Genetic monitoring#Types

Types of population changes that can be detected by genetic monitoring include population growth and decline, spread of pathogens, adaptation to environmental change, hybridization, introgression and habitat fragmentation events. Most of these changes are monitored using ‘neutral’ genetic markers (markers for which mutational changes do not change their adaptive fitness within a population). However markers showing adaptive responses to environmental change can be ‘non-neutral’ (e.g. mutational changes affect their relative fitness within a population). File:Genetic Monitoring Categories.png

Two broad categories of genetic monitoring have been defined: Category I encompasses the use of genetic markers as identifiers of individuals (Category Ia), populations and species (Category Ib) for traditional population monitoring. Category II represents the use of genetic markers to monitor changes of population genetic parameters, which include estimators of effective population size (Ne), genetic variation, population inter-mixing, structure and migration.

At the individual level, genetic identification can enable estimation of population abundance and population increase rates within the framework of mark-recapture models. The abundance of cryptic or elusive species that are difficult to monitor can be estimated by collecting non-invasive biological samples in the field (e.g. feathers, scat or fur) and using these to identify individuals through microsatellite or single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping. This census of individuals can then be used to estimate population abundance via mark-recapture analysis. For example, this technique has been used to monitor populations of grizzly bear,{{cite journal | last1 = Boulanger | first1 = J. | display-authors = etal | year = 2004 | title = Monitoring of grizzly bear population trends and demography using DNA mark-recapture methods in the Owikeno Lake area of British Columbia | journal = Canadian Journal of Zoology | volume = 82 | issue = 8| pages = 1267–1277 | doi = 10.1139/Z04-100 | bibcode = 2004CaJZ...82.1267B }} brush-tailed rock-wallaby,{{cite journal | last1 = Piggott | first1 = M.P. | display-authors = etal | year = 2006 | title = Estimating population size of endangered Brush-tailed Rock-wallaby (Petrogale penicillata) colonies using faecal DNA | journal = Mol. Ecol. | volume = 15 | issue = 1| pages = 81–91 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02783.x | pmid = 16367832 | bibcode = 2006MolEc..15...81P | s2cid = 9147442 }} Bengal tiger{{cite journal | last1 = Bhagavatula | first1 = J. | last2 = Singh | first2 = L. | year = 2006 | title = Genotyping faecal samples of Bengal tiger Panthera tigris tigris for population estimation: A pilot study | journal = BMC Genet | volume = 7 | page = 48 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2156-7-48 | pmid = 17044939 | pmc = 1636336 | doi-access = free }} and snow leopard.{{cite journal | last1 = Jaňecka | first1 = J.E. | display-authors = etal | year = 2008 | title = Population monitoring of snow leopards using noninvasive collection of scat samples: a pilot study | journal = Animal Conservation | volume = 11 | issue = 5| pages = 401–411 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-1795.2008.00195.x | bibcode = 2008AnCon..11..401J | s2cid = 20787622 }} Population growth rates are a product of rates of population recruitment and survival, and can be estimated through open mark-recapture models. For example, DNA from feathers shed by the eastern imperial eagle shows lower cumulative survival over time than seen for other long-lived raptors.{{cite journal | last1 = Rudnick | first1 = J.A. | display-authors = etal | year = 2005 | title = Using naturally shed feathers for individual identification, genetic parentage analyses, and population monitoring in an endangered Eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) population from Kazakhstan | journal = Mol. Ecol. | volume = 14 | issue = 10| pages = 2959–2967 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02641.x | pmid = 16101766 | bibcode = 2005MolEc..14.2959R | s2cid = 14165843 }}

