Gynaecology#Diseases

The word gynaecology comes from the oblique stem ({{lang|grc-Grek|γυναικ-|italic=no}}) of the Greek word {{lang|grc-Grek|γυνή|italic=no}} ({{lang|grc-latn|gyne}}) meaning {{gloss|woman}}, and {{lang|grc-latn|-logia}} meaning {{gloss|study}}.{{Cite web |title=gynecology |url=https://etymology.en-academic.com/17658/gynecology |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=Academic Dictionaries and Encyclopedias |language=en |archive-date=2022-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220925103618/https://etymology.en-academic.com/17658/gynecology |url-status=live }} Literally translated, it means {{gloss|the study of women}}.{{cite journal |last1=Porter |first1=Roy |date=July 1991 |title=Ornella Moscucci, The science of women: gynaecology and gender in England, 1800–1929, Cambridge History of Medicine, Cambridge University Press, 1990, 8vo, pp. x, 278, illus., £35.00, $49.50. |journal=Medical History |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=372 |doi=10.1017/S0025727300054004 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite web |last=McGill |first=Markus |date=2017-08-29 |title=Gynecologists: When to see one, what to expect, common procedures |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/288354 |url-access=limited |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521042428/https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/288354 |archive-date=2022-05-21 |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=Medical News Today}} Its counterpart is andrology, which deals with medical issues specific to the male reproductive system.{{cite book |last1=Sadri-Ardekani |first1=Hooman |title=Principles of Regenerative Medicine |last2=Atala |first2=Anthony |date=2019 |isbn=978-0-12-809880-6 |pages=1251–1261 |chapter=Regenerative Medicine for the Male Reproductive System |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-809880-6.00071-0}}

The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus, dated to about 1800 BC, deals with gynecological diseases, fertility, pregnancy, contraception, etc. The text is divided into thirty-four sections, each section dealing with a specific problem and containing diagnosis and treatment; no prognosis is suggested. Treatments are non-surgical, consisting of applying medicines to the affected body part or delivering medicines orally. During this time, the womb was at times seen as the source of complaints manifesting themselves in other body parts.{{cite book |last1=Dixon |first1=Laurinda S. |title=Perilous Chastity: Women and Illness in Pre-Enlightenment Art and Medicine |date=1995 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-3026-8 |page=15f }}

Ayurveda, an Indian traditional medical system, also provides details about concepts and techniques related to gynaecology, addressing fertility, childbirth complications, and menstrual disorders among other things.{{cite book|author=S. V. Govindan|title=Fundamental Maxims of Ayurveda: Prepared for the Common People|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S-my-hS7mlkC&pg=PA142|date=November 2002|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-417-2|pages=142–143|access-date=2020-06-23|archive-date=2020-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200709152429/https://books.google.com/books?id=S-my-hS7mlkC&pg=PA142|url-status=live}}{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-981-10-3962-1 |page=134 |title=Chinese and Indian Medicine Today |date=2017 |last1=Islam |first1=Md. Nazrul |isbn=978-981-10-3961-4 }} These writings provide a post and prenatal care, integrating lifestyle practices, meditations and yoga, and a dietary regime for overall well-being.

The Hippocratic Corpus contains several gynaecological treatises dating to the 5th and 4th centuries BC. Aristotle is another source for medical texts from the 4th century BC with his descriptions of biology primarily found in History of Animals, Parts of Animals, Generation of Animals.{{cite book |doi=10.1515/9781474468541-014 |chapter=The Cultural Construct of the Female Body in Classical Greek Science |title=Sex and Difference in Ancient Greece and Rome |date=2003 |last1=Dean-Jones |first1=Lesley |pages=183–201 |isbn=978-1-4744-6854-1 }} The gynaecological treatise Gynaikeia by Soranus of Ephesus (1st/2nd century AD) is extant (together with a 6th-century Latin paraphrase by Muscio, a physician of the same school). He was the chief representative of the school of physicians known as the "methodists."

During the Middle Ages, midwives dominated women's health concerns through experienced-based knowledge, traditional remedies, and herbal medicines. Midwifery was often regarded unscientific and was challenged with the rise of gynecology as an official medical field. The Renaissance period, 16th century, brought about a resurgence of classical scientific advancements, including the rise of medical advancements in the field of gynecology and obstetrics. Figures like Ambroise Pare were imperative in improving obstetrics techniques during this period. Peter Chamberlen developed the forceps, an important surgical tool that transformed childbirth and lessened maternal mortality.{{Cite journal |last1=Oyelese |first1=Yinka |last2=Grünebaum |first2=Amos |last3=Chervenak |first3=Frank |date=2024-11-01 |title=Respect for history: an important dimension of contemporary obstetrics and gynecology |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/jpm-2024-0348/html?lang=en&srsltid=AfmBOopXRTVG_6J_5DuWj4VCS-sg1wpTZmXXG_SOKENWgSVlXvM5EPFa |journal=Journal of Perinatal Medicine |language=en |volume=52 |issue=9 |pages=914–926 |doi=10.1515/jpm-2024-0348 |pmid=39272109 |issn=1619-3997|url-access=subscription }}

