hydrogen infrastructure

A hydrogen highway is a chain of hydrogen-equipped filling stations and other infrastructure along a road or highway which allow hydrogen vehicles to travel.

Hydrogen stations which are not situated near a hydrogen pipeline get supply via hydrogen tanks, compressed hydrogen tube trailers, liquid hydrogen trailers, liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite production. Some firms as ITM Power are also providing solutions to make your own hydrogen (for use in the car) at home.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7496644.stm Running on home-brewed hydrogen] Government supported activities to expand an hydrogen fuel infrastructure are ongoing in the US state of California, in some member states of the European Union (most notably in Germany) and in particular in Japan.

Hydrogen pipeline transport is a transportation of hydrogen through a pipe as part of the hydrogen infrastructure. Hydrogen pipeline transport is used to connect the point of hydrogen production or delivery of hydrogen with the point of demand, pipeline transport costs are similar to CNG,[http://www.leightyfoundation.org/files/WHEC16-Lyon/WHEC16-Ref022.pdf Compressorless Hydrogen Transmission Pipelines] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210131141/http://www.leightyfoundation.org/files/WHEC16-Lyon/WHEC16-Ref022.pdf |date=10 February 2012 }} the technology is proven,[https://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/hpwgw_airprod_remp.pdf DOE Hydrogen Pipeline Working Group Workshop] however most hydrogen is produced on the place of demand with every {{convert|50|to|100|mi|km|0|}} an industrial production facility.[http://www.hydrogenforecast.com/ArticleDetails.php?articleID=250 Every {{convert|50|to|100|mi|km|0|}}] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820202251/http://www.hydrogenforecast.com/ArticleDetails.php?articleID=250 |date=20 August 2007 }} {{As of|2004}}, there are {{convert|900|mi|km|0|}} of low pressure hydrogen pipelines in the US and {{convert|930|mi|km|0|}} in Europe.

According to a 2024 research report, the United States has 1,600 miles (2,570 kilometers) of hydrogen pipelines; the global total stands at 2,800 miles (4,500 kilometers).{{cite web| url =https://www.epri.com/research/sectors/lcri/research-results/3002027853 |title =Critical Review of ASME B31.12 for Pipeline Transmission of Hydrogen | publisher =EPRI | date = 2024-04-30 | accessdate = 2024-08-20}} The World Economic Forum, in December 2023, estimated that Europe had approximately 1,600 kilometers of hydrogen pipelines.{{cite web| url =https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/12/hydrogen-pipelines-countries-fastest/|title =Energy Transition Hydrogen pipelines are making progress around the world. These countries are leading the way | publisher =World Economic Forum | date = 2023-12-13 | accessdate = 2024-08-20}}

Hydrogen embrittlement (a reduction in the ductility of a metal due to absorbed hydrogen) is not a problem for hydrogen gas pipelines. Hydrogen embrittlement only happens with 'diffusible' hydrogen, i.e. atoms or ions. Hydrogen gas, however, is molecular (H₂), and there is a very significant energy barrier to splitting it into atoms.{{cite web |last1=Bhadhesia |first1=Harry |title=Prevention of Hydrogen Embrittlement in Steels |url=https://www.phase-trans.msm.cam.ac.uk/2016/preventing_hydrogen.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111174451/https://www.phase-trans.msm.cam.ac.uk/2016/preventing_hydrogen.pdf |archive-date=11 November 2020 |access-date=17 December 2020 |website=Phase Transformations & Complex Properties Research Group, Cambridge University}}

98% of hydrogen production uses the steam reforming method. Methods such as electrolysis of water are also used.{{Cite journal| last1=Dincer|first1=Ibrahim|last2=Acar|first2=Canan|date=2015|title=Review and evaluation of hydrogen production methods for better sustainability| url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360319914034119|journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy| volume=40|issue=34| pages=11096| doi=10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.12.035|bibcode=2015IJHE...4011094D |issn=0360-3199}} The world's largest facility for producing electrolytic hydrogen fuel is claimed{{cite web |url=https://www.toshiba-energy.com/en/info/info2020_0307.htm |title=The world´s largest-class hydrogen production, Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field (FH2R) now is completed at Namie town in Fukushima. |last= |first= |date=7 March 2020 |website=Toshiba Energy Press Releases |publisher=Toshiba Energy Systems and Solutions Corporations |access-date=1 April 2020 |quote= |archive-date=22 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422195459/https://www.toshiba-energy.com/en/info/info2020_0307.htm |url-status=dead }} to be the Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field (FH2R), a 10MW-class hydrogen production unit, inaugurated on 7 March 2020, in Namie, Fukushima Prefecture.{{cite web |url=https://www.meti.go.jp/english/press/2020/0309_001.html |title=Opening Ceremony of Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field (FH2R) Held with Prime Minister Abe and METI Minister Kajiyama |last= |first= |date=9 March 2020 |website=METI News Releases |publisher=Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry |access-date=1 April 2020 |quote=}} The site occupies 180,000 square meters of land, much of which is occupied by a solar array; but power from the grid is also used to conduct electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen fuel.

Hydrogen may be transported through pipes.