Image:Grizzly Bear Alaska.jpg|Grizzly bear

Image:Brush-tailed Rock-wallaby.jpg|Brush-tailed rock-wallaby

Image:Uncia uncia.jpg|Snow leopard

Image:Kaiseradler Aquila heliaca 2 amk.jpg|Eastern imperial eagle

Use of molecular genetic techniques to identify species can be useful for a number of reasons. Species identification in the wild can be used to detect changes in population ranges or site occupancy, rates of hybridization and the emergence and spread of pathogens and invasive species. Changes in population ranges have been investigated for Iberian lynx{{cite journal | last1 = Fernández | first1 = N. | display-authors = etal | year = 2006 | title = Landscape evaluation in conservation: molecular sampling and habitat modeling for the Iberian lynx | journal = Ecol. Appl. | volume = 16 | issue = 3| pages = 1037–1049 | doi = 10.1890/1051-0761(2006)016[1037:LEICMS]2.0.CO;2 | pmid = 16827001 | hdl = 10261/50325 | hdl-access = free }} and wolverine,{{cite journal | last1 = Schwartz | first1 = M.K. | display-authors = etal | year = 2007 | title = Inferring geographical isolation of wolverines in California using historical DNA | url = http://www.rmrs.nau.edu/publications/schwartzancientwolverine/schwartzancientwolverine.pdf | journal = J. Wildl. Manage. | volume = 71 | issue = 7| pages = 2170–2179 | doi = 10.2193/2007-026 | bibcode = 2007JWMan..71.2170S | s2cid = 35396299 }} while monitoring of westslope cutthroat trout shows widespread ongoing hybridization with introduced rainbow trout{{cite journal | last1 = Hitt | first1 = N.P. | display-authors = etal | year = 2003 | title = Spread of hybridization between native westslope cutthroat trout, Oncorhynchus clarki lewisi, and nonnative rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss | journal = Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. | volume = 60 | issue = 12| pages = 1440–1451 | doi = 10.1139/F03-125 | bibcode = 2003CJFAS..60.1440H }} (see cutbow) and Canada lynx-bobcat hybrids have been detected at the southern periphery of the current population range for lynx.{{cite journal | last1 = Homyack | first1 = J.A. | display-authors = etal | year = 2008 | title = Canada lynx-bobcat (Lynx canadensis x L.rufus) hybrids at the southern periphery of lynx range in Maine, Minnesota and New Brunswick | url = http://www.rmrs.nau.edu/publications/homyack_et_al_am_midl_nat_2008/homyack_et_al_am_midl_nat_2008.pdf | journal = Am. Midl. Nat. | volume = 159 | pages = 504–508 | doi = 10.1674/0003-0031(2008)159[504:CLLCLR]2.0.CO;2 | s2cid = 85843341 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Schwartz | first1 = M.K. | display-authors = etal | year = 2004 | title = Hybridization between Canada lynx and bobcats: Genetic results and management implications | url = http://www.rmrs.nau.edu/publications/homyack_et_al_am_midl_nat_2008/homyack_et_al_am_midl_nat_2008.pdf | journal = Conserv. Genet. | volume = 5 | issue = 3| pages = 349–355 | doi = 10.1023/B:COGE.0000031141.47148.8b | bibcode = 2004ConG....5..349S | s2cid = 16786563 }} The emergence and spread of pathogens can be tracked using diagnostic molecular assays – for example, identifying the spread of West Nile virus among mosquitoes in the eastern US to identify likely geographical origins of infection{{cite journal | last1 = Kilpatrick | first1 = A.M. | display-authors = etal | year = 2006 | title = West Nile Virus epidemics in North America are driven by shifts in mosquito feeding behavior | journal = PLOS Biol | volume = 4 | issue = 4| pages = 606–610 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.0040082 | pmid = 16494532 | pmc = 1382011 | doi-access = free }} and identifying gene loci associated with parasite susceptibility in bighorn sheep.