As medical institutions continued to expand in the 18th-19th centuries, the authority of midwives was further challenged by men involving themselves in women's health practices and research.{{Cite book |last=Owens |first=Deirdre Cooper |title=Medical Bondage Race, Gender, and the Origins of American Gynecology |publisher=University of Georgia Press |year=2017 |isbn=9780820353036 |location=Athens |publication-date=2017-11-15 |pages=15–18 |language=English}} The formalization of midwifery training by male doctors and advancements in medical knowledge of women's health and anatomy was seen during this period. Figures such as William Smellie, William Hunter, Paul Zweifel, Franz Karl Naegele, and Carl Crede contributed to understanding of childbirth and women's health in Europe. In the early 18th and 19th century United States, the field of gynecology held close ties to slavery and the Black women's reproduction. Figures such as Henry Campbell and Robert Campbell worked as genealogical surgeons on enslaved women, publishing their work in accredited medical journals that while advanced gynecological knowledge, simultaneously laid the foundation for medical racism, medical ethics atrocities, and discrimination that fueled the justification of slavery. Others, such as Dr. Mary Putnam Jacobi, challenged the exclusion of women from medical education and shifted gynaecology to a scientific practice.Morantz-Sanchez, R. (1985). Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine. Oxford University Press.

By the early 20th century, the American Gynecological Society was founded (1876), and later the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (1951). There was also advances in antiseptic techniques, anesthesia, and diagnostic tools, like the Pap smear, which transformed gynaecological care.Briggs, L. (2002). Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, Science, and U.S. Imperialism in Puerto Rico. University of California Press. However, medical racism continued with forced sterilizations and eugenic policies that disproportionately targeted minorities. Currently, healthcare focusing on informed consent, culturally competent care, and health equity.

{{main|J. Marion Sims}}

{{See also|Mothers of Gynecology Movement}}

J. Marion Sims is widely regarded as the father of modern gynecology.{{cite book|last=Semple|first=Henry Churchill|title=J. Marion Sims, the Father of Modern Gynecology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c5WomgEACAAJ|access-date=11 October 2013|date=1923|archive-date=11 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611084013/https://books.google.com/books?id=c5WomgEACAAJ|url-status=live}} Isolated precedents exist for some of his innovations; however, he was the first to have published medical contributions such as development of the Sims' position (1845), the Sims' speculum (1845), the Sims’ sigmoid catheter, and gynecological surgery. He was the first to develop surgical techniques for the repair of vesico-vaginal fistulas (1849), a consequence of protracted childbirth which at the time was without treatment. He founded the first women's hospital in the country in Alabama 1855 and subsequently the Woman's Hospital of New York in 1857. He was elected president of the American Medical Association in 1876. Sims died in 1883 and was the first American physician of whom a statue was erected in 1894.{{Cite web |title=James Marion Sims (1813-1883) {{!}} Embryo Project Encyclopedia |url=https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/james-marion-sims-1813-1883 |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=embryo.asu.edu}}

Sims’ legacy is widely controversial as he developed this new specialty experimenting on Black enslaved women, as recounted in his autobiography.{{Cite web |title=The story of my life. |url=https://www.loc.gov/resource/gdcmassbookdig.storyofmylif00sims/?st=gallery |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}{{Cite book |last=Cooper Owens |first=Deirdre Benia |title=Medical bondage: race, gender, and the origins of American gynecology |date=2018 |publisher=The University of Georgia Press |isbn=978-0-8203-5475-0 |edition=Paperback |location=Athens}} In this era, anesthesia was unprecedented and a focus in research. Its use was novice and considered dangerous. Sims developed various of his techniques and instruments by operating on slaves, many of whom were not given anesthesia.{{Cite journal |last1=Russ |first1=Joanna |last2=Daly |first2=Mary |date=1979 |title=Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3346672 |journal=Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=68 |doi=10.2307/3346672 |jstor=3346672 |issn=0160-9009|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite book |url=https://doi.org/10.5771/9780761850922 |title=Color Struck |date=2010 |publisher=Hamilton |doi=10.5771/9780761850922 |isbn=978-0-7618-5092-2 |editor-last=Adekunle |editor-first=Julius O. |editor-last2=Williams |editor-first2=Hettie V.}} On one of the women, named Anarcha, he performed 30 surgeries without anesthesia.{{Cite journal |last=Wall |first=L. Lewis |date=2006-11-02 |title=Did J. Marion Sims Deliberately Addict His First Fistula Patients to Opium? |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jhmas/jrl045 |journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=336–356 |doi=10.1093/jhmas/jrl045 |pmid=17082217 |issn=1468-4373|url-access=subscription }} In addition, during the antebellum era, medical racism funded and founded science that supported the belief that Black people had higher pain tolerance, and white women proved unable to endure the pain. The lack of voluntary, informed consent and experimentation on Black enslaved women’s bodies during the antebellum era went ethically unquestioned in the medical community, and contributed to medical racism that perpetuated beliefs on pain tolerance, race, and gender that persist today.

