wildlife trade

Wildlife use is a general term for all uses of wildlife products, including ritual or religious uses, consumption of bushmeat and different forms of trade. Wildlife use is usually associated with hunting or poaching. Wildlife trade can be differentiated in legal and illegal trade, and both can have domestic (local or national) or international markets, but they might be often related to each other.{{cite journal |last1=Sánchez-Mercado |first1=A. |last2=Asmüssen |first2=M. |last3=Rodríguez-Clark |first3=K. M. |last4=Rodríguez |first4=J. P. |last5=Jedrzejewski |first5=W. |title=Using spatial patterns in illegal wildlife uses to reveal connections between subsistence hunting and trade |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=1222–1232 |date=2016 |doi=10.1111/cobi.12744 |pmid=27112788|bibcode=2016ConBi..30.1222S |s2cid=3784456 }}

The volume of international trade in wildlife commodities is immense and continues to rise. According to an analysis on the 2012 Harmonized System customs statistics, global import of wildlife products amounted to US$187 billion, of which fisheries commodities accounted for $113 billion; plants and forestry products for $71 billion; non-fishery animal for $3 billion including live animals, parts and derivatives.{{cite journal |title=Improve customs systems to monitor global wildlife trade|journal=Science|year=2015|doi=10.1126/science.aaa3141|last1=Chan|first1=H.-K.|last2=Zhang|first2=H.|last3=Yang|first3=F.|last4=Fischer|first4=G.|volume=348|issue=6232|pages=291–292|pmid=25883346|bibcode=2015Sci...348..291C|s2cid=206633776}}

However, the global trade of wildlife commodities is ineffectively monitored and accounted for due to the constraint of the HS Code System used by the customs worldwide. The majority of international imports of wildlife are only recorded in extremely basic and general categories, such as 'plant' or 'animal products', with no further taxonomic detail. It is estimated that nearly 50% of the global import of plant and 70% of animal products are imported as general categories, with an exception for fisheries (ca. 5%), thanks to various multilateral fishery management agreements that requires taxon-specific fish catch reporting.

Many jurisdictions rely on the declared HS Code of the consignments for detection and prosecution of illegal wildlife import. The lack of specificity of HS Code precludes effective monitoring and traceability of global wildlife trade. There is an increasing call for a reform of the HS Code to strengthen monitoring and enforcement of global wildlife trade.{{cite web |title=Illegal trade in environmentally sensitive goods |url=http://www.oecd.org/env/illegal-trade-in-environmentally-sensitive-goods-9789264174238-en.htm |work=OECD|date=19 September 2012 }}{{cite web |title=CITES Decision, 16.62, Rev. CoP16 |work=CITES |url=http://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/RL-2009-001.pdf}}{{cite book |author=Ya, B. P. |date=2017 |title=The shark and ray trade in Singapore |publisher=TRAFFIC |location=Selangor, Malaysia |url=https://www.traffic.org/publications/reports/shark-and-ray-trade-in-singapore/}}{{cite journal |author1=Cawthorn, D. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Mariani, S. |year=2017 |title=Global trade statistics lack granularity to inform traceability and management of diverse and high-value fishes |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=12852 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-12301-x |pmid=28993629 |pmc=5634443 |bibcode=2017NatSR...712852C }}{{cite journal |author1=Yap, T. A. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Koo, M. S. |author3=Ambrose, R. F. |author4=Wake, D. B. |author5=Vredenburg, V. T. |year=2015 |title=Averting a North American biodiversity crisis |journal=Science |volume=349 |issue=6247 |pages=481–482 |doi=10.1126/science.aab1052 |pmid=26228132 |bibcode=2015Sci...349..481Y |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |author1=Rhyne, A. L. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Tlusty, M. F. |author3=Szczebak, J. T. |author4=Holmberg, R. J. |year=2017 |title=Expanding our understanding of the trade in marine aquarium animals |journal=PeerJ |volume=5 |page=e2949 |doi=10.7717/peerj.2949 |pmid=28149703 |pmc=5274522 |doi-access=free }}

Different forms of wildlife trade or use (utilization, hunting, trapping, collection or over-exploitation) are the second major threat to endangered mammals and it also ranks among the first ten threats to birds, amphibians and cycads.

Wildlife trade threatens the local ecosystem, and puts all species under additional pressure at a time when they are facing threats such as over-fishing, pollution, dredging, deforestation and other forms of habitat destruction.{{Cite web |title=Threats to Wildlife |url=https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Threats-to-Wildlife |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=National Wildlife Federation |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Threats to Birds {{!}} U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service |url=https://www.fws.gov/library/collections/threats-birds |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=www.fws.gov |language=en}}{{Cite journal |last1=Woo-Durand |first1=Catherine |last2=Matte |first2=Jean-Michel |last3=Cuddihy |first3=Grace |last4=McGourdji |first4=Chloe L. |last5=Venter |first5=Oscar |last6=Grant |first6=James W.A. |date=2020-06-18 |title=Increasing importance of climate change and other threats to at-risk species in Canada |journal=Environmental Reviews |language=en |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=449–456 |doi=10.1139/er-2020-0032 |issn=1181-8700|doi-access=free |bibcode=2020EnvRv..28..449W }}{{Cite journal |last=Hanski |first=Ilkka |date=2011-05-01 |title=Habitat Loss, the Dynamics of Biodiversity, and a Perspective on Conservation |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-011-0147-3 |journal=Ambio |language=en |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=248–255 |doi=10.1007/s13280-011-0147-3 |issn=1654-7209 |pmc=3357798 |pmid=21644453|bibcode=2011Ambio..40..248H }}

