Health effects of wine#Moderate consumption

{{See also|Alcohol consumption recommendations}}

File:Glass of unidentified red wine.jpg

Nearly all research into the positive medical benefits of wine consumption makes a distinction between moderate consumption and heavy or binge drinking. Moderate levels of consumption vary by the individual according to age, sex, genetics, weight and body stature, as well as situational conditions, such as food consumption or use of drugs. In general, women absorb alcohol more quickly than men due to their lower body water content, so their moderate levels of consumption may be lower than those for a male of equal age.{{rp|341–2}} Some experts define "moderate consumption" as less than one {{convert|5|USoz|ml|adj=on}} glass of wine per day for women and two glasses per day for men.{{cite web | veditors = Shuman TC |url=http://www.webmd.com/heart-disease/guide/heart-disease-alcohol-your-heart |title=Alcohol and Heart disease |publisher=WebMD |date=October 1, 2005}}

The view of consuming wine in moderation has a history recorded as early as the Greek poet Eubulus (360 BC) who believed that three bowls (kylix) were the ideal amount of wine to consume. The number of three bowls for moderation is a common theme throughout Greek writing; today the standard 750 ml wine bottle contains roughly the volume of three kylix cups (250 ml or 8 fl oz each).{{cite book | vauthors = Johnson H | title = Vintage: The Story of Wine | pages = [https://archive.org/details/vintagestoryofwi00john/page/35 35–46] | publisher = Simon and Schuster | date = 1989 | isbn = 978-0-671-68702-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/vintagestoryofwi00john/page/35 }} However, the kylix cups would have contained a diluted wine, at a 1:2 or 1:3 dilution with water. In his circa 375 BC play Semele or Dionysus, Eubulus has Dionysus say:

{{cquote|Three bowls do I mix for the temperate: one to health, which they empty first, the second to love and pleasure, the third to sleep. When this bowl is drunk up, wise guests go home. The fourth bowl is ours no longer, but belongs to violence; the fifth to uproar, the sixth to drunken revel, the seventh to black eyes, the eighth is the policeman's, the ninth belongs to biliousness, and the tenth to madness and hurling the furniture.Eubulus. Semele or Dionysus, fr. 93.}}

Emerging evidence suggests that "even drinking within the recommended limits may increase the overall risk of death from various causes".{{cite web |title=Facts about moderate drinking {{!}} CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/fact-sheets/moderate-drinking.htm |publisher=CDC |access-date=24 April 2022 |language=en-us |date=19 April 2022}} A 2018 systematic analysis found that "The level of alcohol consumption that minimised harm across health outcomes was zero (95% UI 0·0–0·8) standard drinks per week".{{cite journal | vauthors = Griswold MG, Fullman N, Hawley C, Arian N, Zimsen SR, Tymeson HD |title=Alcohol use and burden for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016 |journal=The Lancet |date=22 September 2018 |volume=392 |issue=10152 |pages=1015–1035 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31310-2 |pmid=30146330 |pmc=6148333 |language=English |issn=0140-6736}} On the other hand, a 2020 USDA systematic review found that "low average consumption was associated with lower risk of mortality compared with never drinking status".{{Cite book |last1=Mayer-Davis |first1=Elizabeth |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK579065/ |title=Alcohol Consumption and All-Cause Mortality: A Systematic Review |last2=Leidy |first2=Heather |last3=Mattes |first3=Richard |last4=Naimi |first4=Timothy |last5=Novotny |first5=Rachel |last6=Schneeman |first6=Barbara |last7=Kingshipp |first7=Brittany James |last8=Spill |first8=Maureen |last9=Cole |first9=Natasha Chong |date=2020 |publisher=USDA Nutrition Evidence Systematic Review |series=USDA Nutrition Evidence Systematic Reviews |location=Alexandria (VA) |pmid=35353467}} As of 2022, "moderate" consumption is usually defined in average consumption per day while the patterns of consumption vary and may have implications for risks and effects on health (such as habituation from daily consumption or nonlinear dosage-harm associations from intermittent excessive alcohol use). According to the CDC, it would be important to focus on the amount people drink on the days that they drink.

{{Further|Long-term effects of alcohol consumption|Alcohol education}}

Heavy alcohol consumption has been shown to have a damaging effect on the cellular processes that create bone tissue, and long-term alcoholic consumption at high levels increases the frequency of fractures.{{cite journal | vauthors = Walker-Bone K | title = Recognizing and treating secondary osteoporosis | journal = Nature Reviews. Rheumatology | volume = 8 | issue = 8 | pages = 480–92 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22782006 | doi = 10.1038/nrrheum.2012.93 | s2cid = 12292033 }} A 2012 study found no relation between wine consumption and bone mineral density.{{cite journal | vauthors = McLernon DJ, Powell JJ, Jugdaohsingh R, Macdonald HM | title = Do lifestyle choices explain the effect of alcohol on bone mineral density in women around menopause? | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 95 | issue = 5 | pages = 1261–9 | date = May 2012 | pmid = 22456655 | doi = 10.3945/ajcn.111.021600 | doi-access = free }}

{{See also|Alcohol and cancer}}

The International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization has classified alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen.{{cite book |title=Alcohol drinking |publisher=World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer |location=Lyon |year=1988 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/alcoholdrinking0044iarc/page/2 2–3] |isbn=978-92-832-1244-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/alcoholdrinking0044iarc/page/2 }}

{{See also|Alcohol and cardiovascular disease}}

File:Blood clot svg hariadhi.svgs associated with several cardiovascular diseases.]]