Throughout his career, he was invited by European Royalty to treat their female relatives of gynecological problems. His medical knowledge had been produced globally without acknowledgement of the methods delaying these techniques. When he left Alabama in 1853, a local newspaper called him "an honor to our state."{{cite news |date=22 Mar 1854 |title=Medical Journals |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/103992475/j-marion-sims/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618201151/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/103992475/j-marion-sims/ |archive-date=18 June 2022 |access-date=18 June 2022 |newspaper=Sumter County Whig |location=Livingston, Alabama |page=2 |via=newspapers.com}} Currently, Sims’ experimentation on Black enslaved women is widely discoursed and criticized in the Journal of Medical Ethics and academic scholars.{{Cite journal |last=Wall |first=L L |date=2006-05-26 |title=The medical ethics of Dr J Marion Sims: a fresh look at the historical record |url=https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.2005.012559 |journal=Journal of Medical Ethics |volume=32 |issue=6 |pages=346–350 |doi=10.1136/jme.2005.012559 |pmid=16731734 |pmc=2563360 |issn=0306-6800}}{{Cite journal |last=Ojanuga |first=D |date=March 1993 |title=The medical ethics of the 'father of gynaecology', Dr J Marion Sims. |url=https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.19.1.28 |journal=Journal of Medical Ethics |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=28–31 |doi=10.1136/jme.19.1.28 |pmid=8459435 |pmc=1376165 |issn=0306-6800}}

{{Main|Contraceptive trials in Puerto Rico}} {{See also|Gregory G. Pincus}}

The birth control trials were initiated by Gregory Pincus, an American biochemist that contributed to the development of the first oral contraceptive pill.{{Cite web |title=Dr. Pincus, Developer of Birth-Control Pill, Dies |url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0409.html |access-date=2025-04-05 |website=archive.nytimes.com}} Clinical trials of these contraceptions took place in Puerto Rico, commonwealth of the United States, with the rationale of a necessary population control that closely followed eugenic ideology.{{Cite web |date=2022-02-10 |title=Lights and Shadows of US Birth Control Testing in Puerto Rico: History and Implications for Other Latin American Countries |url=https://sais.jhu.edu/news-press/event-recap/lights-and-shadows-us-birth-control-testing-puerto-rico-history-and |access-date=2025-04-05 |website=Johns Hopkins SAIS |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Blakemore |first=Erin |date=2018-05-09 |title=The First Birth Control Pill Used Puerto Rican Women as Guinea Pigs |url=https://www.history.com/articles/birth-control-pill-history-puerto-rico-enovid |access-date=2025-04-05 |website=HISTORY |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=The Puerto Rico Pill Trials {{!}} American Experience |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/pill-puerto-rico-pill-trials/ |access-date=2025-04-05 |website=www.pbs.org |language=en}} The place of the trials was also facilitated by Puerto Rico’s ambiguous political relationship to the United States. Furthermore, Puerto Rican women were already practicing other forms of birth control, thus Pincus established these trials to expand accessible contraceptives and develop an oral pill. Trials began in Rio Piedras in 1956, and women were offered the pill, developed and named Envoid in 1960, on the basis that it prevented pregnancy without knowing the pills were unapproved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States. Dr. Edris Rice-Wray, a professor at the Puerto Rico Medical School was aware and vocal of the negative side effects of the pill.{{Cite journal |last=Lenharo |first=Mariana |date=2024-04-24 |title=Las Borinqueñas remembers the forgotten Puerto Rican women who tested the first pill |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01175-5 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=629 |issue=8010 |pages=32–33 |doi=10.1038/d41586-024-01175-5|pmid=38658720 |bibcode=2024Natur.629...32L |url-access=subscription }} However, the side effects were dismissed without further testing on the safety of the contraceptive.

Today, this event still affects many Puerto Rican women with reproductive health complications and permanent sterilization as a consequence of the trials. Although these trials do not follow modern medical ethic practices, these trials spearheaded the development of the first oral contraceptive and currently propel the establishment of equity rubrics and further medical ethics research in the field of gynecology.{{Cite journal |last1=Batman |first1=Samantha |last2=Rivlin |first2=Katherine |last3=Robinson |first3=Whitney |last4=Brown |first4=Oluwateniola |last5=Carter |first5=Ebony B. |last6=Lindo |first6=Edwin |date=2023-10-01 |title=A Rubric to Center Equity in Obstetrics and Gynecology Research |journal=Obstetrics and Gynecology |volume=142 |issue=4 |pages=772–778 |doi=10.1097/AOG.0000000000005336 |issn=1873-233X |pmc=10510789 |pmid=37678908}} The women affected by these trials have been outspoken about their experiences with forced sterilization and birth control trials through a variety of medias, such as interviews, books, and documentaries like La Operación by Ana Maria Garcia.

