title=Compare Fuel Cell Vehicles|website=fueleconomy.gov |author=United States Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy |date=September 2021|access-date=2021-09-13}} One kg of hydrogen is roughly equivalent to one U.S. gallon of gasoline.

In June 2016, Nissan announced plans to develop fuel cell vehicles powered by ethanol rather than hydrogen. Nissan claims this technical approach would be cheaper, and that it would be easier to deploy the fueling infrastructure than a hydrogen infrastructure.{{cite news| url=http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1104467_nissan-takes-a-different-approach-to-fuel-cells-ethanol | title=Nissan takes a different approach to fuel cells: ethanol | first=John | last=Voelcker | work=Green Car Reports| date=2016-06-14| access-date=2016-06-16}} The vehicle would include a tank holding a blend of water and ethanol, which is fed into an onboard reformer that splits it into hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The hydrogen is then fed into a solid oxide fuel cell. According to Nissan, the liquid fuel could be an ethanol-water blend at a 55:45 ratio.

{{See also|Fuel cell bus}}

File:20221014 4-15335 on ZZB 985.jpg in Zhengzhou, China in 2022]]

{{As of|2020}}, 5,648 hydrogen fuel cell buses were in use around the world, with 93.7% of them in China.{{Cite journal |last1=Can Samsun |first1=Remzi |last2=Antoni |first2=Laurent |last3=Rex |first3=Michael |last4=Stolten |first4=Detlef |date=2021 |title=Deployment Status of Fuel Cells in Road Transport: 2021 Update |url=https://www.ieafuelcell.com/fileadmin/webfiles/2021-Deployment_status_of_fc_in_road_transport.pdf |journal=International Energy Agency (IEA) Advanced Fuel Cells Technology Collaboration Programme (AFC TCP) |publisher=Forschungszentrum Jülich}}

From the late 1980s, concern regarding diesel emissions from buses led to experimentation with fuel cells to power them. After initial experiments with phosphoric acid fuel cells, hydrogen-powered fuel-cell buses were tested in cities in the late 1990s.{{Cite web |last1=Eudy |first1=L |last2=Chandler |first2=K |last3=Gikakis |first3=C |date=September 2007 |title=Fuel Cell Buses in U.S. Transit Fleets: Summary of Experiences and Current Status |url=https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy07osti/41967.pdf |access-date=November 1, 2022 |website=National Renewable Energy Laboratory |pages=1–2}} In the 2000s, buses entered trial service in cities around the world; the European Union supported the research project Clean Urban Transport for Europe.{{cite web |title=European Fuel Cell Bus Project Extended by One Year |url=http://www.daimlerchrysler.com/dccom/0-5-7153-1-596003-1-0-0-0-0-0-8-7145-0-0-0-0-0-0-1.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929083839/http://www.daimlerchrysler.com/dccom/0-5-7153-1-596003-1-0-0-0-0-0-8-7145-0-0-0-0-0-0-1.html |archive-date=September 29, 2007 |access-date=March 31, 2007 |publisher=DaimlerChrysler}}

By the 2010s, commercial introduction of hydrogen fuel cell buses was underway around the world.{{Cite web |date=2010-12-10 |title=Hydrogen bus launched on London tourist route |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/dec/10/hydrogen-bus-london |access-date=2021-08-13 |website=the Guardian}}{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=March 28, 2018 |title=Toyota Launches Production Model "Sora" FC Bus |url=https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/corporate/21863761.html |access-date=2022-10-26 |website=Toyota Motor Corporation}} However, many transit operators were purchasing battery electric buses instead, as these were cheaper to operate and purchase.{{Cite web |last=Hanley |first=Steve |date=2022-01-11 |title=French City Cancels Hydrogen Bus Contract, Opts For Electric Buses |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2022/01/11/french-city-cancels-hydrogen-bus-contract-opts-for-electric-buses/ |access-date=2022-10-26 |website=CleanTechnica}} However, battery electric buses lacked range compared to diesel buses, take time to charge (often overnight, compared with hydrogen fuel cell buses, which can be refilled quickly) and have reduced energy storage in cold weather. Some companies have proposed using the fuel cell as a range extender, combining it with a larger battery or a supercapacitor.{{Cite web |date=2019-09-05 |title=Hamburg to test the eCitaro with fuel cell range extender in 2021 |url=https://www.sustainable-bus.com/fuel-cell-bus/hamburg-to-test-the-ecitaro-with-fuel-cell-range-extender-in-2021/ |access-date=2022-10-27 |website=Sustainable Bus}}

Hydrogen fuel cell buses have historically been significantly more expensive to purchase and operate than diesel, hybrid or electric buses. In recent years, costs have been reduced to levels comparable with diesel buses.{{Cite web |date=2021-07-05 |title=Wuppertaler Stadtwerke: Cost parity between hydrogen and diesel buses |url=https://www.urban-transport-magazine.com/en/wuppertaler-stadtwerke-cost-parity-between-hydrogen-and-diesel-buses/ |access-date=2023-01-07 |website=Urban Transport Magazine}}

A variety of bus manufacturers are currently producing hydrogen fuel cell buses.{{Cite web |date=2022-09-08 |title=New Flyer launches new fuel cell bus model Xcelsior Charge FC (with Ballard technology and Siemens ELFA 3 drivetrain) |url=https://www.sustainable-bus.com/news/new-flyer-xcelsior-charge-fc-hydrogen-bus/ |access-date=2023-01-08 |website=Sustainable Bus}}{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Toyota Launches Production Model "Sora" FC Bus |url=https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/corporate/21863761.html |access-date=2023-01-08 |website=Toyota Motor Corporation}}{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Bus |url=http://zhongtongbuses.com/10-3-hydrogen-fuel-cell-electric-bus.html |access-date=2023-01-08 |website=zhongtongbuses.com}} Bus manufacturers usually work with a provider of hydrogen fuel cells to power the bus, such as Ballard Power Systems or Toyota.