{{cite journal | last1 = Luikart | first1 = G. | display-authors = etal | year = 2008 | title = Candidate gene microsatellite variation is associated with parasitism in wild bighorn sheep | journal = Biol. Lett. | volume = 4 | issue = 2| pages = 228–231 | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2007.0633 | pmid = 18270161 | pmc = 2429941 | url = http://www.rmrs.nau.edu/publications/luikartetalbighornsheepdisease/luikartetalbighornsheepdisease.pdf }} Genetic monitoring of invasive species is of conservation and economic interest, as invasions often affect the ecology and range of native species and may also bring risks of hybridization (e.g. for copepods,{{cite journal | last1 = Lee | first1 = C.E. | year = 1999 | title = Rapid and repeated invasions of fresh water by the copepod Eurytemora affinis | url = https://mywebspace.wisc.edu/carollee/web/Lee/pdfs/Lee1999.pdf | journal = Evolution | volume = 53 | issue = 5| pages = 1423–1434 | doi = 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1999.tb05407.x | pmid = 28565555 | s2cid = 205781444 }} ducks,{{cite journal | title = Fifty-nine microsatellite markers for hybrid classification studies involving endemic Florida Mottled Duck (Anas fulvigula fulvigula) and invasive Mallards (A. platyrhynchos) | journal = Conservation Genetics Resources | last1 = Seyoum | first1 = S | last2 = Tringali | first2 = MD | last3 = Bielefeld | first3 = RR | last4 = Feddersen | first4 = JC | last5 = Benedict Jr | first5 = RJ | last6 = Fanning | first6 = AT | last7 = Barthel | first7 = B | last8 = Curtis | first8 = C | last9 = Puchulutegui | first9 = C | last10 = Roberts | first10 = ACM | last11 = Villanova Jr | first11 = VL | last12 = Tucker | first12 = EC | date = 2012 | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 681–687 | doi = 10.1007/s12686-012-9622-9| bibcode = 2012ConGR...4..681S | s2cid = 16072813 }} barred owl and spotted owl,{{cite journal | last1 = Haig | first1 = S.M. | display-authors = etal | year = 2004 | title = Genetic identification of spotted owls, barred owls and their hybrids: legal implications of hybrid identity | url = https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1679&context=usgsstaffpub| journal = Conserv. Biol. | volume = 18 | issue = 5| pages = 1347–1357 | doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00206.x | bibcode = 2004ConBi..18.1347H | s2cid = 43989899 | url-access = subscription }} and Lessepsian rabbitfish{{cite journal | last1 = Azzurro | first1 = E. | display-authors = etal | year = 2006 | title = Genetics of the early stages of invasion of the Lessepsian rabbitfish Siganus luridus | url = http://bio.research.ucsc.edu/people/bernardi/Bernardi/Publications/2006Siganus.pdf | journal = J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. | volume = 333 | issue = 2 | pages = 190–201 | doi = 10.1016/j.jembe.2005.12.002 | bibcode = 2006JEMBE.333..190A | access-date = 2009-04-01 | archive-date = 2011-07-16 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110716165031/http://bio.research.ucsc.edu/people/bernardi/Bernardi/Publications/2006Siganus.pdf | url-status = dead }}).