• 1938 – Rhine-Ruhr The first {{convert|240|km|abbr=on}} hydrogen pipes that are constructed of regular pipe steel, compressed hydrogen pressure {{convert|210|-|20|bar}}, diameter {{convert|250|-|300|mm}}. Still in operation.{{Cite web |url=http://www.storhy.net/train-in/PDF-TI/03_StorHy-Train-IN-Session-1_3_JToepler.pdf |title=The Technological Steps of Hydrogen Introduction - pag 24 |access-date=2008-08-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029214321/http://www.storhy.net/train-in/PDF-TI/03_StorHy-Train-IN-Session-1_3_JToepler.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-29 |url-status=dead }}{{Cite web |url=http://www.rise.org.au/info/Res/hydrogen/index.html |title=rise.org - Pipelines |access-date=2008-08-29 |archive-date=2009-07-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090728010121/http://www.rise.org.au/info/Res/hydrogen/index.html |url-status=dead }}
• 1973 – {{convert|30|km|abbr=on}} pipeline in Isbergues, France.[http://www.airliquide.com/file/otherelementcontent/pj/2006-press_kit_hydrogen-en58778.pdf 2006 - vector of clean energy - pag 15] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014121021/http://www.airliquide.com/file/otherelementcontent/pj/2006-press_kit_hydrogen-en58778.pdf |date=2008-10-14 }}
• 1985 – Extension of the pipeline from Isbergues to Zeebrugge
• 1997 – Connection of the pipeline to Rotterdam
• 1997 – 2000: Development of two hydrogen networks, one near Corpus Christi, Texas, and one between Freeport and Texas City.
• 2009 – {{convert|150|mi|abbr=on}} extension of the pipeline from Plaquemine to Chalmette.[http://www.airproducts.com/PressRoom/CompanyNews/Archived/2009/02Mar2009.htm Hydrogen Pipeline Extension Strengthens Gulf Coast Network] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090316233904/http://www.airproducts.com/PressRoom/CompanyNews/Archived/2009/02Mar2009.htm |date=2009-03-16 }}

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Hydrogen pipeline transport is sometimes used to transport hydrogen from the point of production or delivery to the point of demand. Although hydrogen pipeline transport is technologically mature,[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/hpwgw_airprod_remp.pdf 2005 DOE Hydrogen Pipeline Working Group Workshop] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191048/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/hpwgw_airprod_remp.pdf |date=2016-03-03 }}{{Cite web |url=http://www.cder.dz/A2H2/Medias/Download/Proc%20PDF/POSTERS/%5BGIV%5D%20Liquid%20%26%20gaseous%20storage%2C%20delidevy%2C%20safety%2C%20RCS/222.pdf |title=Natural gas pipelines for hydrogen transportation |access-date=27 February 2024 |archive-date=19 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219100020/https://www.cder.dz/A2H2/Medias/Download/Proc%20PDF/POSTERS/%5BGIV%5D%20Liquid%20%26%20gaseous%20storage%2C%20delidevy%2C%20safety%2C%20RCS/222.pdf |url-status=dead }} and the transport costs are similar to those of CNG,[http://www.leightyfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/whec16-lyon/WHEC16-Ref022.pdf 2006 - Compressorless Hydrogen Transmission Pipelines Deliver Large-scale Stranded Renewable Energy at Competitive Cost] - 16th World Hydrogen Energy Conference, Lyon, 13–16 June 2006 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210131141/http://www.leightyfoundation.org/files/WHEC16-Lyon/WHEC16-Ref022.pdf |date=2012-02-10 }} most hydrogen is produced in the place of demand, with an industrial production facility every {{convert|50|to|100|mi|km}}[http://www.hydrogenforecast.com/ArticleDetails.php?articleID=250 Every 50 to 100 miles ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820202251/http://www.hydrogenforecast.com/ArticleDetails.php?articleID=250 |date=2007-08-20 }}

For process metal piping at pressures up to {{convert|7000|psi|MPa|abbr=on}}, high-purity stainless steel piping with a maximum hardness of 80 HRB is preferred.[http://avt.inel.gov/pdf/hydrogen/h2station_appendixc.pdf Idaho national Engineering Laboratory Recommendations for Piping for Gaseous Hydrogen] {{Webarchive|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120916160534/http://avt.inel.gov/pdf/hydrogen/h2station_appendixc.pdf |date=2012-09-16 }} Accessed 2010-10-13 This is because higher hardnesses are associated with lower fracture toughness so stronger, higher hardness steel is less safe.

Composite pipes are assessed like:

• carbon fiber structure with fiberglass overlay [http://www.rita.dot.gov/publications/hydrogen_infrastructure_safety_analysis/html/section_14_06.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052226/http://www.rita.dot.gov/publications/hydrogen_infrastructure_safety_analysis/html/section_14_06.html |date=2016-03-04 }}.
• perfluoroalkoxy (PFA, MFA).
• polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
• fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) [https://web.archive.org/web/20100323044356/http://www.chemposite.com/material.htm].
• carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP)

Fiber-Reinforced Polymer pipelines (or FRP pipeline) and reinforced thermoplastic pipes are researched.{{Cite web |url=http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review07/pd_14_smith.pdf |title=2007 - Fiber Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Pipelines |access-date=27 February 2024 |archive-date=27 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127203440/https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review07/pd_14_smith.pdf |url-status=dead }}{{Cite web |url=http://www.hydrogendiscoveries.com/NHApipelinepaper.pdf |title=NEW, COMPOSITE POLYMERIC/METALLIC MATERIALS AND DESIGNS FOR HYDROGEN PIPELINES |access-date=2008-08-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008153102/http://www.hydrogendiscoveries.com/NHApipelinepaper.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-08 |url-status=dead }}{{Cite web |url=http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/progress06/iii_a_2_smith.pdf |title=2006 FRP Hydrogen Pipelines |access-date=27 February 2024 |archive-date=7 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207084540/https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/progress06/iii_a_2_smith.pdf |url-status=dead }}{{Cite web |url=http://www.composite-agency.com/product.htm |title=Lifetime Simulation Composite & Multilayer Pipelines |access-date=2009-11-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207024810/http://www.composite-agency.com/product.htm |archive-date=2012-02-07 |url-status=dead }}