In the food chain, species higher up on the ladder ensure that the species below them do not become too abundant (hence controlling the population of those below them). Animals lower on the ladder are often non-carnivorous (but instead herbivorous) and control the abundance of plant species in a region. Due to the very large amounts of species that are removed from the ecosystem, it is not inconceivable that environmental problems will result, similar to e.g. overfishing, which causes an overabundance of jellyfish blooms.{{Cite journal |last1=Dong |first1=Zhijun |last2=Liu |first2=Dongyan |last3=Keesing |first3=John K. |date=2010-07-01 |title=Jellyfish blooms in China: Dominant species, causes and consequences |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X10001864 |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=60 |issue=7 |pages=954–963 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.04.022 |pmid=20553695 |bibcode=2010MarPB..60..954D |s2cid=206769472 |issn=0025-326X}} Furthermore, research suggests that invasive species are overrepresented in the wildlife trade, and are over 7 times more frequently traded than other species in the global pool.{{Cite journal |last1=Gippet |first1=Jérôme M. W. |last2=Bertelsmeier |first2=Cleo |date=2021-04-06 |title=Invasiveness is linked to greater commercial success in the global pet trade |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=118 |issue=14 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2016337118 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=8040636 |pmid=33753557|bibcode=2021PNAS..11816337G }}{{Cite journal |last1=Scheffers |first1=Brett R. |last2=Oliveira |first2=Brunno F. |last3=Lamb |first3=Ieuan |last4=Edwards |first4=David P. |date=2019-10-04 |title=Global wildlife trade across the tree of life |journal=Science |language=en |volume=366 |issue=6461 |pages=71–76 |doi=10.1126/science.aav5327 |issn=0036-8075|doi-access=free |pmid=31604304 |bibcode=2019Sci...366...71S }}{{Cite journal |last1=Bush |first1=Emma R. |last2=Baker |first2=Sandra E. |last3=Macdonald |first3=David W. |date=2014-03-24 |title=Global Trade in Exotic Pets 2006–2012 |journal=Conservation Biology |language=en |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=663–676 |doi=10.1111/cobi.12240 |issn=0888-8892|doi-access=free |pmid=24661260 |bibcode=2014ConBi..28..663B }}{{Cite journal |last1=Su |first1=Shan |last2=Cassey |first2=Phill |last3=Blackburn |first3=Tim M. |date=2014-12-01 |title=Patterns of non-randomness in the composition and characteristics of the Taiwanese bird trade |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-014-0686-1 |journal=Biological Invasions |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=2563–2575 |doi=10.1007/s10530-014-0686-1 |bibcode=2014BiInv..16.2563S |s2cid=254278970 |issn=1573-1464}}{{Cite journal |last1=Stringham |first1=Oliver C. |last2=Lockwood |first2=Julie L. |date=2018-08-21 |editor-last=Bellard |editor-first=Céline |title=Pet problems: Biological and economic factors that influence the release of alien reptiles and amphibians by pet owners |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |language=en |volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=2632–2640 |doi=10.1111/1365-2664.13237 |issn=0021-8901|doi-access=free |bibcode=2018JApEc..55.2632S }}{{Cite journal |last1=Mohanty |first1=Nitya Prakash |last2=Measey |first2=John |date=2019-12-01 |title=The global pet trade in amphibians: species traits, taxonomic bias, and future directions |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-019-01857-x |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |language=en |volume=28 |issue=14 |pages=3915–3923 |doi=10.1007/s10531-019-01857-x |bibcode=2019BiCon..28.3915M |s2cid=202686960 |issn=1572-9710}}{{Cite journal |last1=Papavlasopoulou |first1=I. |last2=Vardakas |first2=L. |last3=Perdikaris |first3=C. |last4=Kommatas |first4=D. |last5=Paschos |first5=I. |date=2014 |title=Ornamental fish in pet stores in Greece: a threat to biodiversity? |url=https://ejournals.epublishing.ekt.gr/index.php/hcmr-med-mar-sc/article/view/12441 |journal=Mediterranean Marine Science |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=126–134 |doi=10.12681/mms.484 |issn=1791-6763|doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last=Biondo |first=Monica V. |date=2017-07-01 |title=Quantifying the trade in marine ornamental fishes into Switzerland and an estimation of imports from the European Union |journal=Global Ecology and Conservation |volume=11 |pages=95–105 |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2017.05.006 |issn=2351-9894|doi-access=free |bibcode=2017GEcoC..11...95B }} This may be due to a specific preference for invasive species in the trade.{{Cite journal |last1=Gippet |first1=Jérôme M. W. |last2=Bertelsmeier |first2=Cleo |date=2021-04-06 |title=Invasiveness is linked to greater commercial success in the global pet trade |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=118 |issue=14 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2016337118 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=8040636 |pmid=33753557|bibcode=2021PNAS..11816337G }}

