General Intelligence Service (Syria)

As a consequence of the French Mandate of Syria that created the modern First Syrian Republic and its structures, the country's civil intelligence services owe much to the French template which shaped their early development since 1945. Civilian intelligence service called Department of General Security (Sûreté Générale) was established, and became one of the two security agencies of Syria, the other being Deuxième Bureau. After 1949 Syrian coup d'état, the Sûreté Générale became no more than an executive arm of the Deuxième Bureau. With the tenure of Abd al-Hamid Sarraj as director of the Deuxième Bureau, which lasted from 1954 to 1958, exemplified these trends. His officers became increasingly active in both Lebanon and northern Israel.{{cite book|last1=Podeh|first1=Elie|title=The Decline of Arab Unity: The Rise and Fall of the United Arab Republic|date=1999|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|location=Brighton|isbn=1902210204|page=54|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IeJ6CIyyn14C&q=The+Decline+of+Arab+Unity:+The+Rise+And+Fall+of+the+United+Arab+Republic,|access-date=27 January 2017}}

In February 1958, the Syrian government merged with Egypt to form the United Arab Republic (UAR). The union lasted until September 1961. During that union, Syrian intelligence services came under the overall authority of the Egyptian Directorate of General Intelligence with Salah Nasr as director.{{cite journal|author=Joseph W. Wippl|title=Book review|journal=International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence|year=2019

|volume=32|issue=2|page=432 |doi=10.1080/08850607.2019.1565879}} After its secession from the UAR in 1961, the new Syrian government under President Nazim al-Qudsi reformed security sector. The Deuxième Bureau and a reformed civilian intelligence, renamed as the Internal Security Forces Command (ISFC), started their activities in Lebanon. On 15 December 1961, Col. Muhammad Hisham al-Samman was appointed as Commander of Internal Security Forces, assisted by a Committee under his presidency.{{cite book|last1=Oron|first1=Yizthak|title=Middle East Record Volume 2, 1961|date=1961|publisher=The Moshe Dayan Center|location=Jerusalem|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_vzZ71Eh5QvMC/page/n458 439]|access-date=26 December 2016|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_vzZ71Eh5QvMC}} Along with the Kuzbari government, he pledged to establish political liberties and to disestablish emergency laws, which never came into existence. With the 1963 Syrian coup d'état, the security services adapted to the new political system of the Ba'ath Party. It was intensively trained by the Egyptian State Security on its domestic affairs such as political repression, mass surveillance, coercive interrogation techniques among others.

The renewed service was used in April 1964 to crackdown uprisings in Hama led by the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood and backed by Egypt.Wright, Robin, Dreams and Shadows : the Future of the Middle East, Penguin Press, 2008, p.241. {{ISBN|1594201110}}. On 24 March 1965, Decree No. 67 put the ISFC into a military framework with link to the Interior Ministry, thus ending the civilian control.{{cite web|title=قوى الأمن الداخلي (sy)/نظام الشرطة|url=http://ar.jurispedia.org/index.php/%D9%82%D9%88%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%8A_(sy)/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A9|website=موسوعة القانون المشارك الجامعية|access-date=5 December 2016|language=ar}} After the February 1966 coup within the Ba'th Party, Salah Jadid emerged as the leader of Syria's most radical regime to date.{{Cite news|agency=Associated Press|date=1993-08-24|title=Salah Jadid, 63, Leader of Syria Deposed and Imprisoned by Assad (Published 1993)|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/24/obituaries/salah-jadid-63-leader-of-syria-deposed-and-imprisoned-by-assad.html|access-date=2021-02-23|issn=0362-4331}} Jadid centralized control of all intelligence and security services under Col. Abd al-Karim al-Jundi, the head of the National Security Bureau of the Ba'ath Party.Kahana; Suwaed, 2009, p. 294.

From 1966 to 1969, Jundi further expanded the role and power of the Syrian agencies, both at home and abroad. It was during this period that their reputation for brutal ruthlessness was firmly established. Also in this period, the ISFC was organized and extensively trained by the GDR's Stasi.Rafiq Hariri and the Fate of Lebanon (2009). Marwān Iskandar. P. 201. The use of Palestinian guerrillas against Israel was core of its foreign intelligence.