Image:Linces10.jpg|Iberian lynx

Image:Wolverine, Kristiansand Zoo.jpg|Wolverine

Image:Canadian Lynx.jpg|Canadian lynx

Image:Northern Spotted Owl.USFWS.jpg|Spotted owl

Species identification is also of considerable utility in monitoring fisheries and wildlife trade, where conventional visual identification of butchered or flensed products is difficult or impossible.{{cite journal | last1 = Baker | first1 = C.S. | year = 2008 | title = A truer measure of the market: the molecular ecology of fisheries and wildlife trade | journal = Mol. Ecol. | volume = 17 | issue = 18| pages = 3985–3998 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03867.x | pmid = 18643915 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2008MolEc..17.3985B }} Monitoring of trade and consumption of species of conservation interest can be carried out using molecular amplification and identification of meat or fish obtained from markets. For example, genetic market surveys have been used to identify protected species and populations of whale (e.g., North Pacific minke whale) and dolphin species appearing in the marketplace.{{cite journal | last1 = Baker | first1 = C.S. | display-authors = etal | year = 2007 | title = Estimating the number of whales entering trade using DNA profiling and capture-recapture analysis of market products | url = https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usdeptcommercepub/87| journal = Mol. Ecol. | volume = 16 | issue = 13| pages = 2617–2626 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03317.x | pmid = 17594434 | bibcode = 2007MolEc..16.2617B | s2cid = 25938493 | url-access = subscription }} Other surveys of market trade have focused on pinnipeds,{{cite journal | last1 = Malik | first1 = S. | display-authors = etal | year = 1997 | title = Pinniped penises in trade: a molecular genetic investigation | journal = Conserv. Biol. | volume = 11 | issue = 6| pages = 1365–1374 | doi = 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.96125.x | s2cid = 86541791 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 1997ConBi..11.1365M }} sea horses{{cite journal | last1 = Sanders | first1 = J.G. | display-authors = etal | year = 2008 | title = The tip of the tail: molecular identification of seahorses for sale in apothecary shops and curio stores in California | journal = Conserv. Genet. | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 65–71 | doi = 10.1007/s10592-007-9308-0 | bibcode = 2008ConG....9...65S | s2cid = 15874239 }} and sharks.{{cite journal | last1 = Clarke | first1 = S.C. | display-authors = etal | year = 2006 | title = Identification of shark species composition and proportion in the Hong Kong shark fin market based on molecular genetics and trade records | journal = Conserv. Biol. | volume = 20 | issue = 1| pages = 201–211 | doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00247.x | pmid = 16909673 | bibcode = 2006ConBi..20..201C | s2cid = 26719257 }} Such surveys are used to provide ongoing monitoring of the quantity and movement of fisheries and wildlife products through markets and for detecting poaching or other illegal, unreported or unregulated (IUU) exploitation (e.g. IUU fishing).

Although initial applications focused on species identification and population assessments, market surveys also provide the opportunity for a range of molecular ecology investigations including capture-recapture, assignment tests and population modeling. These developments are potentially relevant to genetic monitoring Category II.