Carrying hydrogen in steel pipelines (grades: API5L-X42 and X52; up to 1,000psi/7,000kPa, constant pressure/low pressure cycling) does not lead to hydrogen embrittlement.{{cite web |title=Hydrogen Pipelines Working Group Workshop - Proceedings |url=https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2014/03/f11/hpwgw_proceed05.pdf |website=USA Dept of Energy |publisher=DoE |access-date=20 January 2022}} Hydrogen is typically stored in steel cylinders without problems.

right

• 2024: USA – {{convert|1,600|mi|km|abbr=on}} of low pressure hydrogen pipelines
• 2024: Europe – {{convert|1,,600|km|mi|abbr=on}} of low pressure hydrogen pipelines.

A hydrogen highway is a chain of hydrogen-equipped public filling stations, along a road or highway, that allows hydrogen powered cars to travel.Al-Ahmed, Amir, Safdar Hossain, Bello Mukhtar et al. [https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5771760 "Hydrogen highway: An overview"], IEEE.org, December 2010 William Clay Ford Jr. has stated that infrastructure is one of three factors (also including costs and manufacturability in high volumes) that hold back the marketability of fuel cell cars.{{ref|BreakingGridlock}}

Hydrogen fueling stations generally receive deliveries of hydrogen by tanker truck from hydrogen suppliers. An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fueling stations.Woodrow, Melanie. [https://abc7news.com/bay-area-hydrogen-shortage-after-explosion/5328775 "Bay Area experiences hydrogen shortage after explosion"], ABC news, June 3, 2019 A hydrogen fueling station costs between $1 million and $4 million to build.{{cite journal|url=https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1506613 |title=Review of Transportation Hydrogen Infrastructure Performance and Reliability |publisher=National Renewable Energy Laboratory|year=2019|doi=10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.03.027 |access-date=October 7, 2020 |last1=Kurtz |first1=Jennifer |last2=Sprik |first2=Sam |last3=Bradley |first3=Thomas H. |journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy |volume=44 |issue=23 |pages=12010–12023 |bibcode=2019IJHE...4412010K }}

As of 2019, 98% of hydrogen is produced by steam methane reforming, which emits carbon dioxide.[https://www.power-technology.com/comment/standing-at-the-precipice-of-the-hydrogen-economy "Realising the hydrogen economy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105054643/https://www.power-technology.com/comment/standing-at-the-precipice-of-the-hydrogen-economy/ |date=5 November 2019 }}, Power Technology, October 11, 2019 The bulk of hydrogen is also transported in trucks, so pollution is emitted in its transportation.[https://protium.aero/our-technology/transportable-hydrogen-dispensing "Transportable Hydrogen Dispensing"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601194624/https://protium.aero/our-technology/transportable-hydrogen-dispensing/ |date=1 June 2020 }}, Protium.aero, May 2, 2016

Image:Hydrogen_station_pump.jpg

A hydrogen station is a storage or filling station for hydrogen fuel.{{cite journal | first1 = D. | last1 = Apostolou | first2 = G. | last2 = Xydis | year = 2019 | title = A literature review on hydrogen refuelling stations and infrastructure. Current status and future prospects | journal = Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews | volume = 113 | pages = 109292 | doi = 10.1016/j.rser.2019.109292| bibcode = 2019RSERv.11309292A | s2cid = 201240559 | url = https://pure.au.dk/ws/files/199760515/A_literature_review_on_hydrogen_refuelling_stations_and.pdf }} The hydrogen is dispensed by weight.{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna25413866|title=LA gas station gets hydrogen fuel pump|website=NBC News |date=27 June 2008|access-date=4 October 2016}}{{cite web|url=http://www.sae.org/servlets/pressRoom?OBJECT_TYPE=PressReleases&PAGE=showRelease&RELEASE_ID=2620|title=SAE International -- mobility engineering|access-date=4 October 2016}} There are two filling pressures in common use: H70 or 700 bar, and the older standard H35 or 350 bar.{{Cite journal |last1=Can Samsun |first1=Remzi |last2=Antoni |first2=Laurent |last3=Rex |first3=Michael |last4=Stolten |first4=Detlef |date=2021 |title=Deployment Status of Fuel Cells in Road Transport: 2021 Update |url=https://www.ieafuelcell.com/fileadmin/webfiles/2021-Deployment_status_of_fc_in_road_transport.pdf |journal=International Energy Agency (IEA) Advanced Fuel Cells Technology Collaboration Programme (AFC TCP) |publisher=Forschungszentrum Jülich}} {{As of|2021}}, around 550 filling stations were available worldwide. According to H2stations.org by Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik (LBST), as of the end of 2023, there were 921 hydrogen refueling stations globally,{{cite web| url =https://www.electrive.com/2024/02/01/37-new-h2-refuelling-stations-built-in-europe-in-2023/ |title =Infrastructure 37 new H2 refuelling stations built in Europe in 2023 | publisher =Electrive.com | date = 2024-01-02 | author=Chris Randall|accessdate = 2024-08-19 }} although this number clearly conflicts with those published by AFDC. The distribution of these stations is highly uneven, with a concentration in East Asia, particularly in China, Japan and South Korea; Central Europe and California in the United States. Other regions have very few, if any, hydrogen refuelling stations.