{{See also|General Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|General Intelligence Directorate (Syria)}}

In November 1970, Hafez al-Assad ousted Jadid in what he labelled a Corrective Movement. The new system has proved to be Syria's most stable and durable since independence and has toned down the previous radicalism. It was established in 1971. By 1972, the General Intelligence Directorate was significantly modelled on the GDR's Stasi.{{Cite journal |last=Trentin |first=Massimiliano |date=November 2021 |title=State-led Development: The Privileged Linkage between East Germany and Ba'athist Syria, 1965–1972 |journal=Contemporary European History |language=en |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=581–596 |doi=10.1017/S0960777321000369 |issn=0960-7773|doi-access=free |hdl=11585/852257 |hdl-access=free }} Under the government of Hafez al-Assad and Ba'ath Party, especially from 1973, agents of Syria’s GSD were a frequent visitors in East Berlin for training. According to Stasi files, the Syrians also received equipment and materials from East Germany, the last such deliveries documented up until 1990.{{Cite web|url=https://www.mena-researchcenter.org/germanys-ties-to-the-syrian-regime/|title=Germany's ties to the Syrian regime|date=14 January 2023 }}

Under Bashar al-Assad there has been a remarkable continuity among the senior personnel in the intelligence community.

The service was in competition with Political Security Directorate in the late 20th century. Major General Ghazi Kanaan possibly headed international security of the General Security Directorate in the late 20th century. In the late 20th century, between 1998 and 2001, Major General Ali Houri was director of General Security Directorate.

After Bashar al-Assad's takeover in 2000, Major General Ali Hammoud was named as head of General Intelligence Directorate. In 2001, Hisham Ikhtiyar became the head of the General Intelligence Directorate, replacing Ali Hammoud, who became the Minister for Interior. Hisham Ikhtiyar was close to Bashar al-Assad's deceased brother-in-law Assef Shawkat.{{Cite web |url=http://www.esisc.org/recherche.php?page=5&Pays=SYRIE |access-date=2008-09-06|title=Syrie}} {{dead link|date=June 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} President Bashar al-Assad in June 2005 appointed General Ali Mamlouk as commander of the General Intelligence Directorate.{{cite book|last=Rabil |first=Robert G. |author-link=Robert G. Rabil |title=Syria, the United States, and the war on terror in the Middle East|year=2006|publisher=Praeger security international|location=Westport (Conn.)|isbn=978-0-275-99015-2|page=215|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M18Jj0bMMl0C&pg=PA215 }}

Six years later in April 2011, the US government imposed sanctions on Ali Mamlouk, saying he had been responsible for human rights abuses, including the use of violence against civilians. Agency had repressed internal dissent, monitored individual citizens, and had been involved in the Syrian government's actions in Daraa, where protesters were killed by Syrian security services. The next month, the European Union also imposed sanctions on Ali Mamlouk, saying he had been involved in efforts to suppress anti-government protesters. A Sunni, he is said to be on good terms with all of Syria's intelligence agencies – the heads of Air Force Intelligence Directorate and the Political Security Directorate were once his assistants. He is a part of Bashar al-Assad's inner circle.{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13216195|work=BBC News|title=Bashar al-Assad's inner circle| date=18 May 2011}}

After the 18 July 2012 bombing of the Central Crisis Management Cell (Syria) and the death of its four key members of team, Mohammed Dib Zaitoun was named as head of the General Intelligence Directorate.{{Cite web|url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/opinion/why-did-assad-restructure-syrias-military-security-apparatus |title=Syria war: Why did Assad restructure the military-security apparatus?|publisher=Middle East Eye|author=Paul Khalifeh|date=17 July 2019|access-date=30 December 2023}}

The General Intelligence Directorate was dissolved along with the Ba'athist Syrian institutions in December 2024 following the collapse of the Assad regime. Anas Khattab, appointed head of Syrian intelligence said country's security institution will be restructured after all current security entities are dissolved.{{Cite web |last=Presse |first=AFP-Agence France |title=Syria's New Intel Chief Vows Reforms To End Abuses |url=https://www.barrons.com/news/syria-s-new-intel-chief-vows-reforms-to-end-abuses-0925783f |access-date=2024-12-29 |website=www.barrons.com |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |last= |date=December 28, 2024 |title=Syria's head of intelligence says security institution to be restructured |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-head-intelligence-says-security-institution-be-restructured-2024-12-28/ |website=Reuters}}