According to the United Nations, World Health Organization and World Wildlife Foundation, the Coronavirus disease 2019 is linked to the destruction of nature, especially to deforestation, habitat loss in general and wildlife trade. The head of the UN convention on biological diversity stated: "We have seen many diseases emerge over the years, such as Zika, Aids, Sars and Ebola, and they all originated from animal populations under conditions of severe environmental pressures."{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=D. |title=Pandemics result from destruction of nature, say UN and WHO |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/17/pandemics-destruction-nature-un-who-legislation-trade-green-recovery |access-date=18 June 2020 |newspaper=The Guardian |date=2020}}

{{main|Wildlife trade and zoonoses}}

Outbreaks of zoonotic diseases including COVID-19, H5N1 avian flu, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and monkeypox have been traced to live wildlife markets where the potential for zoonotic transmission is greatly increased.{{Cite news|last=Greenfield|first=Patrick|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/06/ban-live-animal-markets-pandemics-un-biodiversity-chief-age-of-extinction|title=Ban wildlife markets to avert pandemics, says UN biodiversity chief|date=2020-04-06|work=The Guardian|access-date=2020-04-10|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407145721/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/06/ban-live-animal-markets-pandemics-un-biodiversity-chief-age-of-extinction|archive-date=7 April 2020|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/02/05/802938289/new-coronavirus-wont-be-the-last-outbreak-to-move-from-animal-to-human|title=New Coronavirus 'Won't Be the Last' Outbreak to Move from Animal to Human|date=2020-02-05|access-date=2020-02-29|publisher=NPR|department=Goats and Soda|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303090057/https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/02/05/802938289/new-coronavirus-wont-be-the-last-outbreak-to-move-from-animal-to-human|archive-date=3 March 2020|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/jan/24/calls-for-global-ban-wild-animal-markets-amid-coronavirus-outbreak|title=Calls for global ban on wild animal markets amid coronavirus outbreak|date=2020-01-24|work=The Guardian|access-date=2020-02-29|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206115301/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/jan/24/calls-for-global-ban-wild-animal-markets-amid-coronavirus-outbreak|archive-date=6 February 2020|url-status=live}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Karesh WB, Cook RA, Bennett EL, Newcomb J | title = Wildlife trade and global disease emergence | journal = Emerging Infectious Diseases | volume = 11 | issue = 7 | pages = 1000–2 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 16022772 | pmc = 3371803 | doi = 10.3201/eid1107.050194 }} Wildlife markets in China have been implicated in the 2002 SARS outbreak and the COVID-19 pandemic. It is thought that the market environment provided optimal conditions for the coronaviruses of zoonotic origin that caused both outbreaks to mutate and subsequently spread to humans.

Nonetheless, the COVID-19 pandemic declaration – and the subsequent quarantines – led to increased online trade in wildlife. The isolation of quarantine itself immediately became the selling point, with pets as companions and distractions.

In some instances, such as the sale of chameleons from Madagascar, organisms are transported by boat or via the air to consumers. The survival rate of these is extremely poor (only 1% survival rate). This is undoubtedly caused by the illegal nature; vendors rather not risk that the chameleons were to be discovered and so do not ship them in plain view. Due to the very low survival rate, it also means that far higher amounts of organisms (in this case chameleons) are taken away from the ecosystem, to make up for the losses.

In many instances, tribal people have become the victims of the fallout from poaching.{{cite web|url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/about/poaching|title=Poaching|author=Survival International|access-date=10 June 2015}} With increased demand in the illegal wildlife trade, tribal people are often direct victims of the measures implemented to protect wildlife. Often reliant upon hunting for food, they are prevented from doing so, and are frequently illegally evicted from their lands following the creation of nature reserves aimed to protect animals.{{cite web|url=http://www.theecologist.org/News/news_round_up/2713128/india_jungle_book_tribes_illegally_evicted_from_tiger_reserve.html|title=India: 'Jungle Book' tribes illegally evicted from tiger reserve|date=14 January 2015|work=The Ecologist|access-date=10 June 2015}} Tribal people are often falsely accused of contributing to the decline of species – in the case of India, for example, they bear the brunt of anti-tiger poaching measures,{{cite web|url=http://www.survivalinternational.org//about/tigers|title=Tiger Reserves, India|author=Survival International|access-date=10 June 2015}} despite the main reason for the tiger population crash in the 20th century being due to hunting by European colonists and Indian elites.{{cite web|url=http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2014/03/10/a-concise-history-of-tiger-hunting-in-india/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402134427/http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2014/03/10/a-concise-history-of-tiger-hunting-in-india/|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 2, 2015|title=A Concise History of Tiger Hunting in India|author=Sharon Guynup|date=10 March 2014|access-date=10 June 2015}} In fact, contrary to popular belief, there is strong evidence to show that they effectively regulate and manage animal populations.{{cite web|url=http://dgrnewsservice.org/2015/02/07/wildlife-conservation-efforts-violating-tribal-peoples-rights/|title=Wildlife Conservation Efforts Are Violating Tribal Peoples' Rights|work=Deep Green Resistance News Service|date=8 February 2015|access-date=10 June 2015}}

{{further|Wildlife smuggling}}

File:Wildlife Trafficking Supply Chain.svg

Interpol has estimated the extent of the illegal wildlife trade between $10 billion and $20 billion per year. While the trade is a global one, with routes extending to every continent, conservationists say the problem is most acute in Southeast Asia.