File:Gynaecology-1822.jpg has long inhibited the science of gynaecology. This 1822 drawing by Jacques-Pierre Maygrier shows a "compromise" procedure, in which the physician is kneeling before the woman but cannot see her genitalia. Modern gynaecology no longer uses such a position.{{Cite web |last=Modesty |first=Medical Patient |title=History of Modern Gynecology |url=https://patientmodesty.org/moderngynecologyhistory.aspx |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250226210059/http://patientmodesty.org/moderngynecologyhistory.aspx |archive-date=2025-02-26 |access-date=2025-04-13 |website=patientmodesty.org}}]]

In some countries, women must first see a general practitioner (GP; also known as a family practitioner (FP)) prior to seeing a gynaecologist. If their condition requires training, knowledge, surgical procedure, or equipment unavailable to the GP, the patient is then referred to a gynaecologist. In other countries, laws may allow patients to see gynaecologists without a referral. Some gynaecologists provide primary care in addition to aspects of their own specialty.{{Cite journal |last1=Beyer |first1=M |last2=Gerlach |first2=Fm |last3=Flies |first3=U |last4=Grol |first4=R |last5=Król |first5=Z |last6=Munck |first6=A |last7=Olesen |first7=F |last8=O’Riordan |first8=M |last9=Seuntjens |first9=L |last10=Szecsenyi |first10=J |date=August 2003 |title=The development of quality circles/peer review groups as a method of quality improvement in Europe. |url=https://academic.oup.com/fampra/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/fampra/cmg420 |journal=Family Practice |language=en |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=443–451 |doi=10.1093/fampra/cmg420 |pmid=12876119 |issn=1460-2229}} With this option available, some women opt to see a gynaecological surgeon for non-gynaecological problems without another physician's referral.

As in all of medicine, the main tools of diagnosis are clinical history, examination and investigations.{{Citation |last1=Balogh |first1=Erin P. |title=The Diagnostic Process |date=2015-12-29 |work=Improving Diagnosis in Health Care |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK338593/ |access-date=2025-04-13 |publisher=National Academies Press (US) |language=en |last2=Miller |first2=Bryan T. |last3=Ball |first3=John R. |last4=Care |first4=Committee on Diagnostic Error in Health |last5=Services |first5=Board on Health Care |last6=Medicine |first6=Institute of |last7=The National Academies of Sciences |first7=Engineering}} Gynaecological examination is quite intimate, more so than a routine physical exam. It also requires unique instrumentation such as the speculum. The speculum consists of two hinged blades of concave metal or plastic which are used to retract the tissues of the vagina and permit examination of the cervix, the lower part of the uterus located within the upper portion of the vagina. Gynaecologists typically do a bimanual examination (one hand on the abdomen and one or two fingers in the vagina) to palpate the cervix, uterus, ovaries and bony pelvis.{{Citation |last=Long |first=W. Newton |title=Pelvic Examination |date=1990 |work=Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations |editor-last=Walker |editor-first=H. Kenneth |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK286/ |access-date=2025-04-13 |edition=3rd |place=Boston |publisher=Butterworths |isbn=978-0-409-90077-4 |pmid=21250129 |editor2-last=Hall |editor2-first=W. Dallas |editor3-last=Hurst |editor3-first=J. Willis}} It is not uncommon to do a rectovaginal examination for a complete evaluation of the pelvis, particularly if any suspicious masses are appreciated. Male gynaecologists may have a female chaperone for their examination. An abdominal or vaginal ultrasound can be used to confirm any abnormalities appreciated with the bimanual examination or when indicated by the patient's history.{{Citation |last1=Karena |first1=Zalak V. |title=Sonography Female Pelvic Pathology Assessment, Protocols, and Interpretation |date=2025 |work=StatPearls |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK585034/ |access-date=2025-04-13 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=36251809 |last2=Mehta |first2=Aditya D.}}

{{Main|Female genital disease}}

Examples of conditions dealt with by a gynaecologist are:

• Cancer and pre-cancerous diseases of the reproductive organs including ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina, and vulva
• Incontinence of urine{{cite book | last = Ackley | first = Betty | name-list-style = vanc | title = Nursing diagnosis handbook : an evidence-based guide to planning care |edition=9th| publisher = Mosby | location = Maryland Heights, Mo | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-0-323-07150-5 }}{{page needed|date=November 2024}}
• Amenorrhoea (absent menstrual periods)
• Endometriosis
• Dysmenorrhoea (painful menstrual periods)
• Infertility{{cite web|url= https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/infertility/|title= Infertility|website= The Lecturio Medical Concept Library|access-date= 27 August 2021|archive-date= 27 August 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210827025910/https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/infertility/|url-status= live}}
• Menorrhagia (heavy menstrual periods); a common{{Cite journal |last=van der Meij |first=Eva |last2=Emanuel |first2=Mark Hans |date=January 2016 |title=Hysterectomy for heavy menstrual bleeding |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5779572/ |journal=Women's Health (London, England) |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=63–69 |doi=10.2217/whe.15.87 |issn=1745-5065 |pmc=5779572 |pmid=26756830}} indication for hysterectomy when other treatments have failed
• Prolapse of pelvic organs
• Infections of the vagina (vaginitis), cervix and uterus (including fungal, bacterial, viral, and protozoal)
• Pelvic inflammatory disease{{Cite web |title=What Is Pelvic Inflammatory Disease? |url=https://www.webmd.com/women/guide/what-is-pelvic-inflammatory-disease |access-date=2022-04-24 |website=WebMD |language=en |archive-date=2022-03-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324055416/https://www.webmd.com/women/guide/what-is-pelvic-inflammatory-disease |url-status=live }}
• Urinary tract infections
• Polycystic ovary syndrome
• Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
• Post-menopausal osteoporosis
• Other vaginal diseases

There is some crossover in these areas. For example, a woman with urinary incontinence may be referred to a urologist.

As with all surgical specialties, gynaecologists may employ medical or surgical therapies (or many times, both), depending on the exact nature of the problem that they are treating. Pre- and post-operative medical management will often employ many standard drug therapies, such as antibiotics, diuretics, antihypertensives, and antiemetics. Additionally, gynaecologists make frequent use of specialized hormone-modulating therapies (such as Clomifene citrate and hormonal contraception) to treat disorders of the female genital tract that are responsive to pituitary or gonadal signals.

{{For|lists of gynaecological drugs (by the ATC classification system)|ATC code G01|ATC code G02}}

Surgery, however, is the mainstay of gynaecological therapy. For historical and political reasons, gynaecologists were previously not considered "surgeons", although this point has always been the source of some controversy. Modern advancements in both general surgery and gynaecology, however, have blurred many of the once rigid lines of distinction. The rise of sub-specialties within gynaecology which are primarily surgical in nature (for example urogynaecology and gynaecological oncology) have strengthened the reputations of gynaecologists as surgical practitioners, and many surgeons and surgical societies have come to view gynaecologists as comrades of sorts. As proof of this changing attitude, gynaecologists are now eligible for fellowship in both the American College of Surgeons and Royal Colleges of Surgeons, and many newer surgical textbooks include chapters on (at least basic) gynaecological surgery.

Some of the more common operations that gynaecologists perform include:{{cite web|title=Obstetrics and Gynecology Specialty Description|publisher=American Medical Association|url=https://www.ama-assn.org/specialty/obstetrics-and-gynecology-specialty-description|access-date=24 October 2020|archive-date=28 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028210552/https://www.ama-assn.org/specialty/obstetrics-and-gynecology-specialty-description|url-status=live}}

1. Dilation and curettage (removal of the uterine contents for various reasons, including completing a partial miscarriage and diagnostic sampling for dysfunctional uterine bleeding refractive to medical therapy)
2. Hysterectomy (removal of the uterus)
3. Oophorectomy (removal of the ovaries)
4. Tubal ligation (a type of permanent sterilization)
5. Hysteroscopy (inspection of the uterine cavity)
6. Diagnostic laparoscopy – used to diagnose and treat sources of pelvic and abdominal pain. Laparoscopy is the only way to accurately diagnose pelvic/abdominal endometriosis.{{cite journal | vauthors = Nisenblat V, Bossuyt PM, Farquhar C, Johnson N, Hull ML | title = Imaging modalities for the non-invasive diagnosis of endometriosis | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2016 | pages = CD009591 | date = February 2016 | issue = 2 | pmid = 26919512 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.cd009591.pub2 | pmc = 7100540 }}
7. Exploratory laparotomy – may be used to investigate the level of progression of benign or malignant disease, or to assess and repair damage to the pelvic organs.
8. Various surgical treatments for urinary incontinence, including cystoscopy and sub-urethral slings.
9. Surgical treatment of pelvic organ prolapse, including correction of cystocele and rectocele.
10. Appendectomy – often performed to remove site of painful endometriosis implantation or prophylactically (against future acute appendicitis) at the time of hysterectomy or Caesarean section. May also be performed as part of a staging operation for ovarian cancer.
11. Cervical Excision Procedures (including cryosurgery) – removal of the surface of the cervix containing pre-cancerous cells which have been previously identified on Pap smear.