{{See also|Fuel cell forklift}}

A fuel cell forklift (also called a fuel cell lift truck or a fuel cell forklift) is a fuel cell-powered industrial forklift truck used to lift and transport materials. Most fuel cells used in forklifts are powered by PEM fuel cells.{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/tomkonrad/2013/12/11/twelve-hydrogen-and-fuel-cell-stocks/|title=12 Hydrogen And Fuel Cell Stocks|first=Tom|last=Konrad|website=Forbes}}

In 2013, there were over 4,000 fuel cell forklifts used in material handling in the US[https://web.archive.org/web/20130821025808/http://www.fuelcells.org/pdfs/FuelCellForkliftsGainGround.pdf Fuel Cell Forklifts Gain Ground] of which 500 received funding from DOE (2012).[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/iea_hia_fctp_overview_oct12.pdf Fuel cell technologies program overview] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203000519/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/iea_hia_fctp_overview_oct12.pdf |date=2013-12-03 }}[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/economic_impacts_of_arra_fc.pdf Economic Impact of Fuel Cell Deployment in Forklifts and for Backup Power under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203004225/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/economic_impacts_of_arra_fc.pdf |date=2013-12-03 }} As of 2024, approximately 50,000 hydrogen forklifts are in operation worldwide (the bulk of which are in the U.S.), as compared with 1.2 million battery electric forklifts that were purchased in 2021.Barnard, Michael. [https://cleantechnica.com/2024/01/02/on-hydrogen-forklifts-bitcoin-mining-and-green-fertilizer "On Hydrogen Forklifts, Bitcoin Mining and Green Fertilizer"], CleanTechnica, January 2, 2024

PEM fuel-cell-powered forklifts provide significant benefits over petroleum powered forklifts as they produce no local emissions. Fuel-cell forklifts can work for a full 8-hour shift on a single tank of hydrogen, can be refueled in 3 minutes and have a lifetime of 8–10 years. Fuel cell-powered forklifts are often used in refrigerated warehouses as their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures.[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/forklift_anl_esd.pdf Full Fuel-Cycle Comparison of Forklift Propulsion Systems] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217104928/http://www2.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/forklift_anl_esd.pdf |date=2013-02-17 }} In design the FC units are often made as drop-in replacements.{{Cite web |url=http://www.still.co.uk/fuel-cell-technology-uk.0.0.html |title=Fuel cell technology |access-date=2013-11-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203104905/http://www.still.co.uk/fuel-cell-technology-uk.0.0.html |archive-date=2013-12-03 |url-status=dead }}{{Cite web |url=http://graftechaet.com/getattachment/065811d2-720e-40c6-b236-0440c4d90d76/OFCC-Forklift-Case-Study.aspx |title=Fuel cell forklift |access-date=2015-05-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206072419/http://www.graftechaet.com/getattachment/065811d2-720e-40c6-b236-0440c4d90d76/OFCC-Forklift-Case-Study.aspx |archive-date=2010-12-06 |url-status=dead }}

File:Yamaha FC-me.jpg FC-me motorcycle]]

In 2005, the British firm Intelligent Energy produced the first working hydrogen run motorcycle called the ENV (Emission Neutral Vehicle). It holds enough fuel to run for four hours, and to travel {{convert|100|miles|km|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}} in an urban area, at a top speed of {{convert|50|mph|km/h|0|abbr=on|order=flip}}.{{Cite web | title = The ENV Bike | publisher = Intelligent Energy | url = http://www.envbike.com/ | access-date = 2007-05-27 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080306162946/http://www.envbike.com/ | archive-date = 2008-03-06 | url-status = dead }} There are other examples of bikes{{Cite web|author=15. Dezember 2007 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B_Whbb_hlPs |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/B_Whbb_hlPs| archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live|title=Hydrogen Fuel Cell electric bike |publisher=Youtube.com |access-date=2009-09-21}}{{cbignore}} and bicycles[http://www.horizonfuelcell.com/mobility.htm "Horizon fuel cell vehicles: Transportation: Light Mobility"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722005838/http://www.horizonfuelcell.com/mobility.htm |date=2011-07-22 }}. Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies. 2010. Accessed August 2, 2011. with a hydrogen fuel cell engine. The Suzuki Burgman received "whole vehicle type" approval in the EU.{{Cite web|url=https://www.globalsuzuki.com/Burgman_Fuel-Cell_Scooter/index.html|title=SUZUKI - BURGMAN Fuel-Cell Scooter|website=www.globalsuzuki.com}} The PHB was a hydrogen bicycle with an electric motor. It debuted in Shanghai in 2008,{{Cite web |date=2008-01-15 |title=Fuel Cell Works Supplemental News Page |url=http://www.fuelcellsworks.com/Supppage7783.html |access-date=2022-12-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115184618/http://www.fuelcellsworks.com/Supppage7783.html |archive-date=2008-01-15 }} but it was discontinued due to lack of hydrogen fuel services. Its predecessor was a hydrogen bicycle called Palcan, based in Vancouver, Canada.{{Cite web |last=Röhrich |first=Klaus |title=A Brief History of the Hydrogen Bicycle |url=https://panglosslabs.org/petite-histoire-du-velo-h2/ |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=Pangloss Labs}}

{{See also|Hydrogen-powered aircraft}}

File:Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator AB1.JPG Fuel Cell Demonstrator powered by a hydrogen fuel cell]]

Boeing researchers and industry partners throughout Europe conducted experimental flight tests in February 2008 of a crewed airplane powered only by a fuel cell and lightweight batteries. The Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane, as it was called, used a Proton-Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which was coupled to a conventional propeller.{{Cite web|url=http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2008/q2/080403a_nr.html |title=Boeing Successfully Flies Fuel Cell-Powered Airplane |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509091442/http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2008/q2/080403a_nr.html |archive-date=2013-05-09 }}. Boeing. April 3, 2008. Accessed August 2, 2011.