Image:Whale meat on dish.jpg| Whale meat

Image:Yokohama Chinese Medicine Sea horse 2.jpg|Dried sea horses

Image:Yokohama Chinese Medicine Shark fin large.jpg|Shark fins

Monitoring of population changes through genetic means can be done retrospectively, through analysis of 'historical' DNA recovered from museum-archived species and comparison with contemporary DNA of that species. It can also be used as a tool for evaluating ongoing changes in the status and persistence of current populations. Genetic measures of relative population change include changes in diversity (e.g. heterozygosity and allelic richness). Monitoring of relative population changes through these metrics has been performed retrospectively for Beringian bison,{{cite journal | last1 = Shapiro | first1 = B. | display-authors = etal | year = 2004 | title = Rise and fall of the Beringian Steppe Bison | url = http://summit.sfu.ca/item/15088| journal = Science | volume = 306 | issue = 5701| pages = 1561–1565 | doi = 10.1126/science.1101074 | pmid = 15567864 | bibcode = 2004Sci...306.1561S | s2cid = 27134675 }} Galapagos tortoise,{{cite journal | last1 = Poulakakis | first1 = N. | display-authors = etal | year = 2008 | title = Historical DNA analysis reveals living descendants of an extinct species of Galápagos tortoise | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA | volume = 105 | issue = 40| pages = 15464–15469 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0805340105 | pmid = 18809928 | pmc = 2563078 | url = http://www.bio.mq.edu.au/molecularecology/pdfs/publications/extinct_pnas.pdf | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2008PNAS..10515464P }} houting,{{cite journal | last1 = Hansen | first1 = M.M. | display-authors = etal | year = 2006 | title = Underwater but not out of sight: genetic monitoring of effective population size in the endangered North Sea houting (Coregonus oxyrhynchus) | journal = Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. | volume = 63 | issue = 4| pages = 780–787 | doi = 10.1139/F05-260 | bibcode = 2006CJFAS..63..780H }} Atlantic salmon,{{cite journal | last1 = Nielsen | first1 = E.E. | display-authors = etal | year = 1999 | title = Genetic variation in time and space: Microsatellite analysis of extinct and extant populations of Atlantic salmon | journal = Evolution | volume = 53 | issue = 1| pages = 261–268 | doi = 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1999.tb05351.x | pmid = 28565198 | doi-access = free }} northern pike,{{cite journal | last1 = Miller | first1 = L.M. | last2 = Kapuscinski | first2 = A.R. | year = 1997 | title = Historical analysis of genetic variation reveals low effective population size in a northern pike (Esox lucius) population | url = http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint/147/3/1249.pdf | journal = Genetics | volume = 147 | issue = 3| pages = 1249–1258 | doi = 10.1093/genetics/147.3.1249 | pmid = 9383067 | pmc = 1208248 }} New Zealand snapper,{{cite journal | last1 = Hauser | first1 = L. | display-authors = etal | year = 2002 | title = Loss of microsatellite diversity and low effective population size in an overexploited population of New Zealand snapper (Pagrus auratus) | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA | volume = 99 | issue = 18| pages = 11742–11747 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.172242899 | pmid = 12185245 | pmc = 129339 | bibcode = 2002PNAS...9911742H | doi-access = free }} steelhead trout,{{cite journal | last1 = Heath | first1 = D.D. | display-authors = etal | year = 2002 | title = Temporal change in genetic structure and effective population size in steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) | journal = Mol. Ecol. | volume = 11 | issue = 2| pages = 197–214 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-294X.2002.01434.x | pmid = 11856422 | bibcode = 2002MolEc..11..197H | s2cid = 23598245 }} greater prairie chicken,{{cite journal | last1 = Bellinger | first1 = M.R. | year = 2003 | title = Loss of genetic variation in greater prairie chickens following a population bottleneck in Wisconsin, USA | journal = Conserv. Biol. | volume = 17 | issue = 3| pages = 717–724 | doi = 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.01581.x | bibcode = 2003ConBi..17..717B | s2cid = 4988537 }} Mauritius kestrel{{cite journal | last1 = Groombridge | first1 = J.J. | display-authors = etal | year = 2000 | title = 'Ghost' alleles of the Mauritius kestrel | journal = Nature | volume = 403 | issue = 6770| page = 616 | doi = 10.1038/35001148 | pmid = 10688188 | s2cid = 4336347 | doi-access = free }} and Hector's dolphin{{cite journal | last1 = Pichler | first1 = F.B. | last2 = Baker | first2 = C.S. | year = 2000 | title = Loss of genetic diversity in the endemic Hector's dolphin due to fisheries-related mortality. | journal = Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B | volume = 267 | issue = 1438| pages = 97–102 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2000.0972 | pmid = 10670959 | pmc = 1690489 }} and is the subject of many ongoing studies, including Danish and Swedish brown trout populations.