{{ Cite journal

| date = 2023

| publisher = Springer Science and Business Media LLC

| last2 = Kumar

| last1 = Rana

| first2 = Nishant

| first1 = Kumar

| title = Current wildlife crime (Indian scenario): major challenges and prevention approaches

| journal = Biodiversity and Conservation

| volume = 32

| issue = 5

| pages = 1473–1491

| issn = 0960-3115

| doi = 10.1007/s10531-023-02577-z

| pmid = 37063172

| s2cid = 257649998

| id = KR ORCID [https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3954-5887 0000-0003-3954-5887]

| pmc = 10025790

| bibcode = 2023BiCon..32.1473R

}}

There, trade linkages to key markets in China, the United States, and the European Union; lax law enforcement; weak border controls; and the perception of high profit and low risk contribute to large-scale commercial wildlife trafficking.{{cite book |last1=van Uhm |first1=D.P. |title=The Illegal Wildlife Trade: Inside the World of Poachers, Smugglers and Traders (Studies of Organized Crime) |date=2016 |publisher=New York: Springer |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783319421285}} The ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network (ASEAN-WEN), supported by the U.S. Agency for International Development and external funders, is one response to the region's illegal wildlife trade networks. There is no clear relationship between the legality of wildlife trade and its sustainability; a species can be legally traded to extinction but it is also possible for illegal trade to be sustainable {{Cite journal |last=Nijman |first=Vincent |date=2022-11-05 |title=Harvest quotas, free markets and the sustainable trade in pythons |url=https://natureconservation.pensoft.net/article/80988/ |journal=Nature Conservation |language=en |volume=48 |pages=99–121 |doi=10.3897/natureconservation.48.80988 |s2cid=248733239 |issn=1314-3301|doi-access=free }}

File:SharkFinTin9.jpg fin for sale in Hong Kong]]

Notable trade hubs of the wildlife trade include Suvarnabhumi Airport in Bangkok, which offers smugglers direct jet service to Europe, the Middle East, North America and Africa.{{Cite news |year=2022 |author=John, E. |title=Seizures at Thailand's main airport signal resurgence of wildlife smuggling via air |url=https://www.traffic.org/news/seizures-at-thailands-main-airport-signal-resurgence-of-wildlife-smuggling-via-air/ |work=TRAFFIC}} The Chatuchak weekend market in Bangkok is a known center of illicit wildlife trade, and the sale of lizards, primates, and other endangered species has been widely documented.{{Cite report |year=2008 |author1=Shepherd, C. R. |author2=Nijman, V. |title=Pet freshwater turtle and tortoise trade in Chatuchak Market, Bangkok, Thailand |publisher=TRAFFIC Southeast Asia |place=Petaling Jaya, Malaysia |isbn=9789833393077 |url=https://wwfint.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/traffic_species_reptiles13.pdf}}

Despite international and local laws designed to crack down on the trade, live animals and animal parts, often those of endangered or threatened species, are sold in open-air markets throughout Asia.{{cite journal |last1=Van Uhm |first1=D.P. |last2=Wong |first2=R.W.Y. |title=Establishing Trust in the Illegal Wildlife Trade in China |journal=Asian Journal of Criminology |date=2019 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=23–40 |doi=10.1007/s11417-018-9277-x |doi-access=free}}

The trade also includes exotic pets especially birds.{{cite journal |author1=Vall-Llosera, M. |author2=Shan, S. |year=2019 |title=Trends and characteristics of imports of live CITES-listed bird species into Japan |journal=Ibis |volume=161| pages=590–604 |doi=10.1111/ibi.12653 |issue=3 |s2cid=92146900}}

{{excerpt|Crime in India|Poaching and wildlife trafficking}}

Many African species are traded both within the country of origin and internationally.{{Cite journal |last=Warchol |first=G. |date=2004 |title=The Transnational Illegal Wildlife Trade |journal=Criminal Justice Studies |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=57–73 |doi=10.1080/08884310420001679334|s2cid=144334170 }} Charismatic mega-fauna are among commonly traded species native to the African continent including African elephants, pangolin, rhinoceros, leopards, and lions. Other animals such as vultures play a role in trade, both domestically and internationally. In northern Botswana the number of found elephant carcasses increased approximately six times in the years 2014–2018 and the country legalized elephant hunting in May 2019. At the same time, the elephants began to die from a mysterious disease that possibly presents a danger to humans.{{cite news |last1=Rosane |first1=O. |title=In 'Conservation Disaster,' Hundreds of Botswana's Elephants Are Dying From Mysterious Cause |url=https://www.ecowatch.com/elephants-dying-botswana-2646313336.html |access-date=13 July 2020 |newspaper=Ecowatch |date=2020}}