Hydrogen fueling stations can be divided into off-site stations, where hydrogen is delivered by truck or pipeline, and on-site stations that produce and compress hydrogen for the vehicles.[https://protium.aero/our-technology/transportable-hydrogen-dispensing "Transportable Hydrogen Dispensing"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601194624/https://protium.aero/our-technology/transportable-hydrogen-dispensing/ |date=1 June 2020 }}, Protium.aero, May 2, 2016Another off-site concept, by Bioenergy Concept GmbH, which has not been commercialized, involves filling hydrogen in cartridges and transporting them to a filling station, where the empty cartridges are replaced with new ones. See {{Cite web |title=Bioenergy Concept GmbH - Your Expert for Bioenergy Projects |url=https://bioenergy-concept.com/ |access-date=2022-04-08 |website=Bioenergy Concept GmbH}} and {{Cite news |title=Patent für Wasserstofftankstelle |url=https://archiv.landeszeitung.de/web/search/search.html#/search&q=*&s=1&c=5&p=all&v=list&o=date&d=0&f=&l=and&gb=1&fc.facet_date.i=lastyear&fc.facet_person.i=bohlmann%2C%20stefan&fc.facet_person.c=40&t1649414984510}} It is hoped that this process would save about 33% of energy (Kwh/KgH2) used by conventional transportation. See {{Cite web |title=DOE Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program Record |url=https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/9013_energy_requirements_for_hydrogen_gas_compression.pdf}}

Home hydrogen fueling stations are available to consumers.[https://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/index.php/home-hydrogen-fueling-stations/ Hydrogenics HomeFueler as a home hydrogen fueling station]; [https://www.pdcmachines.com/simplefuel/ Simple.fuel as a home hydrogen fueling station]; [http://www.ivysinc.com/simplefuel-main-page/ Ivys Energy Solutions simple.fuel]; and [https://www.naratek.com/en/technology-at-hand/2019/home-hydrogen-fueling-stations.php Home hydrogen fueling station term] A model that can produce 12 kilograms of hydrogen per day sells for $325,000.[https://residentialhydrogenpower.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Specification-8-2019-MRE-SHFA-Model-300.pdf "SHFA Model 300"], Millennium Reign Energy, accessed April 26, 2023

Solar powered water electrolysing hydrogen home stations are composed of solar cells, power converter, water purifier, electrolyzer, piping, hydrogen purifier,{{cite journal |url=http://www.homepower.com/files/Hp67p42.pdf |title=Hydrogen Purification |volume=67 |pages=42 |journal=Home Power |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060813154525/http://www.homepower.com/files/Hp67p42.pdf |archive-date=2006-08-13 }} oxygen purifier, compressor,{{cite web |publisher=Pressure Products Industries, Inc. |url=http://www.gotoppi.com/compressors/compressors.html |title=Diaphragm Compressors |access-date=2007-06-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070921020954/http://www.gotoppi.com/compressors/compressors.html |archive-date=2007-09-21 }} pressure vesselsSee, for example, [http://www.lincolncomposites.com/products.html Lincoln Composites Tuffshell tanks] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070604174620/http://www.lincolncomposites.com/products.html|date=2007-06-04}}, as recommended by Roy McAlister in the "Hydrogen Car and Multi Fuel Engine" DVD and a hydrogen outlet.{{cite journal | url=http://www.dangerouslaboratories.org/h2homesystem.pdf | title=Solar Hydrogen Production by Electrolysis | journal=Home Power | volume=39 | date=February–March 1994 | access-date=2007-06-23}}

Hydrogen fuel is hazardous because of its low ignition energy, high combustion energy, and because it easily leaks from tanks.{{cite journal | last1 = Utgikar | first1 = Vivek P | last2 = Thiesen | first2= Todd| title= Safety of compressed hydrogen fuel tanks: Leakage from stationary vehicles | journal= Technology in Society | year=2005| volume=27 | issue=3 | pages=315–320 | doi = 10.1016/j.techsoc.2005.04.005}} Explosions at hydrogen filling stations have been reported.{{cite news| url=http://evtalk.co.nz/exploding-hydrogen-station-leads-to-fcv-halt/| title=Exploding hydrogen station leads to FCV halt| publisher=EV Talk| first=Geoff| last=Dobson| date=12 June 2019}}

Hydrogen fuelling stations generally receive deliveries by truck from hydrogen suppliers. An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fuelling stations due to an interruption of the supply of hydrogen.Woodrow, Melanie. [https://abc7news.com/bay-area-hydrogen-shortage-after-explosion/5328775 "Bay Area experiences hydrogen shortage after explosion"], ABC news, June 3, 2019