{{cite journal | last1 = Østergaard | first1 = S. | display-authors = etal | year = 2003 | title = Long-term temporal changes of genetic composition in brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) populations inhabiting an unstable environment | journal = Mol. Ecol. | volume = 12 | issue = 11| pages = 3123–3135 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-294X.2003.01976.x | pmid = 14629391 | bibcode = 2003MolEc..12.3123O | s2cid = 44258175 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Palm | first1 = S. | display-authors = etal | year = 2003 | title = Effective population size and temporal genetic change in stream resident brown trout (Salmo trutta, L.) | journal = Conserv. Genet. | volume = 4 | issue = 3| pages = 249–264 | doi = 10.1023/A:1024064913094 | bibcode = 2003ConG....4..249P | s2cid = 22607075 }} Measuring absolute population changes (e.g. effective population size (Ne)) can be carried out by measuring changes in population allele frequencies (‘Ftemporal’) or levels of linkage disequilibrium over time (‘LDNe’), while changing patterns of gene flow between populations can also be monitored by estimating differences in allele frequencies between populations over time. Subjects of such studies include grizzly bears,{{cite journal | last1 = Kendall | first1 = K.C. | display-authors = etal | year = 2009 | title = Demography and genetic structure of a recovering grizzly bear population | url = http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1051&context=natlpark| journal = J. Wildl. Manage. | volume = 73 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–17 | doi = 10.2193/2008-330 | bibcode = 2009JWMan..73....3K | s2cid = 52249993 | url-access = subscription }}{{cite journal | last1 = Proctor | first1 = M.F. | display-authors = etal | year = 2005 | title = Genetic analysis reveals demographic fragmentation of grizzly bears yielding vulnerably small populations | journal = Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B | volume = 272 | issue = 1579| pages = 2409–2416 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2005.3246 | pmid = 16243699 | pmc = 1559960 }} cod,{{cite journal | last1 = Poulsen | first1 = N.A. | display-authors = etal | year = 2006 | title = Long-term stability and effective population size in North Sea and Baltic Sea cod (Gadus morhua) | journal = Mol. Ecol. | volume = 15 | issue = 2| pages = 321–331 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02777.x | pmid = 16448403 | bibcode = 2006MolEc..15..321P | s2cid = 20349824 }} red deer,{{cite journal | last1 = Nussey | first1 = D.H. | display-authors = etal | year = 2005 | title = Rapidly declining fine-scale spatial genetic structure in female red deer | url = http://wildevolution.biology.ed.ac.uk/publications/Nussey%20et%20al%202005%20Mol%20Ecol%20deer%20genetic%20structure.pdf | journal = Mol. Ecol. | volume = 14 | issue = 11 | pages = 3395–3405 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02692.x | pmid = 16156811 | bibcode = 2005MolEc..14.3395N | s2cid = 28250600 | access-date = 2009-04-01 | archive-date = 2016-03-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200915/http://wildevolution.biology.ed.ac.uk/publications/Nussey%20et%20al%202005%20Mol%20Ecol%20deer%20genetic%20structure.pdf | url-status = dead }} Leopard frogs{{cite journal | last1 = Hoffman | first1 = E.A. | last2 = Blouin | first2 = M.S. | year = 2004 | title = Historical data refute recent range contraction as cause of low genetic diversity in isolated frog populations | journal = Mol. Ecol. | volume = 13 | issue = 2 | pages = 271–276 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-294X.2003.02057.x | pmid = 14717886 | bibcode = 2004MolEc..13..271H | s2cid = 12815666 | url = http://biology.ucf.edu/~ehoffman/pubs/Hoffman&Blouin04_MolEcol.pdf | access-date = 2021-06-12 | archive-date = 2010-06-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100603001754/http://biology.ucf.edu/~ehoffman/pubs/Hoffman%26Blouin04_MolEcol.pdf | url-status = dead }} and Barrel Medic.{{cite journal | last1 = Bonnin | first1 = I. | display-authors = etal | year = 2001 | title = Spatial effects and rare outcrossing events in Medicago truncatula (Fabaceae) | journal = Mol. Ecol. | volume = 10 | issue = 6| pages = 1371–1383 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-294X.2001.01278.x | pmid = 11412361 | bibcode = 2001MolEc..10.1371B | s2cid = 23585208 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Siol | first1 = M. | display-authors = etal | year = 2007 | title = Effective population size associated with self-fertilization: lessons from temporal changes in allele frequencies in the selfing annual Medicago truncatula | journal = J. Evol. Biol. | volume = 20 | issue = 6| pages = 2349–2360 | doi = 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2007.01409.x | pmid = 17956396 | doi-access = free }}