In 2003, the world's first propeller driven airplane to be powered entirely by a fuel cell was flown. The fuel cell was a unique FlatStack stack design which allowed the fuel cell to be integrated with the aerodynamic surfaces of the plane.{{Cite web|url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/industry/1287561.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106235805/http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/industry/1287561.html|url-status=dead|title=First Fuel Cell Microaircraft|archivedate=January 6, 2010}}

There have been several fuel cell powered unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). A Horizon fuel cell UAV set the record distance flown by a small UAV in 2007.[http://www.horizonfuelcell.com/file/Pterosoardistancerecord.pdf "Horizon Fuel Cell Powers New World Record in UAV Flight"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111014121037/http://www.horizonfuelcell.com/file/Pterosoardistancerecord.pdf |date=2011-10-14 }}. Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies. November 1, 2007. The military is especially interested in this application because of the low noise, low thermal signature and ability to attain high altitude. In 2009, the Naval Research Laboratory's (NRL's) Ion Tiger utilized a hydrogen-powered fuel cell and flew for 23 hours and 17 minutes.[http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/fuel-cell-powered-uav-flight/ "Fuel Cell Powered UAV Completes 23-hour Flight"]. Alternative Energy: News. October 22, 2009. Accessed August 2, 2011. Boeing is completing tests on the Phantom Eye, a high-altitude, long endurance (HALE) to be used to conduct research and surveillance flying at {{convert|65,000|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2|order=flip}} for up to four days at a time.[http://www.theengineer.co.uk/sectors/aerospace/news/hydrogen-powered-unmanned-aircraft-completes-set-of-tests/1009080.article "Hydrogen-powered unmanned aircraft completes set of tests"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015230121/http://www.theengineer.co.uk/sectors/aerospace/news/hydrogen-powered-unmanned-aircraft-completes-set-of-tests/1009080.article |date=2015-10-15 }}.www.theengineer.co.uk. June 20, 2011. Accessed August 2, 2011. Fuel cells are also being used to provide auxiliary power for aircraft, replacing fossil fuel generators that were previously used to start the engines and power on board electrical needs. Fuel cells can help airplanes reduce CO₂ and other pollutant emissions and noise.

{{main article|hydrogen-powered ship|Fuel Cell Boat}}

File:Die Hydra in Leipzig I.jpg fuel cell boat]]

The world's first Fuel Cell Boat HYDRA used an AFC system with 6.5 kW net output. For each liter of fuel consumed, the average outboard motor produces 140 times less{{citation needed|date=October 2012}} the hydrocarbons produced by the average modern car. Fuel cell engines have higher energy efficiencies than combustion engines, and therefore offer better range and significantly reduced emissions.{{Cite web|url=http://www.fuelcells.org/basics/apps.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515080800/http://www.fuelcells.org/basics/apps.html|url-status=unfit|title=Fuel Cells 2000 : Fuel Cell Basics : Applications|archivedate=May 15, 2011}} Amsterdam introduced its first fuel cell powered boat in 2011 that ferries people around the city's canals.[http://www.lovers.nl/co2zero/ "Lovers introduces zero-emission boat"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140731163630/http://www.lovers.nl/co2zero/ |date=2014-07-31 }} (in Dutch). NemoH2. March 28, 2011. Accessed August 2, 2011.

{{See also|German submarine U-31 (S181)}}

The first submersible application of fuel cells is the German Type 212 submarine.[http://www.cnn.com/2011/TECH/innovation/02/22/hybrid.submarine/ "Super-stealth sub powered by fuel cell"]. Frederik Pleitgen. CNN Tech: Nuclear Weapons. February 22, 2011. Accessed August 2, 2011. Each Type 212 contains nine PEM fuel cells, spread throughout the ship, providing between 30 kW and 50 kW each of electrical power.[http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/type_212/, "U212 / U214 Attack Submarines, Germany"]. naval-Technology.com. Accessed August 2, 2011. This allows the Type 212 to remain submerged longer and makes them more difficult to detect. Fuel cell powered submarines are also easier to design, manufacture, and maintain than nuclear-powered submarines.Hammerschmidt, Albert E. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110716070146/http://www.sea.siemens.com/us/internet-dms/Internet/MarineComm/General/Docs/Siemens%20Presents%20Fuel%20Cell%20at%20the%20Advance%20Naval%20Propulsion%20Symposium.pdf “Fuel Cell Propulsion of Submarines”]. “Sea Siemens” Accessed August 3, 2011.

File:InnoTrans 2016 – Alstom iLint with Fuel Cell Batteries (29782914176).jpg at InnoTrans 2016]]

{{main article|Hydrail}}

In March 2015, China South Rail Corporation (CSR) demonstrated the world's first hydrogen fuel cell-powered tramcar at an assembly facility in Qingdao.{{cite web| url=http://en.yibada.com/articles/21142/20150321/china-worlds-first-hydrogen-fueled-tram.htm#|title=China Presents the World's First Hydrogen-Fueled Tram}} 83 miles of tracks for the new vehicle were built in seven Chinese cities. China had plans to spend 200 billion yuan ($32 billion) over the next five years to increase tram tracks to more than 1,200 miles.{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-03-25/china-s-hydrogen-powered-future-starts-in-trams-not-cars|title=China's Hydrogen-Powered Future Starts in Trams, Not Cars|website=Bloomberg News|date=March 25, 2015 }}

In 2016, Alstom debuted the Coradia iLint, a regional train powered by hydrogen fuel cells. It was designed to reach {{convert|140|km/h}} and travel {{convert|600|-|800|km}} on a full tank of hydrogen.{{cite press release |author= |date=2016-09-20 |title=Alstom unveils its zero-emission train Coradia iLint at InnoTrans |url=http://www.alstom.com/press-centre/2016/9/alstom-unveils-its-zero-emission-train-coradia-ilint-at-innotrans/ |publisher=Alstom |access-date=2016-09-21}} The train entered service in Germany in 2018 and is expected to be tested in the Netherlands beginning in 2019.[https://www.greencarcongress.com/2019/11/20191103-alstom.html "Alstom to test its hydrogen fuel cell train in the Netherlands; first pilot project outside Germany"], Green Car Congress, November 3, 2019

Swiss manufacturer Stadler Rail signed a contract in California to deliver a hydrogen fuel cell train in the US, the FLIRT H2 train, in 2024 as part of the Arrow commuter rail service.{{Cite web|url=https://www.h2-view.com/story/contract-signed-for-first-ever-hydrogen-powered-train-in-the-us| title=First hydrogen train for the US|last=Burgess|first=Molly|website=Hydrogen View| date=November 14, 2019| access-date=November 25, 2019}}

File:Hyundai Xcient Fuel Cell.jpg, Switzerland]]