Morocco has been identified as a transit country for wildlife moving from Africa to Europe due to its porous borders with Spain. Wildlife is present in the markets as photo props, sold for decoration, used in medicinal practices, sold as pets and used to decorate shops. Large numbers of reptiles are sold in the markets, especially spur-thighed tortoises. Although leopards have most likely been extirpated from Morocco, their skins can regularly be seen sold openly as medicinal products or decoration in the markets.{{cite journal |author1=Bergin, D. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Nijman, V. |year=2014 |title=Open, Unregulated Trade in Wildlife in Morocco's Markets |journal=TRAFFIC Bulletin |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=65–70 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267748463}}

Although the volume of animals traded may be greater in Southeast Asia, animal trade in Latin America is widespread as well.{{Cite web |last=Guynup |first=Sharon |date=2022-10-18 |title=A fast-growing pipeline: The Amazon-to-Southeast Asia wildlife trade |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/10/a-fast-growing-pipeline-the-amazon-to-southeast-asia-wildlife-trade/ |access-date=2025-04-16 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}

In open air Amazon markets in Iquitos and Manaus, a variety of rainforest animals are sold openly as meat, such as agoutis, peccaries, turtles, turtle eggs, walking catfish, etc. In addition, many species are sold as pets.{{Cite web |date=2021-10-13 |title=Peru market investigation reveals wild animals sold illegally |url=https://www.worldanimalprotection.org.au/news/peru-market-investigation-reveals-wild-animals-sold-illegally/ |access-date=2025-04-16 |website=World Animal Protection Australia |language=en-AU}} The keeping of parrots and monkeys as pets by villagers along the Amazon is commonplace. But the sale of these "companion" animals in open markets is rampant.{{Cite web |title=Unsustainable wildlife trade in the Amazon |url=https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/amazon/amazon_threats/other_threats/illegal_wildlife_trade_amazon/ |access-date=2025-04-16 |website=wwf.panda.org |language=en}} Capturing the baby tamarins, marmosets, spider monkeys, saki monkeys, in order to sell them, often requires shooting the mother primate out of a treetop with her clinging child; the youngster may or may not survive the fall. The United States is a popular destination for Amazonian rainforest animals. They are smuggled across borders the same way illegal drugs are – in the trunks of cars, in suitcases, in crates disguised as something else.{{Cite web |title=CBP Intercepts 27 Smuggled Amazon Parrots at the Nogales, Arizona Port of Entry {{!}} U.S. Customs and Border Protection |url=https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/local-media-release/cbp-intercepts-27-smuggled-amazon-parrots-nogales-arizona-port-entry |access-date=2025-04-16 |website=www.cbp.gov |language=en}}

With the human population increasing, such practices have a serious impact on the future prospects for many threatened species. A report from WWF and the Zoological Society of London in 2024 found that the wildlife populations in Latin America and the Caribbean, including the Amazon, have declined by an average of 94% over the past 48 years. This was the largest decline seen in a region of the world.{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://livingplanet.panda.org/en-US/ |access-date=2025-04-16 |website=livingplanet.panda.org |language=en-US}} It was caused by multiple factors including wildlife trafficking, combined with deforestation and other pressures.

In Venezuela more than 400 animal species are involved in subsistence hunting, domestic and international (illegal) trade. These activities are widespread and might overlap in many regions, although they are driven by different markets and target different species.

In Brazil, the wildlife trade has grown over the years, as it is one of the most biodiverse areas in the world. Mammals and amphibians are among the highest traded animals. In recent studies, non-native species of amphibians and mammals were identified in Brazil, with frogs and rodents, respectively, posing the greatest invasion risks.{{Cite journal |last1=da Rosa |first1=CA |last2=Zenni |first2=R |last3=Ziller |first3=SR |last4=de Almeida Curi |first4=N |last5=Passamani |first5=M |date=2018 |title=Assessing the risk of invasion of species in the pet trade in Brazil. |journal=Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=38–42|doi=10.1016/j.pecon.2017.09.005 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018PEcoC..16...38D }}{{Cite journal |last1=Pistoni |first1=J |last2=Toledo |first2=LF |date=2010 |title=Amphibian Illegal Trade in Brazil: What Do We Know? |journal=South American Journal of Herpetology |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=51–56|doi=10.2994/057.005.0106 |s2cid=83825811}} The online trade of amphibians as exotic pets has risen almost six times since 2015.{{Cite journal |last1=Máximo |first1=IM |last2=Brandão |first2=RA |last3=Ruggeri |first3=J |last4=Toledo |first4=LF |date=2021 |title=Amphibian Illegal Pet Trade and a Possible New Case of an Invasive Exotic Species in Brazil |journal=Herpetological Conservation and Biology |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=303–312}}