Image:Galapagos giant tortoise Geochelone elephantopus.jpg|Galapagos giant tortoise

Image:Salmo salar-Atlantic Salmon-Atlanterhavsparken Norway.JPG|Atlantic salmon

Image:Hectors Dolphin.jpg|Hector's dolphin

Image:Northern leopard frog 1.jpg|Northern leopard frog

Genetic monitoring has also been increasingly used in studies that monitor environmental changes through changes in the frequency of adaptively selected markers. For example, the genetically controlled photo-periodic response (hibernating time) of pitcher-plant mosquitos (Wyeomyia smithii) has shifted in response to longer growing seasons for pitcher plants brought on by warmer weather.{{cite journal | last1 = Bradshaw | first1 = W.E. | last2 = Holzapfel | first2 = C.M. | year = 2001 | title = Genetic shift in photoperiodic response correlated with global warming | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA | volume = 98 | issue = 25| pages = 14509–14511 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.241391498 | pmid = 11698659 | pmc = 64712 | doi-access = free }} Experimental wheat populations grown in contrasting environments over a period of 12 generations found that changes in flowering time were closely correlated with regulatory changes in one gene, suggesting a pathway for genetic adaptation to changing climate in plants.{{cite journal | last1 = Rhoné | first1 = B. | display-authors = etal | year = 2008 | title = Insight into the genetic bases of climatic adaptation in experimentally evolving wheat populations | journal = Mol. Ecol. | volume = 17 | issue = 3| pages = 930–943 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03619.x | pmid = 18194164 | bibcode = 2008MolEc..17..930R | s2cid = 7810825 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Strasburg | first1 = J.L. | last2 = Gross | first2 = B.L. | year = 2008 | title = Adapting to winter in wheat: a long-term study follows parallel phenotypic and genetic changes in three experimental wheat populations | journal = Mol. Ecol. | volume = 17 | issue = 3| pages = 716–718 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03639.x | pmid = 18194165 | doi-access = | bibcode = 2008MolEc..17..716S }}

Genetic monitoring is also useful in monitoring the ongoing health of small, relocated populations. Good examples of this are found for New Zealand birds, many species of which were greatly impacted by habitat destruction and the appearance of numerous mammalian predators in the last century and have recently become part of relocation programs that transfer a few ‘founder’ individuals to predator-free offshore “ecological” islands. E.g. black robin,{{cite journal | last1 = Ardern | first1 = S.L. | last2 = Lambert | first2 = D.M. | year = 1997 | title = Is the black robin in genetic peril? | journal = Mol. Ecol. | volume = 6 | issue = 1| pages = 21–28 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-294X.1997.00147.x | bibcode = 1997MolEc...6...21A | s2cid = 84475847 }} and kākāpō.{{cite journal | last1 = Miller | first1 = H.C. | display-authors = etal | year = 2003 | title = Minisatellite DNA profiling detects lineages and parentage in endangered kakapo (Strigops habroptilus) despite low microsatellite DNA variation | journal = Conserv. Genet. | volume = 4 | issue = 3| pages = 265–274 | doi = 10.1023/A:1024037601708 | bibcode = 2003ConG....4..265M | s2cid = 8877634 }}

Category II genetic monitoring of population genetic diversity (PGD) of wild species, for purposes of biodiversity conservation and sustainable management, is unevenly distributed among countries in Europe. Country size and per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) are statistically associated in different ways with the number of documented monitoring projects, suggesting that available habitat for species and country financial resources influence monitoring effort. There is relatively little genetic monitoring for PGD conducted in southeastern Europe. Much attention has been directed towards monitoring of large carnivores, and relatively little effort towards monitoring species in other groups, such as amphibians. {{cite journal | last1 = Pearman | first1 = P.B. | last2 = Broennimann | first2 = O. | display-authors = etal | year = 2024 | title = Monitoring of species' genetic diversity in Europe varies greatly and overlooks potential climate change impacts | journal = Nat. Ecol. Evol. | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 267–281 | doi = 10.1038/s41559-023-02260-0 | s2cid = 266998582 | doi-access = free | pmid = 38225425 | pmc = 10857941 | bibcode = 2024NatEE...8..267P }}