For transport applications such as long-haul trucks, fuel cells are a potential solution for zero emission transport. A 2022 study in Energies magazine cites relatively fast refueling times compared with electric truck charging times and the current limitations of the energy density of batteries, but they note that "operating constraints" include the "high amount of CO2 emissions [caused by] hydrogen production", the lack of storage and refueling infrastructure, H2 leakage and safety challenges, efficiency "losses in compression, storage and dispensing", .Pardi, Shantanu, et. al. [https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/15/24/9557 "A Review of Fuel Cell Powertrains for Long-Haul Heavy-Duty Vehicles: Technology, Hydrogen, Energy and Thermal Management Solutions"], Energies, MDPI, December 16, 2022

In 2020, Hyundai started to manufacture hydrogen powered 34-ton cargo trucks under the model name XCIENT, making an initial shipment of 10 of the vehicles to Switzerland. They are able to travel {{convert|400|km}} on a full tank and take 8 to 20 minutes to fill up.{{cite web|last=Jung|first=Ryu |url=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2020/07/07/2020070701792.html |title=Hyundai Starts Mass Production of Hydrogen Trucks|publisher=Chosun Ilbo|date=July 7, 2020|access-date=July 12, 2020}} In 2022, Total Transportation Services (TTSI), Toyota Logistics Services (TLS), UPS, and Southern Counties Express (SCE) operated a 12-month "Shore-to-Store (S2S) project" running hydrogen fuel cell trucks on trips from Los Angeles area ports.{{Cite web |date=2022-04-26 |title=Getting more green trucks on the road |url=https://www.wcia.com/news/getting-more-green-trucks-on-the-road/ |access-date=2022-07-25 |website=WCIA.com}}{{Cite web |date=June 8, 2021 |title=Port of Los Angeles Rolls Out Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Freight Demonstration |url=https://lacity.gov/highlights/port-los-angeles-rolls-out-hydrogen-fuel-cell-electric-freight-demonstration |access-date=2022-07-25 |website=City of Los Angeles}} The Kenworth T680 hydrogen prototype used in Los Angeles and Long Beach was unveiled in 2018 and also tested in the Seattle area.{{Cite web |title=Kenworth T680 Fuel Cell Heavy Truck |url=https://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/index.php/kenworth-t680-fuel-cell-heavy-truck/ |access-date=2022-07-25 |website=Hydrogen Cars Now}}

{{Main article|Hydrogen infrastructure}}

Eberle and Rittmar von Helmolt stated in 2010 that challenges remain before fuel cell cars can become competitive with other technologies and cite the lack of an extensive hydrogen infrastructure in the U.S.:Eberle, Ulrich and Rittmar von Helmolt. [http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/Journals/EE/article.asp?doi=c001674h "Sustainable transportation based on electric vehicle concepts: a brief overview"]. Energy & Environmental Science, Royal Society of Chemistry, May 14, 2010, accessed August 2, 2011 {{subscription required}} {{as of|2020|July}}, there were 43 publicly accessible hydrogen refueling stations in the US, 41 of which were located in California.[http://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/stations_counts.html Alternative Fueling Station Counts by State], Alternative Fuels Data Center, accessed July 2, 2020 In 2013, Governor Jerry Brown signed AB 8, a bill to fund $20 million a year for 10 years to build up to 100 stations.Xiong, Ben. [http://cafcp.org/getinvolved/stayconnected/blog/governor_brown_signs_ab_8 "Governor Brown Signs AB 8"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202234148/http://cafcp.org/getinvolved/stayconnected/blog/governor_brown_signs_ab_8 |date=2013-12-02 }}, California Fuel Cell Partnership, September 30, 2013 In 2014, the California Energy Commission funded $46.6 million to build 28 stations.[http://www.energy.ca.gov/releases/2014_releases/2014-05-01_hydrogen_refueling_stations_funding_awards_nr.html "California investing nearly $50 million in hydrogen refueling stations"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624150340/http://www.energy.ca.gov/releases/2014_releases/2014-05-01_hydrogen_refueling_stations_funding_awards_nr.html |date=2018-06-24 }}, California Energy Commission, May 1, 2014

Japan got its first commercial hydrogen fueling station in 2014.{{Cite web|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/07/14/business/japan-gets-its-first-commercial-hydrogen-station-for-vehicles/|title=Japan gets its first commercial hydrogen station for vehicles|date=July 14, 2014|website=The Japan Times}} By March 2016, Japan had 80 hydrogen fueling stations, and the Japanese government aims to double this number to 160 by 2020.{{Cite web|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/03/16/business/japan-eyes-40000-fuel-cell-cars-160-hydrogen-stations-by-2020/|title=Japan eyes 40,000 fuel-cell cars, 160 hydrogen stations by 2020|date=March 16, 2016|website=The Japan Times}} In May 2017, there were 91 hydrogen fueling stations in Japan.Voelcker, John. [http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1110239_energy-use-for-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-higher-than-electrics-even-hybrids-analysis "Energy use for hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles: higher than electrics, even hybrids (analysis)"], Green Car Reports, May 4, 2017 Germany had 18 public hydrogen fueling stations in July 2015. The German government hoped to increase this number to 50 by end of 2016,{{Cite web|url=https://cleanenergypartnership.de/en/faq/hydrogen-infrastructure/|title=CleanEnergyPartnership.de: FAQ - How Many Hydrogen Filling Stations Are There?|access-date=May 12, 2016|archive-date=August 8, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808080002/https://cleanenergypartnership.de/en/faq/hydrogen-infrastructure/|url-status=dead}} but only 30 were open in June 2017.[http://h2-mobility.de/en/h2-stations "H2-Stations"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029120956/http://h2-mobility.de/en/h2-stations/ |date=October 29, 2017 }}, H2 Mobility Deutschland GmbH, June 2017

{{Expand section|date=September 2021}}

Under United Nations global technical regulations for wheeled vehicles, specifically regarding hydrogen usage, there are international standards which define aspects of engineering and overall integrity, performance, safety, part lifecycle, and various other categories. One notable area of these regulations is regarding the compressed hydrogen storage systems that typically reach the end of qualified service life at 15 or fewer years in use.{{cite web |author1-link=United Nations Economic Commission for Europe |title=Global technical regulation on hydrogen and fuel cell vehicles |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/main/wp29/wp29wgs/wp29gen/wp29registry/ECE-TRANS-180a13e.pdf |website=United Nations |access-date=September 19, 2021 |ref=UNh2Reg.1 |page=12 |date=July 19, 2013 }}