The General Intelligence Service was established on 26 December 2024 by the Syrian transitional government succeeding the GID, with Anas Khattab appointed as the director.{{Cite web |title=تعيين أنس خطاب رئيساً لجهاز الاستخبارات العامة في سوريا |url=https://www.syria.tv/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%B3-%D8%AE%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%8B-%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7?amp |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20241226201108/https://www.syria.tv/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%B3-%D8%AE%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%8B-%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7?amp |archive-date=2024-12-26 |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=تلفزيون سوريا |language=ar}}{{Cite web |title=سوريا.. أنس خطاب رئيسا لجهاز الاستخبارات العامة |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/ar/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7-%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%B3-%D8%AE%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A7-%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9/3435036 |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=www.aa.com.tr}}

• Salah Nasr (1958–1961)
• Muhammad Hisham al-Samman (1961–1963)
• Abd al-Karim al-Jundi (1966–1969)
• Adnan Babagh (1971–?){{cite journal|last=Rathmell|first=Andrew|title=Syria's Intelligence Services: Origins and Development|journal=Journal of Conflict Studies|date=Fall 1997|volume=XVI|issue=2|url=https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/jcs/article/view/11815/12636|access-date=8 June 2011}}
• Ali Madani (1970s)
• Nazih Zirayr (?–1983){{cite book|last=Seale|first=Patrick|title=Asad of Syria: the struggle for the Middle East|publisher=University of California Press|year=1990|isbn=0-520-06976-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/asadofsyriastrug00seal/page/430 430]|url=https://archive.org/details/asadofsyriastrug00seal|url-access=registration|quote=Fu'ad Absi syria.}}
• Fu'ad Absi (1983–1987)
• Majid Sa'id (1987–1994)

:* Internal branch: Mohammed Nasif Kheirbek (1963–1999){{cite journal|last=Bar |first=Shmuel |title=Bashar's Syria: The Regime and its Strategic Worldview |journal=Comparative Strategy |year=2006 |volume=25 |issue=5 |page=425 |url=http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf |access-date=15 May 2011 |doi=10.1080/01495930601105412 |s2cid=154739379 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723214138/http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf |archive-date=23 July 2011 }}

• Bashir an-Najjar (1994–1998){{cite journal|last=Zisser|first=Eyal|title=The Succession Struggle in Damascus|journal=The Middle East Quarterly|date=September 1995|volume=2|issue=3|pages=57–64|url=http://www.meforum.org/264/the-succession-struggle-in-damascus|access-date=8 June 2011}}
• Ali Houri (1998–2001){{cite journal|last=MEIB|title=Syria's Intelligence Services: A Primer|journal=Middle East Intelligence Bulletin|date=July 2000|volume=2|issue=6|url=http://www.meforum.org/meib/articles/0007_s3.htm|access-date=8 June 2011}}{{cite journal|last=Gambil|first=Gary|title=The Military-Intelligence Shakeup in Syria|journal=Middle East Intelligence Bulletin|date=Feb 2002|volume=4|issue=2|url=http://www.meforum.org/meib/articles/0202_s1.htm|access-date=8 June 2011}}

:* Deputy Director: Mohammed Nasif Kheirbek (1999–June 2005)

:* Internal branch (251): Bahjat Suleiman (1999–June 2005){{cite web|url=http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/syriablog1/2005/06/bahjat-suleiman-moved-along-with-other.htm|title=SyriaComment.com|access-date=5 November 2014}}

:* External branch: Ayyad Mahmud (1999–?){{cite book|last=Leverett|first=Flynt|title=Inheriting Syria Bashar's trial by fire|year=2005|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=0-8157-5204-0|page=93|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oL_S9OykXwYC&q=Hassan+Khalil+syria&pg=PA63|edition=[Online-Ausg.]}}