Through both deep web (password protected, encrypted) and dark web (special portal browsers) markets, participants can trade and transact illegal substances, including wildlife. However the amount of activity is still negligible compared to the amount on the open or surface web. As stated in an examination of search engine key words relating to wildlife trade in an article published by Conservation Biology, "This negligible level of activity related to the illegal trade of wildlife on the dark web relative to the open and increasing trade on the surface web may indicate a lack of successful enforcement against illegal wildlife trade on the surface web."{{Cite journal |author=Harrison, J.R. |author2=Roberts, D.L. |author3=Hernandez-Castro, J. |year=2016 |title=Assessing the extent and nature of wildlife trade on the dark web |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=30 | issue = 4 |pages=900–904 |doi=10.1111/cobi.12707 |pmid=26918590|bibcode=2016ConBi..30..900H |s2cid=3774575 }}

A study conducted by the International Fund for Animal Welfare (Ifaw) in 2018 revealed online sales of endangered wildlife (on the list of the global Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species) was pervasive across Europe. Ivory accounted for almost 20 percent of the items offered.{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/23/illegal-online-sales-of-endangered-wildlife-rife-in-europe|title=Illegal online sales of endangered wildlife rife in Europe|last=Carrington|first=Damian|date=2018-05-23|website=the Guardian|language=en|access-date=2018-05-23}}

• ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network
• Basel Institute on Governance
• Clark R. Bavin National Fish and Wildlife Forensic Laboratory
• Four Paws
• FREELAND Foundation
• International Fund for Animal Welfare
• International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
• Monitor Conservation Research Society (Monitor)
• South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network (SAWEN)[https://www.sawen.org/ South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network (SAWEN)]
• Species Survival Network
• TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network
• United for Wildlife[https://unitedforwildlife.org/ United for Wildlife]
• United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
• United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 15
• Wildlife Alliance
• World Wildlife Fund for Nature

File:An inspection of a legal shipment of wildlife pelts. Credit- Catherine J. Hibbard-USFWS (16333832492).jpg

Legal trade of wildlife has occurred for many species for a number of reasons, including commercial trade, pet trade as well as conservation attempts. Whilst most examples of legal trade of wildlife are as a result of large population numbers or pests, there is potential for the use of legal trade to reduce illegal trade threatening many species. Legalizing the trade of species can allow for more regulated harvesting of animals and prevent illegal over-harvesting.{{Cite journal |last1=D'Cruze |first1=Neil |last2=Green |first2=Jennah |last3=Elwin |first3=Angie |last4=Schmidt-Burbach |first4=Jan |date=2020-12-21 |title=Trading Tactics: Time to Rethink the Global Trade in Wildlife |journal=Animals: An Open Access Journal from MDPI |volume=10 |issue=12 |pages=2456 |doi=10.3390/ani10122456 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-2615 |pmc=7767496 |pmid=33371486}}

Many environmentalists, scientists, and zoologists around the world are against legalizing pet trade of invasive or introduced species, as their release into the wild, be it intentional or not, could compete with indigenous species, and lead to their endangerment.{{Cite journal |last1=Gippet |first1=Jérôme M. W. |last2=Bertelsmeier |first2=Cleo |date=2021-04-06 |title=Invasiveness is linked to greater commercial success in the global pet trade |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=118 |issue=14 |pages=e2016337118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2016337118 |doi-access=free |pmc=8040636 |pmid=33753557|bibcode=2021PNAS..11816337G }}

Trade of crocodiles in Australia has been largely successful. Saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) and freshwater crocodiles (Crocodylus johnstoni) are listed under CITES Appendix II. Commercial harvesting of these crocodiles occurs in Northern Territory, Queensland and Western Australia, including harvesting from wild populations as well as approved captive breeding programs based on quotas set by the Australian government.Leach G.J, Delaney, R; Fukuda, Y (2009) Management Program for the Saltwater Crocodile in the Northern Territory of Australia, 2009 - 2014. Northern Territory Department of Natural Resources, Environment, The Arts and Sport, Darwin

{{Further|Kangaroo industry}}

Kangaroos are currently legally harvested for commercial trade and export in Australia. There are a number of species included in the trade including:

• Red kangaroo (Macropus rufus)
• Eastern grey kangaroo (M. giganteus)
• Western grey kangaroo (M.fuliginosus)
• Common wallaroo (M. robustus)

Harvesting of kangaroos for legal trade does not occur in National Parks and is determined by quotas set by state government departments. Active kangaroo management has gained a commercial value in the trade of kangaroo meat, hides and other products.Pople, T; Grigg, G. 1999. Commercial harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia for Environment Australia August 1999.

Alligators have been traded commercially in Florida and other American states as part of a management program.Dutton, H; Brunell, AA; Carbonneau, D; Hord, L; Stiegler, S; Visscher, C; White, J; Woodward, A, 2002. Florida's Alligator Management Program an Update 1987 to 2001 pp. 23–30 in: Crocodiles: Proceedings of the 16th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group, IUCN- The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. The use of legal trade and quotas have allowed management of a species as well as economic incentive for sustaining habitat with greater ecological benefits.