In 2003, US President George Bush proposed the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative (HFI). The HFI aimed to further develop hydrogen fuel cells and infrastructure technologies to accelerate the commercial introduction of fuel cell vehicles. By 2008, the U.S. had contributed 1 billion dollars to this project.Nice, Karim, and Jonathan Strickland. [http://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/alternative-fuels/fuel-cell.htm "How Fuel Cells Work"]. How Stuff Works, accessed August 3, 2011 In 2009, Steven Chu, then the US Secretary of Energy, asserted that hydrogen vehicles "will not be practical over the next 10 to 20 years".{{citation| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/08/science/earth/08energy.html |title=U.S. Drops Research Into Fuel Cells for Cars|work=The New York Times|author=Matthew L. Wald|date=2009-05-07| access-date=2009-05-09}}Bullis, Kevin. [http://www.technologyreview.com/business/22651/page2/ "Q & A: Steven Chu"], Technology Review, May 14, 2009 In 2012, however, Chu stated that he saw fuel cell cars as more economically feasible as natural gas prices had fallen and hydrogen reforming technologies had improved.[http://www.autoline.tv/daily/?p=22180 "Chu Changes Mind on Hydrogen"], Autoline Daily at 2.10 of videoMotavalli, Jim. [http://wheels.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/05/29/cheap-natural-gas-prompts-energy-department-to-soften-its-line-on-fuel-cells/ "Cheap Natural Gas Prompts Energy Department to Soften Its Line on Fuel Cells"], The New York Times, May 29, 2012 In June 2013, the California Energy Commission granted $18.7M for hydrogen fueling stations.Anderson, Mark. [http://www.bizjournals.com/sacramento/news/2013/06/13/state-grants-187m-for-hydrogen.html State grants $18.7M for hydrogen fueling stations], Sacramento Business Journal, June 13, 2013 In 2013, Governor Brown signed AB 8, a bill to fund $20 million a year for 10 years for up to 100 stations. In 2013, the US DOE announced up to $4 million planned for "continued development of advanced hydrogen storage systems".[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/news_detail.html?news_id=20995 Energy Department Announces up to $4 Million for Advanced Hydrogen Storage], DOE, October 29, 2013 On May 13, 2013, the Energy Department launched H2USA, which is focused on advancing hydrogen infrastructure in the US.{{Cite web|url=http://energy.gov/articles/energy-department-launches-public-private-partnership-deploy-hydrogen-infrastructure|title=Energy Department Launches Public-Private Partnership to Deploy Hydrogen Infrastructure}}

By 2010, advancements in fuel cell technology had reduced the size, weight and cost of fuel cell electric vehicles.Garbak, John. [http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/progress10/viii_0_technology_validation_overview.pdf "VIII.0 Technology Validation Sub-Program Overview"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032047/http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/progress10/viii_0_technology_validation_overview.pdf |date=September 24, 2015 }}. DOE Fuel Cell Technologies Program, FY 2010 Annual Progress Report, accessed August 2, 2011 In 2010, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) estimated that the cost of automobile fuel cells had fallen 80% since 2002 and that such fuel cells could potentially be manufactured for $51/kW, assuming high-volume manufacturing cost savings.[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/accomplishments.html "Accomplishments and Progress"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110821050300/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/accomplishments.html |date=2011-08-21 }}. Fuel Cell Technology Program, U.S. Dept. of Energy, June 24, 2011 Fuel cell electric vehicles have been produced with "a driving range of more than 250 miles between refueling". They can be refueled in less than 5 minutes.Wipke, Keith, Sam Sprik, Jennifer Kurtz and Todd Ramsden. [http://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/pdfs/51564.pdf "National FCEV Learning Demonstration"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019173103/http://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/pdfs/51564.pdf |date=2011-10-19 }}. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, April 2011, accessed August 2, 2011 Deployed fuel cell buses have a 40% higher fuel economy than diesel buses. EERE's Fuel Cell Technologies Program claims that, as of 2011, fuel cells achieved a 42 to 53% fuel cell electric vehicle efficiency at full power, and a durability of over 75,000 miles with less than 10% voltage degradation, double that achieved in 2006. In 2012, Lux Research, Inc. issued a report that concluded that "Capital cost ... will limit adoption to a mere 5.9 GW" by 2030, providing "a nearly insurmountable barrier to adoption, except in niche applications". Lux's analysis concluded that by 2030, PEM stationary fuel cell applications will reach $1 billion, while the vehicle market, including fuel cell forklifts, will reach a total of $2 billion.Brian Warshay, Brian. [https://portal.luxresearchinc.com/research/report_excerpt/12365 "The Great Compression: the Future of the Hydrogen Economy"], Lux Research, Inc. January 2012

As of September 2023, hydrogen cost $36 per kilogram at public charging stations in California, 14 times as much per mile for a Mirai as compared with a Tesla Model 3.Agatie, Cristian. [https://www.autoevolution.com/news/hydrogen-cars-are-dead-as-projects-are-scrapped-and-refueling-prices-go-through-the-roof-221373.html "Hydrogen Cars Are Dead as Projects Are Scrapped and Refueling Prices Go Through the Roof"], Auto Evolution, September 20, 2023 The average price in Germany in 2023 is 12.5 euro per kg.{{Cite web|url=https://www.handelsblatt.com/unternehmen/energie/handelsblatt-wasserstoff-gipfel-fuer-lkw-koennte-gruener-wasserstoff-schon-bald-der-guenstigste-brennstoff-sein/29131578.html|title=Handelsblatt|website=www.handelsblatt.com}}