Newer advancements in gynecology are using integration of artificial intellignece (AI) in clinical practice, specifically with diagnostics and predictive analytics. AI algorithms are able to interpret complex gynecological imaging and pathology data, which improves diagnostic accuracy. These technologies are especially used in identifying cervical and ovarian cancers and predicting treatment outcomes.Sufriyana, H., Wu, Y. W., Su, E. C. Y. (2024). Artificial Intelligence–Assisted Gynecology: Emerging Applications and Future Directions. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 13(4), 1061. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13041061

In terms of surgery, research has led to minimally invasive approaches, such as vaginal natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (vNOTES). This technique allows surgeons to access the pelvic cavity through the vaginal canal, reducing recovery times, postoperative pain, and complication rates in comparison to traditional methods.Dückelmann, A. M., & Maia, L. (2023). vNOTES in Modern Gynecology: A Review of Current Evidence and Outcomes. Healthcare, 13(7), 720. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13070720

{{Infobox Occupation

| name= Gynaecologist

| image=

| caption=

| official_names=

• Physician
• Surgeon

| type= Specialty

| activity_sector= Medicine, Surgery

| competencies=

| formation=

• Doctor of Medicine (M.D.)
• Doctor of Osteopathic medicine (D.O.)
• Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (M.B.B.S.)
• Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBChB)

| employment_field= Hospitals, Clinics

| related_occupation=

}}In the United Kingdom, the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, based in London, encourages the study and advancement of both the science and practice of obstetrics and gynaecology. This is done through postgraduate medical education and training development, and the publication of clinical guidelines and reports on aspects of the specialty and service provision. The RCOG International Office works with other international organisations to help lower maternal morbidity and mortality in under-resourced countries.{{Cite web |title=RCOG strategy |url=https://www.rcog.org.uk/about-us/what-we-do/rcog-strategy/ |access-date=2025-02-28 |website=RCOG |language=en-gb}}

In the United States, obstetrics and gynecology requires residency training for four years. This encompasses comprehensive clinical and surgical education. OBGYN residents participate in a yearly in-training exam that is administered by the Council on Resident Education in Obstetrics and Gynecology (CREOG). Research suggests that combining curriculum and focused mentorship can improve residents' performance on the exam and overall educational outcomes.{{Cite journal |last1=Lundeberg |first1=Kathleen R |last2=Madison |first2=Shannon |last3=Lo |first3=Nancy |last4=Maxwell |first4=Rose |last5=Massengill |first5=Jason |date=2024-11-01 |title=Resident Performance on the Obstetrics and Gynecology In-Training Examination After Implementation of a New Academic Curriculum |journal=Cureus |volume=16 |issue=11 |pages=e72861 |language=en |doi=10.7759/cureus.72861 |doi-access=free |issn=2168-8184 |pmc=11610421 |pmid=39624527}}

Gynaecologic oncology is a subspecialty of gynaecology, dealing with gynaecology-related cancer. Procedures in this field include surgery for endometrial cancer, ovarian cancer, pelvic masses, and vulvar disease.{{Cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=Chere M. L. |last2=Wheeler |first2=Thomas L. |last3=Markland |first3=Alayne D. |last4=Straughn |first4=J. Michael |last5=Richter |first5=Holly E. |date=December 2009 |title=Life-space assessment in urogynecology and gynecological oncology surgery patients: a measure of perioperative mobility and function |journal=Journal of the American Geriatrics Society |volume=57 |issue=12 |pages=2263–2268 |doi=10.1111/j.1532-5415.2009.02557.x |issn=1532-5415 |pmc=3252022 |pmid=19874406}}

Urogynaecology is a subspecialty of gynaecology and urology dealing with urinary or fecal incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse.

Improved access to education and the professions in recent decades has seen women gynaecologists outnumber men in the once male-dominated medical field of gynaecology.{{cite news |last1=Groves |first1=Nancy |title=From Past to Present: The Changing Demographics of Women in Medicine |url=https://www.aao.org/young-ophthalmologists/yo-info/article/from-past-to-present-changing-demographics-of-wome |work=Ophthalmology Times |publisher=American Academy of Ophthalmology |date=February 2008 }} In some gynaecological sub-specialties, where an over-representation of males persists, income discrepancies appear to show male practitioners earning higher averages.{{cite press release |title=Women dominate ob/gyn field but make less money than male counterparts |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/04/190401115815.htm |work=ScienceDaily |publisher=University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus |date=1 April 2019 }}