{{see also|Hydrogen fuel}}

There are far fewer Hydrogen filling stations than gasoline fuel stations, which in the US alone numbered 168,000 in 2004.{{cite web| url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/quizzes/answerQuiz16.shtml|title=How many gas stations are there in the U.S?|access-date=4 October 2016}} Replacing the US gasoline infrastructure with hydrogen fuel infrastructure is estimated to cost a half trillion U.S. dollars.{{cite book | last=Romm | first=Joseph | year=2004 | title=The Hype about Hydrogen, Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save the Climate | url=https://archive.org/details/hypeabouthydroge0000romm | url-access=registration | location=New York | publisher=Island Press | isbn=978-1-55963-703-9}} Chapter 5 A hydrogen fueling station costs between $1 million and $4 million to build.{{cite journal| url=https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1506613 |title=Review of Transportation Hydrogen Infrastructure Performance and Reliability |publisher=National Renewable Energy Laboratory| year=2019| doi=10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.03.027 |access-date=October 7, 2020|last1=Kurtz |first1=Jennifer |last2=Sprik |first2=Sam |last3=Bradley |first3=Thomas H. |journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy |volume=44 |issue=23 |pages=12010–12023 |s2cid=132085841 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019IJHE...4412010K }} In comparison, battery electric vehicles can charge at home or at public chargers. As of 2023, there are more than 60,000 public charging stations in the United States, with more than 160,000 outlets. A public Level 2 charger, which comprise the majority of public chargers in the US, costs about $2,000, and DC fast chargers, of which there are more than 30,000 in the U.S., generally cost between $100,000 and $250,000,Hawkins, Andrew J. [https://www.theverge.com/2022/3/15/22977536/volvo-chargepoint-ev-chargers-starbucks-dc-fast "Volvo and ChargePoint will build EV charging stations at Starbucks in 5 states"], The Verge, March 15, 2022 although Tesla superchargers are estimated to cost approximately $43,000.Lambert, Fred. [https://electrek.co/2022/04/15/tesla-cost-deploy-superchargers-revealed-one-fifth-competition "Tesla's Supercharger cost revealed to be just one-fifth of the competition in losing home state bid"], Electrek, April 15, 2022

During refueling, the flow of cold hydrogen can cause frost to form on the dispenser nozzle, sometimes leading to the nozzle becoming frozen to the vehicle being refueled.{{cite web| url=https://www.nrel.gov/news/features/2020/nrel-research-fueling-big-rigs-help-hydrogen-vehicles-hit-road.html|title=NREL Research into Fueling Big Rigs Could Help More Hydrogen Vehicles Hit the Road|access-date=4 May 2023}}

Consulting firm Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik tracks global hydrogen filling stations and publishes a map.{{cite web |title=Hydrogen Filling Stations Worldwide - H2-Stations - netinform |url=http://www.netinform.net/h2/H2Stations/Default.aspx |access-date=4 October 2016}}

In 2019, there were 178 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation.{{cite news |date=19 February 2020 |title=In 2019: 83 New Hydrogen Refuelling Stations Worldwide |work=FuelCellsWorks |url=https://fuelcellsworks.com/news/in-2019-83-new-hydrogen-refuelling-stations-worldwide/ |access-date=10 June 2020}}

File:Hydrogen recharging station, by Iwatani in Ariake 2.jpg, Tokyo]]

{{As of|May 2023}}, there are 167 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation in Japan.{{cite web|date=17 May 2023 |title=2023年度水素ステーション整備計画を策定 |trans-title=Formulation of a hydrogen station development plan for FY2023 |language=JA |url=https://www.jhym.co.jp/post-2930/ |website=JHyM |access-date=29 June 2023 }}{{cite web|date=17 May 2023 |title=5 new HRS to be installed in fiscal 2023 |url=https://www.jhym.co.jp/en/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/EN-JHyM_20230517-HRS-installation-plan.pdf |website=JHyM |access-date=29 June 2023 }} In 2012 there were 17 hydrogen stations,{{cite web |title=fuelcellinsider.org - Index |url=http://www.fuelcellinsider.org/?p=1858 |access-date=4 October 2016 |archive-date=15 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015163612/http://www.fuelcellinsider.org/?p=1858 |url-status=dead }} and in 2021, there were 137 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Japan.

By the end of 2023, China had built 354 hydrogen refueling stations.{{cite web| url =https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/transport/china-is-the-world-leader-in-hydrogen-refuelling-stations-but-it-is-still-way-behind-its-2025-targets-analyst/2-1-1615540 |title ='China is the world leader in hydrogen refuelling stations, but it is still way behind its 2025 targets': analyst | publisher =Hydrogeninsight|author=Polly Martin | date = 2024-03-21 | accessdate = 2024-08-20 }}

In 2019, there were 33 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation in South Korea.{{cite web |author=Phate Zhang |date=July 1, 2021 |title=China has built 118 hydrogen refueling stations |url=https://cnevpost.com/2021/07/01/china-has-built-118-hydrogen-refueling-stations/ |website=CnEVPost}} In November 2023, however, due to hydrogen supply problems and broken stations, most fueling stations in South Korea offered no hydrogen.Barnard, Michael. [https://cleantechnica.com/2024/02/08/hydrogen-refueling-station-closures-in-multiple-countries-more-painful-news-for-hydrogen-proponents "Hydrogen Refueling Station Closures in Multiple Countries More Painful News for Hydrogen Proponents"], CleanTechnica, February 8, 2024 41 out of the 159 hydrogen stations in the country were listed as open, and some of these were rationing supplies of hydrogen.Martin, Polly. [https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/transport/three-quarters-of-hydrogen-refuelling-stations-in-south-korea-closed-amid-h2-supply-crash/2-1-1559610 "Three quarters of hydrogen refuelling stations in South Korea closed amid H2 supply crash"], Hydrogen Insight, November 23, 2023

In 2019, there were 177 stations in Europe.{{cite web |date=2020-06-10 |title=Filling up with H2 |url=https://h2.live/en |access-date=10 June 2020 |website=H2.Live - Hydrogen Stations in Germany & Europe}}{{Cite web |date=19 November 2015 |title=About - Hydrogen Mobility Europe |url=https://h2me.eu/about/ |access-date=2020-03-24 |website=Hydrogen Mobility Europe}} According to H2stations.org by Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik (LBST), there were 265 hydrogen refuelling stations in Europe by the end of 2023.