The environmental impact of fuel cell vehicles depends on the primary energy with which the hydrogen was produced. Fuel cell vehicles are only environmentally benign when the hydrogen was produced with renewable energy. If this is the case fuel cell cars may be cleaner and more efficient than fossil fuel cars. However, they are not as efficient as battery electric vehicles which consume much less energy.MZ Jacobson and Co., 100% clean and renewable wind, water, and sunlight (WWS) all-sector energy roadmaps for the 50 United States. In: Energy and Environmental Science 8, 2015, 2093-2117, {{doi|10.1039/C5EE01283J}}. Usually a fuel cell car consumes 2.4 times more energy than a battery electric car, because electrolysis and storage of hydrogen is much less efficient than using electricity to directly load a battery. In addition, a 2023 study by the Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research (CICERO) estimated that leaked hydrogen has a global warming effect 11.6 times stronger than CO₂.Bjørnæs, Christian. [https://cicero.oslo.no/en/hydrogen-leaks-add-to-global-warming "Global warming potential of hydrogen estimated"], Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research, June 7, 2023. Retrieved June 15, 2023

As of 2009, motor vehicles used most of the petroleum consumed in the U.S. and produced over 60% of the carbon monoxide emissions and about 20% of greenhouse gas emissions in the United States, however production of hydrogen for hydrocracking used in gasoline production, chief amongst its industrial uses, was responsible for approximately 10% of fleet wide greenhouse gas emissions.[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/transportation.html "Fuel Cells for Transportation"], U.S. Department of Energy, updated September 18, 2009. Retrieved June 7, 2010 A vehicle fueled with pure hydrogen emits few pollutants at the tailpipe, producing mainly water and heat, along with trace amounts of NOx, SOx, NO2, SO2, CO, hydrocarbons and particulates;{{Cite report |url=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/923761 |title=Global Assessment of Hydrogen Technologies – Task 5 Report Use of Fuel Cell Technology in Electric Power Generation |last=Fouad |first=Fouad H. |last2=Peters |first2=Robert W. |date=2007-12-01 |publisher=University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL |issue=DOE/GO/12042-5 |last3=Sisiopiku |first3=Virginia P. |last4=Sullivan |first4=Andrew J. |last5=Ahluwalia |first5=Rajesh K.}} the production of the hydrogen generally creates pollutants, except for the small amount that is made using only renewable energy.[http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/fuelcell.shtml "Fuel Cell Vehicles"], Fuel Economy, Retrieved on: 2008-11-03.

In 2006, Ulf Bossel stated that the large amount of energy required to isolate hydrogen from natural compounds (water, natural gas, biomass), package the light gas by compression or liquefaction, transfer the energy carrier to the user, plus the energy lost when it is converted to useful electricity with fuel cells, leaves around 25% for practical use."Zyga, Lisa. [http://www.physorg.com/news85074285.html "Why a hydrogen economy doesn't make sense"]. physorg.com, December 11, 2006, accessed August 2, 2011, citing Bossel, Ulf. "Does a Hydrogen Economy Make Sense?" Proceedings of the IEEE. Vol. 94, No. 10, October 2006 Richard Gilbert, co-author of Transport Revolutions: Moving People and Freight without Oil (2010), comments similarly, that producing hydrogen gas ends up using some of the energy it creates. Then, energy is taken up by converting the hydrogen back into electricity within fuel cells. {{" '}}This means that only a quarter of the initially available energy reaches the electric motor' ... Such losses in conversion don't stack up well against, for instance, recharging an electric vehicle (EV) like the Nissan Leaf or Chevy Volt from a wall socket".Gilbert, Richard and Anthony Perl (2010). [https://www.amazon.com/Transport-Revolutions-Moving-Freight-Without/dp/0865716609/ref=tmm_pap_title_0 Transport Revolutions: Moving People and Freight without Oil, New Society Publishers] {{ISBN|0865716609}}[http://azdailysun.com/news/local/article_93f0f29e-0d9d-5dc0-b9d6-858da011147b.html "EarthTalk: High costs, hurdles keep hydrogen cell cars from mass production"], Arizona Daily Sun, May 2, 2011 A 2010 well-to-wheels analysis of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles report from Argonne National Laboratory states that renewable H2 pathways offer much larger green house gas benefits.{{Cite web|url=http://www.iphe.net/docs/Events/China_9-10/2-2_H2%20FCV%20Presentation-09-2010.pdf|title=Well-to-wheels analysis of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles|access-date=November 25, 2013|archive-date=December 2, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202223839/http://www.iphe.net/docs/Events/China_9-10/2-2_H2%20FCV%20Presentation-09-2010.pdf|url-status=dead}} This result has recently been confirmed.{{Cite journal|title = Life cycle assessment of PEM FC applications: electric mobility and μ-CHP|url = http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=C5EE01082A|journal = Energy Environ. Sci.|date = 2015-01-01|volume = 8|issue = 7|doi = 10.1039/c5ee01082a|first1 = Dominic A.|last1 = Notter|first2 = Katerina|last2 = Kouravelou|first3 = Theodoros|last3 = Karachalios|first4 = Maria K.|last4 = Daletou|first5 = Nara Tudela|last5 = Haberland|pages = 1969–1985|url-access = subscription}} In 2010, a US DOE well-to-wheels publication assumed that the efficiency of the single step of compressing hydrogen to {{convert|6250|psi|MPa|abbr=on}} at the refueling station is 94%.{{cite web |url= http://hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/10001_well_to_wheels_gge_petroleum_use.pdf |website= hydrogen.energy.gov |title= Well-to-wheels greenhouse gas emissions and petroleum use for mid-size light- duty vehicles |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091130230150/http://originalurl.com/ |archive-date= November 30, 2009 |access-date= 2015-07-27 |url-status= dead }} A 2016 study in the November issue of the journal Energy by scientists at Stanford University and the Technical University of Munich concluded that, even assuming local hydrogen production, "investing in all-electric battery vehicles is a more economical choice for reducing carbon dioxide emissions, primarily due to their lower cost and significantly higher energy efficiency."[http://www.pvbuzz.com/electric-cars-better "Battery electric cars are a better choice for emissions reduction"], PVBuzz.com, November 15, 2016