Speculations on the decreased numbers of male gynaecologist practitioners report a perceived lack of respect from within the medical profession, limited future employment opportunities and questions to the motivations and character of men who choose the medical field concerned with female sexual organs.{{cite web |last=More |first=Dr Ashwin |date=2013-12-04 |title=Why Are Men Gynaecologists? |url=https://akhandajyotihospital.com/why-are-men-gynecologists |access-date=2014-06-24 |website=Akhandajyoti Multispeciality Hospital, Nashik}}{{cite web|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/witw/articles/2013/12/09/are-male-gynecologists-creepy.html|title=Are Male Gynecologists Creepy?|website=The Daily Beast|date=2013-12-09|access-date=2014-06-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627050712/http://www.thedailybeast.com/witw/articles/2013/12/09/are-male-gynecologists-creepy.html|archive-date=2014-06-27|url-status=dead}}{{cite journal |last1=Gerber |first1=Susan E. |last2=Lo Sasso |first2=Anthony T. |title=The evolving gender gap in general obstetrics and gynecology |journal=American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology |date=November 2006 |volume=195 |issue=5 |pages=1427–1430 |doi=10.1016/j.ajog.2006.07.043 |pmid=17074550 }}{{cite news |last1=Kornfield |first1=Meryl |title=New York OB/GYN Robert Hadden indicted on federal charges of sexual assault |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/09/09/robert-hadden-sexual-assault-indictment/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=9 September 2020 }}{{cite web|url=https://www.cosmopolitan.com/sex-love/news/a36311/kurt-froehlich-g-spot-gyno-barred/|title=Gynecologist Loses License After Having Sex With Patients Who Asked About G-Spots Dr. Kurt Froelich assaulted patients in his office and the hospital.|date=2015-02-10|access-date=2020-10-22|archive-date=2020-11-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112021129/https://www.cosmopolitan.com/sex-love/news/a36311/kurt-froehlich-g-spot-gyno-barred/|url-status=live}}

Surveys of women's views on the issue of male doctors conducting intimate examinations show a large and consistent majority found it uncomfortable, were more likely to be embarrassed and less likely to talk openly or in detail about personal information, or discuss their sexual history with a man. The findings raised questions about the ability of male gynaecologists to offer quality care to patients.{{cite journal |title= Do patients talk differently to male and female physicians?: A meta-analytic review |date=2002-12-02 |doi=10.1016/S0738-3991(02)00174-X |pmid=12477606 |volume=48 |journal=Patient Education and Counseling |pages=217–224 |author=Hall Judith A, Roter Debra L|issue=3 }} This, when coupled with more women choosing female physicians{{cite journal |last1=Schnatz |first1=Peter F. |last2=Murphy |first2=Jessica L. |last3=O’Sullivan |first3=David M. |last4=Sorosky |first4=Joel I. |title=Patient choice: comparing criteria for selecting an obstetrician-gynecologist based on image, gender, and professional attributes |journal=American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology |date=November 2007 |volume=197 |issue=5 |pages=548.e1–548.e7 |doi=10.1016/j.ajog.2007.07.025 |pmid=17980206 }} has decreased the employment opportunities for men choosing to become gynaecologists.{{cite web|url=http://www.cvtips.com/career-choice/career-trends-for-obgyn-physician-jobs.html|title=Career Trends for OB/GYN Physician Jobs|access-date=2014-06-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217124053/http://www.cvtips.com/career-choice/career-trends-for-obgyn-physician-jobs.html|archive-date=2014-12-17|url-status=dead}}

In the United States, it has been reported that four in five students choosing a residency in gynaecology are now female.{{cite web

|url = https://www.apgo.org/2013/PP19.pdf

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141217130413/https://www.apgo.org/2013/PP19.pdf

|url-status = dead

|archive-date = 2014-12-17

|title = Enhancing the Representation of Women as Senior Leaders in Obstetrics and Gynaecology

|access-date = 2014-06-24

}} In several places in Sweden, to comply with discrimination laws, patients may not choose a doctor—regardless of specialty—based on factors such as ethnicity or gender and declining to see a doctor solely because of preference regarding e.g. the practitioner's skin color or gender may legally be viewed as refusing care.{{cite web

|url=http://www.salon.com/2007/01/29/sweden_6/

|title=Discrimination against male gynaecologists? Swedish clinics ban women from choosing female doctors.

|date=2007-01-29

|access-date=2014-06-24

|archive-date=2018-06-23

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623114807/https://www.salon.com/2007/01/29/sweden_6/

|url-status=live

}}{{cite journal |last1=Trysell |first1=Katrin |date=11 April 2018 |title=Byta doktor ingen rättighet |trans-title=Switching Doctor Not a Right |language=sv |url=http://lakartidningen.se/Aktuellt/Nyheter/2018/04/Byta-doktor-ingen-rattighet/ |journal=Läkartidningen |access-date=25 April 2018 |archive-date=26 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426174234/http://lakartidningen.se/Aktuellt/Nyheter/2018/04/Byta-doktor-ingen-rattighet/ |url-status=live }} In Turkey, due to patient preference to be seen by another female, there are now few male gynaecologists working in the field.{{cite web|url=http://www.pangeatoday.com/male-gynaecologist-in-turkey-dying-profession/ |title=Male Gynaecologist in Turkey: Dying profession? |date=2014-05-22 |access-date=2014-06-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083220/http://www.pangeatoday.com/male-gynaecologist-in-turkey-dying-profession/ |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}