Legalising the trade of products derived from endangered species is highly controversial.{{Cite journal|last1=Biggs|first1=Duan|last2=Holden|first2=Matthew H.|last3=Braczkowski|first3=Alex|last4=Cook|first4=Carly N.|last5=Milner-Gulland|first5=E. J.|last6=Phelps|first6=Jacob|last7=Scholes|first7=Robert J.|last8=Smith|first8=Robert J.|last9=Underwood|first9=Fiona M.|last10=Adams|first10=Vanessa M.|last11=Allan|first11=James|date=2017-12-15|title=Breaking the deadlock on ivory|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aan5215|journal=Science|language=en|volume=358|issue=6369|pages=1378–1381|doi=10.1126/science.aan5215|issn=0036-8075|pmid=29242329|bibcode=2017Sci...358.1378B|s2cid=206660396}} Many researchers have proposed that a well regulated legal market could benefit some endangered species by either flooding the market with products that drive down the price of illegal products,{{Cite journal|last1=Biggs|first1=Duan|last2=Courchamp|first2=Franck|last3=Martin|first3=Rowan|last4=Possingham|first4=Hugh P.|date=2013-03-01|title=Legal Trade of Africa's Rhino Horns|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1229998|journal=Science|language=en|volume=339|issue=6123|pages=1038–1039|doi=10.1126/science.1229998|issn=0036-8075|pmid=23449582|bibcode=2013Sci...339.1038B|s2cid=206545172}} decreasing the incentive to illegally harvest, or by providing revenue that could fund the species's conservation.{{Cite journal|last1=Holden|first1=Matthew H.|last2=Lockyer|first2=Jakeb|date=2021-05-21|title=Poacher-population dynamics when legal trade of naturally deceased organisms funds anti-poaching enforcement|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022519321000400|journal=Journal of Theoretical Biology|language=en|volume=517|page=110618|doi=10.1016/j.jtbi.2021.110618|pmid=33639137|issn=0022-5193|arxiv=2102.11664|bibcode=2021JThBi.51710618H|s2cid=232014173}} However, laundering and corruption pose a major obstacle to implementing such policies, as illegal harvesters attempt to disguise illegal product as legal when trade is legalized.{{Cite journal|last=Bennett|first=Elizabeth L.|date=2015|title=Legal ivory trade in a corrupt world and its impact on African elephant populations|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cobi.12377|journal=Conservation Biology|language=es|volume=29|issue=1|pages=54–60|doi=10.1111/cobi.12377|pmid=25103555|bibcode=2015ConBi..29...54B |s2cid=11907172 |issn=1523-1739}}

Under the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), species listed under Appendix I are threatened with extinction, and commercial trade in wild-caught specimens, or products derived from them, is prohibited.CITES 2013. [http://cites.org/eng/node/2842 Fifteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties]. CITES Secretariat, Geneva. This rule applies to all species threatened with extinction, except in exceptional circumstances.CITES, 2014. How Cites Works. [Online] Available: http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/how.php. Accessed 10 06 2014. Commercial trade of endangered species listed under Appendix II and III is not prohibited, although Parties must provide non-detriment finding to show that the species in the wild is not being unsustainably harvested for the purpose of trade. Specimens of Appendix I species that were bred in captivity for commercial purposes are treated as Appendix II. An example of this is captive-bred saltwater crocodiles, with some wild populations listed in Appendix I and others in Appendix II.

Many animals are kept for months in markets waiting to be sold. The welfare of animals in trade is almost universally poor, with the vast majority of animals failing to receive even the most basic freedom from pain, hunger, distress, discomfort, and few opportunities to express normal behaviour.{{Cite journal|last=Bergin, D. and Nijman, V. |date=2018 |title=An Assessment of Welfare Conditions in Wildlife Markets across Morocco |journal=Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science |volume=22|issue=3 |pages= 279–288|doi=10.1080/10888705.2018.1492408 |pmid=30102072 |s2cid=51967901 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327002300}}

Reptiles specifically endure tight living spaces, torn claws and dehydration during capturing and transportation. Sometimes, they are also crushed from being stacked on top of each other.{{Cite web |title=The Exotic Pet Trade: Damaging, Wasteful and Cruel |website=Zoocheck |date=2022 |url=https://www.zoocheck.com/feature-campaigns-2015/exotic-pets/reptile-and-amphibian-issues/the-wild-animal-pet-trade-is-wasteful-and-unnecessary/ |access-date=2022-11-22}}

{{Commons category|Wildlife trade}}

• Environmental crime
• Ecocide
• Ivory trade
• Poaching
• Wildlife smuggling
• Wildlife farming
• African Vulture trade
• Pangolin trade
• Border control
• Endangered species

{{Reflist|refs=

{{cite web | author=University of Göttingen | author-link=University of Göttingen | title=COVID-19 highlights risks of wildlife trade | website=Phys.org | date=2020-11-17 | url=http://phys.org/news/2020-11-covid-highlights-wildlife.html | access-date=2020-12-23}}