Image:Medicago truncatula A17 plant.JPG|Barrel medic

Image:Wheat P1210892.jpg|Common wheat

Image:Wyeomyia smithii 1.jpg|Pitcher plant mosquito

Image:New Zealand Kakapo Felix.jpg|Kākāpō – New Zealand night parrot

In February 2007 an international summit was held at the Institute of the Environment at UCLA, concerning ‘Evolutionary Change in Human Altered Environments: An International Summit to translate Science into Policy’. This led to a special issue of the journal of Molecular Ecology{{Cite web |url=http://www.ioe.ucla.edu/ctr/symposium/docs/Summit-Report.pdf |title=A Report on the Results and Recommendations of the International Summit on Evolutionary Change in Human-altered Environments |access-date=2009-04-01 |archive-date=2010-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100711134741/http://www.ioe.ucla.edu/ctr/symposium/docs/Summit-Report.pdf |url-status=dead }} organized around our understanding of genetic effects in three main categories: (i) habitat disturbance and climate change (ii) exploitation and captive breeding (iii) invasive species and pathogens.

In 2007 a Working Group on Genetic Monitoring was launched with joint support from NCEAS[http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis] and NESCent[http://www.nescent.org The National Evolutionary Synthesis Center] to further develop the techniques involved and provide general monitoring guidance for policy makers and managers.{{Cite web |url=http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/featured/allendorf |title=Genetic Monitoring: Development of Tools for Conservation and Management |access-date=2009-04-01 |archive-date=2009-06-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615192210/http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/featured/allendorf |url-status=dead }}

Currently the topic is covered in several well known text books, including McComb et al. (2010) and Allendorf et al. (2013).

Many natural resource agencies see genetic monitoring as a cost-effective and defensible way to monitor fish and wildlife populations. As such scientists in the U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Forest Service,[http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/wildlife/genetics/index.php Rocky Mountain Research Station Wildlife Genetics Laboratory] National Park Service, and National Marine Fisheries Service have been developing new methods and tools to use genetic monitoring, and applying such tools across broad geographic scales. Currently the USFWS hosts a website that informs managers as to the best way to use genetic tools for monitoring (see below).

• Ecological genetics
• Molecular genetics
• Conservation genetics
• Landscape genetics

{{reflist|30em}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20110808112633/http://alaska.fws.gov/gem/mainPage_1.htm Genetic Monitoring For Managers]
• [http://www.sciencecentric.com/news/article.php?q=08091708 Science Centric Report of Grizzly Bear study in northwest Montana]{{Dead link|date=February 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
• [https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20026782.600-snow-leopard-genes-could-help-estimate-populations.html New Scientist Article – Snow leopard numbers can be read in their scat]
• [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-16939681_ITM Animals' scat is scientist's treasure: Advances in DNA testing let wildlife biologists study creatures using what they leave behind]
• [http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06298/732549-113.stm Post Gazette News: Aviary researcher finds Eagles need a closer look]
• [https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19926672.900-hidden-populations-give-lynx-a-fighting-chance.html New Scientist- Hidden Populations give Lynx a fighting chance]
• [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/03/24/BAHKVPL1V.DTL SFGate: It's True – wolverine is thriving near Tahoe]
• [http://www.seattlepi.com/local/65639_fish08.shtml Associated Press: Protected Trout is breeding itself into Extinction]
• [http://www.boston.com/news/specials/climate_change/wyeomia_interactive/ Adapting to a warmer climate: the purple pitcher plant mosquito]

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Category:Population genetics

Category:Conservation biology