There have been a number of legal challenges in the US against healthcare providers who have started hiring based on the gender of physicians. Mircea Veleanu argued, in part, that his former employers discriminated against him by accommodating the wishes of female patients who had requested female doctors for intimate exams.{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/07/us/women-s-health-is-no-longer-a-man-s-world.html |title= Women's Health Is No Longer a Man's World |newspaper= The New York Times |date= 2001-02-07 |access-date= 2014-07-14 |last1= Lewin |first1= Tamar |archive-date= 2018-07-04 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180704093700/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/07/us/women-s-health-is-no-longer-a-man-s-world.html |url-status= live }} A male nurse complained about an advert for an all-female obstetrics and gynaecology practice in Columbia, Maryland, claiming this was a form of sexual discrimination.{{cite web |url=http://www.baltimoresun.com/health/bs-hs-women-doctors-20140202,0,3198562.story |title=Nurse questions all-female OB-GYN practice |date=2014-02-02 |access-date=2014-07-14 |archive-date=2014-04-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140404032042/http://www.baltimoresun.com/health/bs-hs-women-doctors-20140202,0,3198562.story |url-status=live |last1=Sun |first1=Baltimore }} In 2000, David Garfinkel, a New Jersey-based OB-GYN, sued his former employer{{Cite web |title=DAVID A. GARFINKEL, M.D. v. MORRISTOWN OBSTETRICS and GYNECOLOGY ASSOCIATES, P.A., et al. |url=https://law.justia.com/cases/new-jersey/appellate-division-published/2000/a3326-98-opn.html |access-date=2023-08-09 |website=Justia Law |language=en}} after being fired due to, as he claimed, "because I was male, I wasn't drawing as many patients as they'd expected".

{{See also|Gynecologic cancer disparities in the United States}}

Significant health disparities persist in gynecology, disproportionately affecting women of color, low-income women, and those living in rural areas.{{Cite web |title=Racial and Ethnic Inequities in Obstetrics and Gynecology |url=https://www.acog.org/clinical/clinical-guidance/committee-statement/articles/2024/09/racial-and-ethnic-inequities-in-obstetrics-and-gynecology |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=www.acog.org |language=en}} Black, Indigenous, and Latina women face higher rates of maternal mortality, cervical cancer, and untreated reproductive health conditions compared to white women, often due to systemic racism, implicit bias in healthcare, and limited access to quality medical services.{{Cite journal |last1=Chatterjee |first1=Sudeshna |last2=Gupta |first2=Divya |last3=Caputo |first3=Thomas A. |last4=Holcomb |first4=Kevin |date=2016 |title=Disparities in Gynecological Malignancies |journal=Frontiers in Oncology |volume=6 |pages=36 |doi=10.3389/fonc.2016.00036 |doi-access=free |issn=2234-943X |pmc=4761838 |pmid=26942126}} These disparities are compounded by barriers such as lack of insurance, transportation challenges, and restrictive state policies around reproductive care. Additionally, marginalized groups are less likely to have their pain and symptoms taken seriously by providers, leading to delayed diagnoses and worse outcomes.{{Cite web |title=Maternal Mortality among Black Women in the United States |url=https://ballardbrief.byu.edu/issue-briefs/maternal-mortality-among-black-women-in-the-united-states |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=Ballard Brief |language=en-US}}

Addressing these gaps requires not only expanding access to comprehensive gynecologic care but also dismantling structural inequities that have long shaped women’s health in America. Furthermore, having physicians practice cultural humility, a life-long reflection where a physician not only partakes in the learning of other's cultures but also in the biases of the physician's own culture and teachings, helps battle systemic health inequalities.

• Obstetrics and gynaecology
• Howard Atwood Kelly
• Childbirth and obstetrics in antiquity
• Genital schistosomiasis
• Hydatidiform mole
• Gynography
• List of bacterial vaginosis microbiota
• Pediatric gynaecology

{{Reflist|30em}}

• [https://www.britannica.com/science/human-reproductive-system/The-female-reproductive-system The Female Reproductive System] – Encyclopædia Britannica
• {{cite book |editor1-last=Rowland |editor1-first=Beryl |title=Medieval Woman's Guide to Health: The First English Gynecological Handbook |date=1981 |publisher=Kent State University Press |location=Kent, OH |isbn=9780873382434}}

{{wiktionary|gynecology|gynaecology}}

{{commons category|Gynaecology}}

• [https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20170405144645/http://www.ingenious.org.uk/See/Medicineandhealth/Obstetricsgynaecologyandcontraception/ Ingenious]: archive of historical images related to obstetrics, gynaecology, and contraception.
• [http://www.womenshealth.gov U.S. Federal Government Website for Women's Health Information].

{{Medicine}}

{{Reproductive health}}

{{Sex}}

{{Human sexuality}}

{{Authority control}}