• Ali Hammoud (October–December 2001)
• Hisham Ikhtiyar (December 2001–June 2005){{cite journal|last=Bar |first=Shmuel |title=Bashar's Syria: The Regime and its Strategic Worldview |journal=Comparative Strategy |year=2006 |volume=25 |issue=5 |page=424 |url=http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf |access-date=15 May 2011 |doi=10.1080/01495930601105412 |s2cid=154739379 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723214138/http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf |archive-date=23 July 2011 }}
• Ali Mamlouk (June 2005 – 2010), the European Union sanctioned him for "violence against demonstrators during the Syrian uprising".{{cite news|title=Syria's Assad 'reshuffles security chiefs'|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2010/10/21/Syrias-Assad-reshuffles-security-chiefs/UPI-89111287688825/|access-date=8 June 2011|newspaper=UPI|date=21 October 2010}}{{cite journal|title=Joint Proposal for a COUNCIL REGULATION concerning restrictive measures in view of the situation in Syria and repealing Regulation (EU) No 442/2011|journal=EuroLex|year=2011|volume=52011PC0887|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2011:0887:FIN:EN:HTML|access-date=10 March 2012}}

:* Deputy Director: Hassan Khallouf (?–June 2004)

:* Deputy Director: Mohammed Dib Zaitoun (June 2004–2009)

:* Internal branch (251): Fouad Nasif Kheirbek (June 2005–2011)

:* Investigations branch: Anwar Raslan (2008–?){{Cite web |date=2020-04-08 |title=À la recherche d'Anwar Raslan, tortionnaire syrien |url=https://lesjours.fr/obsessions/la-traque-anwar-raslan/ep1-arrestation-anwar-raslan/ |access-date=2020-07-18 |website=Les Jours |language=fr}}

:* Deputy Director: Jamil Hassan (2004–1 July 2009){{cite web|url=http://www.metransparent.com/spip.php?article11370|title=Stratfor report on Syrian Security, Intelligence Leaders (Corrected)|access-date=5 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312023146/http://www.metransparent.com/spip.php?article11370|archive-date=2012-03-12}}

:* Information branch: Zouheir Hamad (?–July 2010)

• Zouheir Hamad (July 2010–July 2012), the European Union sanctioned him for "the use of violence across Syria and for intimidation and torture of protesters during the Syrian Civil War".

:* Deputy Director: General Nazih (July 2010–July 2012), the European Union sanctioned him for "being responsible for the use of violence across Syria and intimidation and torture of protestors during the Syrian uprising".

:* Information branch: Ghassan Khalil (July 2010–?), the European Union sanctioned him for "being involved in repression and violence against the civilian population in Syria during the Syrian uprising".

• Mohammed Dib Zaitoun (25 July 2012 – 7 July 2019)[http://www.ajc.com/news/nation-world/assad-has-many-generals-1486458.html Archived copy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200423223500/http://www.ajc.com/news/nation-world/assad-has-many-generals-1486458.html |date=23 April 2020}}

:* Deputy Director: Zouheir Hamad (25 July 2012 – 7 July 2019)

:* Internal branch (251): Tawfiq Younes (2011-2016),{{Cite web |title=Tawfiq Younes |url=https://blacklist.pro-justice.org/criminal/tawfiq-younes/ |access-date=2022-05-14 |website=Pro Justice |language=en-GB}} the European Union sanctioned him for "being involved in violence against demonstrators during the Syrian uprisings".

• Hossam Louka (7 July 2019 – 8 December 2024){{Cite web|url=https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm1141|title = Treasury Continues Targeting Facilitators of Assad Regime| date=25 January 2024 }}

:* Deputy Director: Akram Ali Muhammad (7 July 2019 – 2021)

:* Internal branch (251): Ahmed Al-Dib (2016 – 8 December 2024){{Cite web |title=Treasury Sanctions Syrian Regime Prisons, Officials, and Syrian Armed Group |url=https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy0292 |access-date=2022-07-23 |website=U.S. Department of the Treasury |language=en}}

• Anas Khattab (2024–present)

{{Reflist|2}}

{{External national intelligence agencies}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Syrian General Intelligence Service}}

Category:1945 establishments in Mandatory Syria

Category:Government agencies established in 1945