{{As of|2023|6|post=,}} there were 105 hydrogen fuel stations in Germany, {{As of|2023|6|post=,}} there were 5 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in France, 3 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Iceland, one publicly available hydrogen fuel station in Italy, 4 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in The Netherlands, 2 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Belgium, 4 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Sweden, 3 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Switzerland and 6 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Denmark. Everfuel, the only operator of hydrogen stations in Denmark, announced in 2023 the closure of all of its public hydrogen stations in the country.[https://hydrogen-central.com/everfuel-decided-restructure-hydrogen-station-network-due-current-immature-hydrogen-mobility-market-and-technology-closing-refuelling-stations "Everfuel Decided to Restructure the Hydrogen Station Network Due to Current Immature Hydrogen Mobility Market and Technology, Closing Refuelling Stations"], Hydrogen Central, September 15, 2023Martin, Polly. [https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/transport/hydrogen-vehicles-in-denmark-left-without-fuel-as-all-commercial-refuelling-stations-shuttered/2-1-1519914 "Hydrogen vehicles in Denmark left without fuel as all commercial refuelling stations shuttered"], Hydrogen Insight, 20 September 2023

{{As of|2021|6|post=,}} there were 2 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Norway, both in the Oslo area.Tisheva, Plamena. [https://renewablesnow.com/news/everfuel-sets-out-plan-for-hydrogen-stations-in-southern-norway-735225 "Everfuel sets out plan for hydrogen stations in southern Norway"], RenewablesNow, March 22, 2021 Since the explosion at the hydrogen filling station in Sandvika in June 2019, the sale of hydrogen cars in Norway has halted.Kane, Mark. [https://insideevs.com/news/354223/hydrogen-fueling-station-explodes "Hydrogen Fueling Station Explodes: Toyota & Hyundai Halt Fuel Cell Car Sales"], Inside EVs, June 11, 2019, accessed August 5, 2021 In 2023, Everfuel announced the closure of its two public hydrogen stations in Norway and cancelled the opening of a third. In 2024 Shell discontinued its hydrogen fuel projects in Norway.Kimani, Alex. [https://oilprice.com/Latest-Energy-News/World-News/Shell-Abandons-Norways-Hydrogen-Projects-Due-To-Lack-Of-Demand.html "Shell Abandons Norway’s Hydrogen Projects Due to Lack of Demand"], Oil Price, September 23, 2024

{{As of|2020|6|post=,}} there were 11 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in the United Kingdom, but as of 2023, the number decreased to 5.[https://innovationorigins.com/en/first-shell-now-motive-hydrogen-fuel-station-closures-continue-in-the-uk "First Shell, now Motive, hydrogen fuel station closures continue in the UK"], Innovation Origins, 4 May 2023 In 2022, Shell closed its three hydrogen stations in the UK,Collins, Leigh. [https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/transport/exclusive-shell-has-quietly-closed-down-all-its-hydrogen-filling-stations-in-the-uk/2-1-1335049 "Shell has quietly closed down all its hydrogen filling stations in the UK"], Hydrogen Insight, 17 October 2022

As of July 2023, there were 10 fueling stations in Canada, 9 of which were open to the public:

• British Columbia: Five stations are in the Greater Vancouver Area and Vancouver Island, with one station in Kelowna. All six stations are operated by HTEC (co-branded with Shell and Esso).{{Cite web |title=Station Status - HTEC |url=https://www.htec.ca/station-status/ |access-date=2022-08-13 |website=www.htec.ca}}
• Ontario: One station in Mississauga is operated by Hydrogenics Corporation. The station is only available to certain commercial customers.{{Cite web |last=Canada |first=Natural Resources |date=2018-01-05 |title=Electric Charging and Alternative Fuelling Stations Locator |url=https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy-efficiency/transportation-alternative-fuels/electric-charging-alternative-fuelling-stationslocator-map/20487 |access-date=2022-08-14 |website=www.nrcan.gc.ca}}
• Quebec: Three stations in the Greater Montreal area are operated by Shell, and one station in Quebec City is operated by Harnois Énergies (co-branded with Esso).

{{as of|July 2024}}, there were 54 publicly accessible hydrogen refueling stations in the US, 53 of which were located in California, with one in Hawaii.[http://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/stations_counts.html Alternative Fueling Station Counts by State], Alternative Fuels Data Center, accessed July 4, 2024.