In 2008, professor Jeremy P. Meyers, in the Electrochemical Society journal Interface wrote that fuel cells "are not as efficient as batteries, due primarily to the inefficiency of the oxygen reduction reaction. ... [T]hey make the most sense for operation disconnected from the grid, or when fuel can be provided continuously. For applications that require frequent and relatively rapid start-ups ... where zero emissions are a requirement, as in enclosed spaces such as warehouses."Meyers, Jeremy P. [http://www.electrochem.org/dl/interface/wtr/wtr08/wtr08_p36-39.pdf "Getting Back Into Gear: Fuel Cell Development After the Hype"]. The Electrochemical Society Interface, Winter 2008, pp. 36–39, accessed August 7, 2011 Also in 2008, Wired News reported that "experts say it will be 40 years or more before hydrogen has any meaningful impact on gasoline consumption or global warming, and we can't afford to wait that long. In the meantime, fuel cells are diverting resources from more immediate solutions."Squatriglia, Chuck. [https://www.wired.com/cars/energy/news/2008/05/hydrogen?currentPage=1 "Hydrogen Cars Won't Make a Difference for 40 Years"], Wired, May 12, 2008 In 2008, Robert Zubrin, the author of Energy Victory, said: "Hydrogen is 'just about the worst possible vehicle fuel{{'"}}.Wrigglesworth, Phil. [http://www.economist.com/science/tq/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11999229 "The car of the perpetual future"'] September 4, 2008, retrieved on September 15, 2008 If hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy, "it would surely be easier simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of all-electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles." The Los Angeles Times wrote in 2009, "Any way you look at it, hydrogen is a lousy way to move cars."{{cite news | url=https://www.latimes.com/classified/automotive/highway1/la-fi-neil13-2009feb13,0,6636491.story | title=Honda FCX Clarity: Beauty for beauty's sake| work=Los Angeles Times | date=February 13, 2009 | access-date=March 11, 2009 | first=Dan| last=Neil}} The Washington Post asked in November 2009, "[W]hy would you want to store energy in the form of hydrogen and then use that hydrogen to produce electricity for a motor, when electrical energy is already waiting to be sucked out of sockets all over America and stored in auto batteries...?"Suplee, Curt. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/16/AR2009111602668.html "Don't bet on a hydrogen car anytime soon"]. Washington Post, November 17, 2009

The Motley Fool stated in 2013 that "there are still cost-prohibitive obstacles [for hydrogen cars] relating to transportation, storage, and, most importantly, production."Chatsko, Maxx. [http://www.fool.com/investing/general/2013/11/23/1-giant-obstacle-keeping-hydrogen-fuel-out-of-your.aspx "1 Giant Obstacle Keeping Hydrogen Fuel Out of Your Gas Tank"], The Motley Fool, November 23, 2013 Volkswagen's Rudolf Krebs said in 2013 that "no matter how excellent you make the cars themselves, the laws of physics hinder their overall efficiency. The most efficient way to convert energy to mobility is electricity." He elaborated: "Hydrogen mobility only makes sense if you use green energy", but ... you need to convert it first into hydrogen "with low efficiencies" where "you lose about 40 percent of the initial energy". You then must compress the hydrogen and store it under high pressure in tanks, which uses more energy. "And then you have to convert the hydrogen back to electricity in a fuel cell with another efficiency loss". Krebs continued: "in the end, from your original 100 percent of electric energy, you end up with 30 to 40 percent."Blanco, Sebastian. [http://green.autoblog.com/2013/11/20/vws-krebs-talks-hydrogen-says-most-efficient-way-to-convert/ "VW's Krebs talks hydrogen, says 'most efficient way to convert energy to mobility is electricity'"], AutoblogGreen, November 20, 2013

In 2014, electric automotive and energy futurist Julian Cox wrote that producing hydrogen from methane "is significantly more carbon intensive per unit of energy than coal. Mistaking fossil hydrogen from the hydraulic fracturing of shales for an environmentally sustainable energy pathway threatens to encourage energy policies that will dilute and potentially derail global efforts to head-off climate change due to the risk of diverting investment and focus from vehicle technologies that are economically compatible with renewable energy."Cox, Julian. [http://cleantechnica.com/2014/06/04/hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-about-not-clean/ "Time To Come Clean About Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles"], CleanTechnica.com, June 4, 2014 In 2014, former Dept. of Energy official Joseph Romm concluded that renewable energy cannot economically be used to make hydrogen for an FCV fleet "either now or in the future."Romm, Joseph. [http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/05/3467115/tesla-toyota-hydrogen-cars-batteries/ "Tesla Trumps Toyota: Why Hydrogen Cars Can’t Compete With Pure Electric Cars"], CleanProgress.com, August 5, 2014 GreenTech Media's analyst reached similar conclusions in 2014.Hunt, Tam. [http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/should-california-reconsider-its-policy-support-for-fuel-cell-vehicles "Should California Reconsider Its Policy Support for Fuel-Cell Vehicles?"], GreenTech Media, July 10, 2014 In 2015, Clean Technica listed some of the disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.Brown, Nicholas. [http://cleantechnica.com/2015/06/26/hydrogen-cars-lost-much-support/ "Hydrogen Cars Lost Much of Their Support, But Why?"], Clean Technica, June 26, 2015Meyers, Glenn. [http://cleantechnica.com/2015/03/19/hydrogen-economy-boom-bust/ "Hydrogen Economy: Boom or Bust?"], Clean Technica, March 19, 2015

A 2017 analysis published in Green Car Reports found that the best hydrogen fuel cell vehicles consume "more than three times more electricity per mile than an electric vehicle ... generate more greenhouse-gas emissions than other powertrain technologies ... [and have] very high fuel costs. ... Considering all the obstacles and requirements for new infrastructure (estimated to cost as much as $400 billion), fuel-cell vehicles seem likely to be a niche technology at best, with little impact on U.S. oil consumption. In 2017, Michael Barnard, writing in Forbes, listed the continuing disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell cars and concluded that "by about 2008, it was very clear that hydrogen was and would be inferior to battery technology as a storage of energy for vehicles. [B]y 2025 the last hold outs should likely be retiring their fuel cell dreams.”Barnard, Michael. [https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2017/05/30/will-people-choose-hydrogen-cars-over-gasoline-powered-ones/#4ae08ae549b0 "Will People Choose Hydrogen Cars Over Gasoline-Powered Ones?"], Forbes, May 30, 2017 A 2019 video by Real Engineering noted that using hydrogen as a fuel for cars does not help to reduce carbon emissions from transportation. The 95% of hydrogen still produced from fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, and producing hydrogen from water is an energy-consuming process. Storing hydrogen requires more energy either to cool it down to the liquid state or to put it into tanks under high pressure, and delivering the hydrogen to fueling stations requires more energy and may release more carbon. The hydrogen needed to move a FCV a kilometer costs approximately eight times as much as the electricity needed to move a BEV the same distance.Ruffo, Gustavo Henrique. [https://insideevs.com/features/373145/video-compares-bev-fcevs-energy-efficient "This Video Compares BEVs to FCEVs and the More Efficient Is..."], InsideEVs.com, September 29, 2019 Also in 2019, Katsushi Inoue, the president of Honda Europe, stated, "Our focus is on hybrid and electric vehicles now. Maybe hydrogen fuel cell cars will come, but that's a technology for the next era."