{{cite journal | last1=Borzée | first1=Amaël | last2=McNeely | first2=Jeffrey | last3=Magellan | first3=Kit | last4=Miller | first4=Jennifer R.B. | last5=Porter | first5=Lindsay | last6=Dutta | first6=Trishna | last7=Kadinjappalli | first7=Krishnakumar P. | last8=Sharma | first8=Sandeep | last9=Shahabuddin | first9=Ghazala | last10=Aprilinayati | first10=Fikty | last11=Ryan | first11=Gerard E. | last12=Hughes | first12=Alice | last13=Abd Mutalib | first13=Aini Hasanah | last14=Wahab | first14=Ahmad Zafir Abdul | last15=Bista | first15=Damber | last16=Chavanich | first16=Suchana Apple | last17=Chong | first17=Ju Lian | last18=Gale | first18=George A. | last19=Ghaffari | first19=Hanyeh | last20=Ghimirey | first20=Yadav | last21=Jayaraj | first21=Vijaya Kumaran | last22=Khatiwada | first22=Ambika Prasad | last23=Khatiwada | first23=Monsoon | last24=Krishna | first24=Murali | last25=Lwin | first25=Ngwe | last26=Paudel | first26=Prakash Kumar | last27=Sadykova | first27=Chinara | last28=Savini | first28=Tommaso | last29=Shrestha | first29=Bharat Babu | last30=Strine | first30=Colin T. | last31=Sutthacheep | first31=Makamas | last32=Wong | first32=Ee Phin | last33=Yeemin | first33=Thamasak | last34=Zahirudin | first34=Natasha Zulaika | last35=Zhang | first35=Li | title=COVID-19 Highlights the Need for More Effective Wildlife Trade Legislation | journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=35 | issue=12 | year=2020 | issn=0169-5347 | doi=10.1016/j.tree.2020.10.001 | pages=1052–1055| pmid=33097287 | pmc=7539804 | doi-access=free | bibcode=2020TEcoE..35.1052B }}

{{cite journal | last1=Morcatty | first1=Thais Q. | last2=Feddema | first2=Kim | last3=Nekaris | first3=K.A.I. | last4=Nijman | first4=Vincent | title=Online trade in wildlife and the lack of response to COVID-19 | journal=Environmental Research | publisher=Elsevier BV | year=2020 | volume=193 | issn=0013-9351 | doi=10.1016/j.envres.2020.110439 | page=110439| pmid=33171119 | pmc=7836796 }}

{{cite AV media|publisher=Loke Film|title=Madagascar: Land of the Chameleons|url=http://lokefilm.dk|type=Motion picture}}

}}

• {{cite journal | last = Beirne | first = Piers | title = Wildlife Trade and COVID-19: Towards a Criminology of Anthropogenic Pathogen Spillover | journal = The British Journal of Criminology | volume = 61 | issue = 3 | pages = 607–626 | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = May 2021 | url = https://academic.oup.com/bjc/article/61/3/607/6031472?login=true | issn = 1464-3529 | doi = 10.1093/bjc/azaa084 | access-date = 19 September 2021| pmc = 7953978 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Liew |first1=Jia Huan |last2=Lim |first2=Rayson |display-authors=etal. |date=2021 |title=International socioeconomic inequality drives trade patterns in the global wildlife market |journal=Science Advances |volume=7 |issue=19 |pages= eabf7679|doi=10.1126/sciadv.abf7679|pmid=33952526 |pmc=8099177 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.7679L |doi-access=free }}
• {{cite book |editor1-last=Nellemann |editor1-first=Christian |display-editors=etal |title=The Environmental Crime Crisis: Threats to Sustainable Development From Illegal Exploitation and Trade in Wildlife and Forest Resources |date=2014 |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme; GRID-Arendal |location=Nairobi, Kenya; Arendal, Norway |isbn=978-82-7701-132-5 |url=https://www.grida.no/publications/178}}
• {{cite book |last=Roe |first=Dilys |title=Making a Killing Or Making a Living: Wildlife Trade, Trade Controls, and Rural Livelihoods |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0UzXGpBUeesC |date=2002 |publisher=International Institute for Environment and Development |location=London, UK |isbn=978-1-84369-215-7}}

• [http://www.cites.org CITES]
• [http://www.traffic.org TRAFFIC − international NGO dedicated to ensuring that trade in wild plants and animals is not a threat to nature conservation]
• [http://www.asean-wen.org/ ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network − wildlife law enforcement network]
• [http://www.freeland.org FREELAND Foundation − international NGO dedicated to ending the illegal wildlife trade, conserving natural habitats and protecting human rights]
• [http://www.wildlifealliance.org Wildlife Alliance − international NGO addressing wildlife trafficking and other crimes against nature]
• [http://www.eia-international.org/campaigns/species/ Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903144535/http://www.eia-international.org/campaigns/species/ |date=2011-09-03 }}
• [http://www.ssn.org The Species Survival Network − international coalition of over 80 NGOs committed to the promotion, enhancement, and strict enforcement of CITES]
• [http://www.wildlifeatrisk.org Wildlife at Risk − combating the illegal wildlife trade in Vietnam]
• [http://www.savingvietnamswildlife.org Saving Vietnam's Wildlife] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421231845/http://www.savingvietnamswildlife.org// |date=2012-04-21 }}
• [https://www.peoplenotpoaching.org People Not Poaching: The Communities and IWT Learning Platform]
• [https://mcrsociety.org/ Monitor Conservation Research Society] (Monitor)

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wildlife Trade}}

Category:Wildlife

Category:Wildlife conservation

Category:Wildlife smuggling

Category:Animal trade