• California: {{As of|2024|3|post=,}} there were 53 retail stations. Continued state funding for hydrogen refueling stations is uncertain.Begert, Blanca. [https://www.politico.com/news/2023/08/15/california-hydrogen-cars-00111323 "Is this the end of the hydrogen highway?"], Politico, August 15, 2023 In September 2023, Shell announced that it had closed its hydrogen stations in the state and discontinued plans to build further stations.Dokso, Anela. [https://energynews.biz/shell-abandons-california-hydrogen-stations/#:~:text=In%20essence%2C%20Shell%20has%20shuttered,California%20due%20to%20operational%20issues. "Shell Abandons California Hydrogen Stations"], Energy News, September 19, 2023; and Collins, Leigh. [https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/transport/shell-scraps-plan-to-build-48-new-hydrogen-filling-stations-in-california-for-which-it-had-been-awarded-40-6m-grant/2-1-1519894 "Shell scraps plan to build 48 new hydrogen filling stations in California, for which it had been awarded $40.6m grant"], Hydrogen Insight, 18 September 2023 In 2024 it was reported that "a majority of the hydrogen stations in Southern California are offline or operating with reduced hours" due to hydrogen shortages and unreliable station performance.Hogan, Mack. [https://insideevs.com/news/708156/shell-closes-california-hydrogen-stations "Shell Is Immediately Closing all of Its California Hydrogen Stations"], Inside EVs, February 9, 2024
• Hawaii opened its first hydrogen station at Hickam in 2009.[http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review12/tv009_rocheleau_2012_p.pdf Hawaii hydrogen power park][https://www.pacaf.af.mil/News/story/id/123150261/ First solar-powered hydrogen plant in AF complete on Hickam] In 2012, the Aloha Motor Company opened a hydrogen station in Honolulu.{{cite web |title=Fuel Cell Scooters and Solar Hydrogen Refuelling Station Launched in Hawaii |url=http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/news-events/news-archive/2012/august/fuel-cell-scooters-and-solar-hydrogen-refuelling-station-launched-in-hawaii |access-date=4 October 2016}} {{As of|2023|4|post=,}} however, only one publicly accessible station was in operation in Hawaii.
• Michigan: In 2000, the Ford Motor Company and Air Products & Chemicals opened the first hydrogen station in North America in Dearborn, MI.{{cite book |author=Motavalli, Jim |url=https://archive.org/details/breakinggridlock00jimm_0/page/145 |title=Breaking Gridlock: Moving Towards Transportation That Works |publisher=Sierra Club Books |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-57805-039-0 |location=San Francisco |page=[https://archive.org/details/breakinggridlock00jimm_0/page/145 145] |url-access=registration}} {{As of|2023|11|post=,}} no publicly accessible stations were in operation in Michigan.

In 2021, the first Australian publicly available hydrogen fuel station opened in Canberra, operated by ActewAGL.{{cite press release |title=Hydrogen refuelling station opens in Canberra |url=https://www.act.gov.au/our-canberra/latest-news/2021/march/australias-first-public-hydrogen-refuelling-station-opens-in-canberra |website=Australian Capital Territory Government |access-date=1 April 2021 |date=26 March 2021 |archive-date=29 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329104507/https://www.act.gov.au/our-canberra/latest-news/2021/march/australias-first-public-hydrogen-refuelling-station-opens-in-canberra |url-status=dead }}

{{Portal|Energy|Renewable energy}}

File:Honda FCX platform rear Honda Collection Hall.jpg

A hydrogen tank (other names- cartridge or canister) is used for hydrogen storage.[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/ihfpv_proceedings.pdf International hydrogen fuel and pressure vessel forum 2010] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905153748/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/ihfpv_proceedings.pdf |date=2012-09-05 }}[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/ihfpv_zheng2.pdf R&D of large stationary hydrogen/CNG/HCNG storage vessels][http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/cng_h2_workshop_8_wong.pdf CNG & Hydrogen tank safety, R&D, and testing] The first type IV hydrogen tanks for compressed hydrogen at {{convert|700|bar|MPa psi}} were demonstrated in 2001, the first fuel cell vehicles on the road with type IV tanks are the Toyota FCHV, Mercedes-Benz F-Cell and the GM HydroGen4.

Various applications have allowed the development of different H2 storage scenarios.

Recently, the Hy-Can[http://www.hydrogen-canister.com/en/ Hycan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111206064212/http://www.hydrogen-canister.com/en/ |date=2011-12-06 }} consortium has introduced a small one liter, {{convert|10|bar|MPa psi}} format. Horizon Fuel Cells is now selling a refillable {{convert|3|MPa|bar psi}} metal hydride form factor for consumer use called HydroStik.[http://www.horizonfuelcell.com/#!minipak/c156u/ Horizon HydroStik]

• Metal tank (steel/aluminum)
• Approximate maximum pressures: aluminum {{convert|175|bar|MPa psi}}, steel {{convert|200|bar|MPa psi}}.

• Aluminum tank with filament windings such as glass fiber/aramid or carbon fiber around the metal cylinder.[http://www.cea.fr/var/cea/storage/static/gb/library/Clefs50/pdf/056a060moysan-gb.pdf Onboard storage of hydrogen-Page 2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061127090258/http://www.cea.fr/var/cea/storage/static/gb/library/Clefs50/pdf/056a060moysan-gb.pdf |date=2006-11-27 }} See composite overwrapped pressure vessel.
• Approximate maximum pressures: aluminum/glass {{convert|263|bar|MPa psi}}, steel/carbon or aramide {{convert|300|bar|MPa psi}}.

• Tanks made from composite material, fiberglass/aramid or carbon fiber with a metal liner (aluminum or steel).
• Approximate maximum pressures: aluminum/glass {{convert|305|bar|MPa psi}}, aluminum/aramid {{convert|438|bar|MPa psi}}, aluminium/carbon {{convert|700|bar|MPa psi}}.

File:Hydrogen tanks for Toyota Mirai.png.]]

• Composite tanks such of carbon fiber with a polymer liner (thermoplastic). See rotational molding and fibre-reinforced plastic.
• Approximate maximum pressure: {{convert|700|bar|MPa psi}}.{{Cite web |url=http://www.storhy.net/train-in/PDF-TI/Poster/Poster_1.pdf |title=Onboard type IV vessels |access-date=2008-11-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071110080450/http://www.storhy.net/train-in/PDF-TI/Poster/Poster_1.pdf |archive-date=2007-11-10 |url-status=dead }}

• All-composite, linerless tank. Composites Technology Development (Colorado, USA) built a prototype tank for a satellite application in 2010 although it had an operating pressure of only 200 psi and was used to store argon.{{Cite web|url=http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/next-generation-pressure-vessels|title = The first commercial Type V composite pressure vessel| date=31 March 2020 }}
• Approximate maximum pressure: {{convert|1000|bar|MPa psi}}.