Assessments since 2020 have concluded that hydrogen vehicles are still only 38% efficient, while battery EVs from 80% to 95% efficient.{{cite web| last=Baxter| first=Tom| url=https://uk.news.yahoo.com/hydrogen-cars-wont-overtake-electric-111749065.html| title=Hydrogen cars won't overtake electric vehicles because they're hampered by the laws of science| work=The Conversation| date=June 3, 2020| access-date=June 4, 2020| archive-date=July 31, 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731213342/https://uk.news.yahoo.com/hydrogen-cars-wont-overtake-electric-111749065.html| url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=https://www.slashgear.com/833231/heres-why-hydrogen-cars-were-doomed-to-fail |title=Here's Why Hydrogen Cars Were Doomed to Fail |last1=Fernandez |first1=Ray |date=April 14, 2022 |website=SlashGear |access-date=April 16, 2022}} A 2021 assessment by CleanTechnica concluded that while hydrogen cars are far less efficient than electric cars, the vast majority of hydrogen being produced is polluting grey hydrogen, and delivering hydrogen would require building a vast and expensive new infrastructure, the remaining two "advantages of fuel cell vehicles – longer range and fast fueling times – are rapidly being eroded by improving battery and charging technology." A 2022 study in Nature Electronics agreed.Plötz, Patrick. [https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-021-00706-6 "Hydrogen technology is unlikely to play a major role in sustainable road transport"], Nature Electronics, vol. 5, pp. 8–10, January 31, 2022

File:Patent filings in the field of fuel cells by year of filing (1950–2020).png

Fuel cell patent fillings in the area of hydrogen fuel cells increased in the 1960s, partly due to NASAs space program; another increase in the 80s was driven by research for automobiles. This was followed by a surge in filings from 2000 to 2005 by inventors in Japan, US and South Korea. Since then, China has dominated patent fillings in the field, with a smaller number in Japan, Germany, South Korea and the US.{{Cite web |date=May 2022 |title=Patent Landscape Report – Hydrogen fuel cells in transportation |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo-pub-1076-en-patent-landscape-report-hydrogen-fuel-cells-in-transportation.pdf |website=WIPO |page=17}} Between 2016 and 2020, annual filings, particularly for transportation applications, increased by a further 23%.{{Cite web |title=New Report: Patenting Booms for Clean "Hydrogen Fuel Cell" Technologies for Transport |url=https://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2022/article_0006.html |date=May 17, 2022 |access-date=September 13, 2022 |website=www.wipo.int}}{{Cite web |date=May 2022 |title=Patent Landscape Report - Hydrogen fuel cells in transportation |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo-pub-1076-en-patent-landscape-report-hydrogen-fuel-cells-in-transportation.pdf |website=WIPO |page=5}}

Almost 80% of the patents in the area of fuel cells for transportation were filed by car companies.{{Cite web |date=May 2022 |title=Patent Landscape Report - Hydrogen fuel cells in transportation |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo-pub-1076-en-patent-landscape-report-hydrogen-fuel-cells-in-transportation.pdf |website=WIPO |page=19;46}} Academia is collaborating actively with the industry.{{Cite web |date=May 2022 |title=Patent Landscape Report - Hydrogen fuel cells in transportation |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo-pub-1076-en-patent-landscape-report-hydrogen-fuel-cells-in-transportation.pdf |website=WIPO |page=6}} Although filings related to road vehicles such as cars and trucks dominate, inventions in other areas like shipping, aviation, rail and other special vehicles is increasing.{{Cite web |date=May 2022 |title=Patent Landscape Report - Hydrogen fuel cells in transportation |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo-pub-1076-en-patent-landscape-report-hydrogen-fuel-cells-in-transportation.pdf |website=WIPO |page=36}} Airbus, a major aircraft manufacturer, has increased its patenting activity in the area since 2019.{{Cite web |date=May 2022 |title=Patent Landscape Report – Hydrogen fuel cells in transportation |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo-pub-1076-en-patent-landscape-report-hydrogen-fuel-cells-in-transportation.pdf |website=WIPO |page=7}} The number of fuel cell patents for shipping applications is comparable in size to the one for aviation and similarly slow in growth.

A 2022 World Intellectual Property Organization report argues that because heavy-duty vehicles, such as construction vehicles, forklifts, and airport tugs require a higher payload, the high energy density of hydrogen can make fuel cells a more advantageous solution than battery applications.

• Hydrogen vehicle
• Glossary of fuel cell terms
• Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell
• Reformed methanol fuel cell
• Fuel cell auxiliary power unit
• Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association
• Hydrogen fuel enhancement
• Water-fuelled car

{{Reflist}}

{{Commons category|Fuel cell-powered vehicles}}

• Heetebrij, Jan. [http://www.olino.org/us/articles/2009/06/05/a-vision-on-a-sustainable-electric-society-supported-by-electric-vehicles-and-solar-energy "A vision on a sustainable electric society supported by Electric Vehicles"], Olino Renewable Energy, June 5, 2009
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20120329153212/http://www.asia-pacific-times.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=14514&Itemid=9 Ulrich Hottelet: State funding for hybrid dreams], The Asia Pacific Times, October 2009
• [https://www.psmarketresearch.com/market-analysis/fuel-cell-market Fuel cell market size] per Prescient & Strategic Market Research 2021

{{Alternative propulsion}}

{{Electric vehicles}}

{{Authority control}}