{{main|Hydrogen safety}}

In accordance with ISO/TS 15869 (revised):

• Burst test: the pressure at which the tank bursts, typically more than 2× the working pressure.
• Proof pressure: the pressure at which the test will be executed, typically above the working pressure.
• Leak test or permeation test,[http://h2storage.net/docs/pdf/29/s4/makarov.pdf Modeling of dispersion following hydrogen permeation for safety engineering and risk assessment] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723142016/http://h2storage.net/docs/pdf/29/s4/makarov.pdf |date=2011-07-23 }} in NmL/hr/L (Normal liter of H2/time in hr/volume of the tank.)
• Fatigue test, typically several thousand cycles of charging/emptying.
• Bonfire test where the tank is exposed to an open fire.
• Bullet test where live ammunition is fired at the tank.

This specification was replaced by ISO 13985:2006 and only applies to liquid hydrogen tanks.

Actual Standard EC 79/2009

• U.S. Department of Energy maintains a hydrogen safety best practices site with a lot of information about tanks and piping.[http://h2bestpractices.org/storage/ U.S. DOE storage safety] They dryly observe "Hydrogen is a very small molecule with low viscosity, and therefore prone to leakage.".[http://h2bestpractices.org/h2properties/ U.S. DOE best safety practices hydrogen properties]

Using magnesium[http://neel.cnrs.fr/spip.php?article1281 CNRS Institut Neel H2 Storage] for hydrogen storage, a safe but weighty reversible storage technology. Typically the pressure requirement are limited to {{convert|10|bar|MPa psi}}.

The charging process generates heat whereas the discharge process will require some heat to release the H2 contained in the storage material. To activate these types of hydrides, at the current state of development you need to reach approximately {{convert|300|C|F}}. {{Cite journal| doi = 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2007.01.003| issn = 1359-6462| volume = 56| issue = 10| pages = 841–846| last1 = Dornheim| first1 = M.| last2 = Doppiu| first2 = S.| last3 = Barkhordarian| first3 = G.| last4 = Boesenberg| first4 = U.| last5 = Klassen| first5 = T.| last6 = Gutfleisch| first6 = O.| last7 = Bormann| first7 = R.| title = Hydrogen storage in magnesium-based hydrides and hydride composites| journal = Scripta Materialia| series = Viewpoint set no. 42 “Nanoscale materials for hydrogen storage”| date = 2007}}{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1038/35104634| pmid = 11713542| issn = 0028-0836| volume = 414| issue = 6861| pages = 353–358| last1 = Schlapbach| first1 = Louis| last2 = Züttel| first2 = Andreas| title = Hydrogen-storage materials for mobile applications| journal = Nature| date = 2001-11-15| bibcode = 2001Natur.414..353S| s2cid = 3025203| url = http://doc.rero.ch/record/6025/files/zuttel_hsm.pdf}}{{Cite web |url=http://www.mcphy.com/en/index.php |title=Storage by Mc-Phy |access-date=2009-11-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091203061142/http://www.mcphy.com/en/index.php |archive-date=2009-12-03 |url-status=dead }}

See also sodium aluminium hydride

• 2008 - Japan, a clay-based film sandwiched between prepregs of CFRP.[http://www.aist.go.jp/aist_e/latest_research/2008/20080617/20080617.html Development of a Clay-Plastic Composite Material with Good Hydrogen Gas Barrier Property] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821113357/http://www.aist.go.jp/aist_e/latest_research/2008/20080617/20080617.html |date=2008-08-21 }}

• Hydrogen leak testing
• Hydrogen sensor
• Gas cylinder
• Hydrogen compressor
• Liquid hydrogen

{{reflist}}

• {{cite book |ref = {{harvid|IEA H2|2019}} | publisher=International Energy Agency | title=The Future of Hydrogen | year=2019 | url-access=registration | url=https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-hydrogen}}

• [http://www.linkedin.com/groups/Hydrogen-Embrittlement-4991909?trk=myg_ugrp_ovr Hydrogen Embrittlement group]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20120920054053/http://hydrogenhighway.ca.gov/ California Hydrogen Highway]
• [http://www.roadtraffic-technology.com/projects/hydrogenhighway Hydrogen Highway, Norway to Germany]
• [http://www.h2stations.org Interactive map of hydrogen stations in Europe and worldwide]
• [http://www.netinform.net/H2/H2Stations/H2Stations.aspx?Continent=EU&StationID=-1 Interactive map of hydrogen stations in Europe and worldwide] (includes non-public stations)
• [http://www.h2map.com H2Map.com] Map of hydrogen refueling stations in the UK
• [http://www.h2stations.org H2stations.org] Map of hydrogen refueling stations worldwide (GIS)
• [https://cafcp.org/stationmap California Fuel Cell Partnership Map] Map of hydrogen fueling stations in California, with real-time status reports
• [http://www.euhyfis.com/ EUhyfis]
• [http://www.iso.org/iso/standards_development/technical_committees/list_of_iso_technical_committees/iso_technical_committee.htm?commid=54560 ISO-TC 197]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hydrogen Infrastructure}}

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