Professional cardiology associations recommend that people who are currently nondrinkers should abstain from drinking alcohol. Heavy drinkers have increased risk for heart disease, cardiac arrhythmias, hypertension, and elevated cholesterol levels.{{medical citation needed|date=August 2021}}

The alcohol in wine has anticoagulant properties that may limit blood clotting.{{cite journal |doi=10.5344/ajev.2011.11013 |title=Wine and Health: A Review |year=2011 | vauthors = Guilford JM, Pezzuto JM |journal=American Journal of Enology and Viticulture |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=471–86|doi-access=free }}

The risk of infection from the bacterium Helicobacter pylori, which is associated with gastritis and peptic ulcers, appears to be lower with moderate alcohol consumption.{{cite journal | vauthors = Brenner H, Berg G, Lappus N, Kliebsch U, Bode G, Boeing H | title = Alcohol consumption and Helicobacter pylori infection: results from the German National Health and Nutrition Survey | journal = Epidemiology | volume = 10 | issue = 3 | pages = 214–218 | date = May 1999 | pmid = 10230827 | doi = 10.1097/00001648-199905000-00004 | jstor = 3703585 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Liu SY, Han XC, Sun J, Chen GX, Zhou XY, Zhang GX | title = Alcohol intake and Helicobacter pylori infection: a dose-response meta-analysis of observational studies | journal = Infectious Diseases | volume = 48 | issue = 4 | pages = 303–309 | date = April 2016 | pmid = 26585858 | doi = 10.3109/23744235.2015.1113556 | s2cid = 30825790 }}

{{See also|Red wine headache}}

There are several potential causes of so-called "red wine headaches", including histamine and tannins from grape skin or other phenolic compounds in wine.{{cite web |title=Ask the doctor: What causes red wine headaches? |url=https://www.health.harvard.edu/diseases-and-conditions/what-causes-red-wine-headaches |publisher=Harvard Health Publishing, Harvard Medical School |access-date=15 May 2019 |date=2019 |archive-date=25 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725224220/https://www.health.harvard.edu/diseases-and-conditions/what-causes-red-wine-headaches |url-status=dead }} Sulfites – which are used as a preservative in wine – are unlikely to be a headache factor. Wine, like other alcoholic beverages, is a diuretic which promotes dehydration that can lead to headaches (such as the case often experienced with hangovers), indicating a need to maintain hydration when drinking wine and to consume in moderation. A 2017 review found that 22% of people experiencing migraine or tension headaches identified alcohol as a precipitating factor, and red wine as three times more likely to trigger a headache than beer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Davis-Martin RE, Polk AN, Smitherman TA | title = Alcohol Use as a Comorbidity and Precipitant of Primary Headache: Review and Meta-analysis | journal = Current Pain and Headache Reports | volume = 21 | issue = 10 | pages = 42 | date = August 2017 | pmid = 28844083 | doi = 10.1007/s11916-017-0642-8 | s2cid = 20870984 }}

{{See also|Apéritif and digestif|Alcohol and weight}}

File:Carracci - Der Bohnenesser.jpeg and may help reduce food intake by suppressing appetite.]]

{{cquote|Alcohol can stimulate the appetite so it is better to drink it with food. When alcohol is mixed with food, it can slow the stomach's emptying time and potentially decrease the amount of food consumed at the meal.{{cite web| vauthors = Zelman KM |author-link=Kathleen Zelman|date=January 26, 2005|title=Wine: How Much Is Good for You?|url=http://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/features/wine-how-much-is-good-for-you|publisher=WebMD}}}}

A {{convert|5|USfloz|mL|order=flip|abbr=off|adj=on}} serving of red or white wine provides about {{convert|120|to|130|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=off}} of food energy, while dessert wines provide more.{{cite web | vauthors = Hughes L |title=How Many Calories Are in Your Wine? |url=https://www.webmd.com/diet/features/how-many-calories-in-wine |publisher=WebMD |access-date=15 May 2019 |date=22 March 2017}} Most wines have an alcohol by volume (ABV) percentage of about 11%; the higher the ABV, the higher the energy content of a wine.

In 2008, researchers from Kingston University in London discovered red wineThe sample wine was declared to be "a Shiraz from Southeast Australia", although no specific vintage, producer or wine region was stated in the report. to contain high levels of toxic metals relative to other beverages in the sample. Although the metal ions, which included chromium, copper, iron, manganese, nickel, vanadium and zinc, were also present in other plant-based beverages, the sample wine tested significantly higher for all metal ions, especially vanadium.{{cite journal | vauthors = Hague T, Petroczi A, Andrews PL, Barker J, Naughton DP | title = Determination of metal ion content of beverages and estimation of target hazard quotients: a comparative study | journal = Chemistry Central Journal | volume = 2 | pages = 13 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18578877 | pmc = 2443149 | doi = 10.1186/1752-153X-2-13 | doi-access = free }} Risk assessment was calculated using "target hazard quotients" (THQ), a method of quantifying health concerns associated with lifetime exposure to chemical pollutants. Developed by the Environmental Protection Agency in the US and used mainly to examine seafood, a THQ of less than 1 represents no concern while, for example, mercury levels in fish calculated to have THQs of between 1 and 5 would represent cause for concern.{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang X, Sato T, Xing B, Tao S | title = Health risks of heavy metals to the general public in Tianjin, China via consumption of vegetables and fish | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 350 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 28–37 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16227070 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.09.044 | bibcode = 2005ScTEn.350...28W }}

The researchers stressed that a single glass of wine would not lead to metal poisoning, pointing out that their THQ calculations were based on the average person drinking one-third of a bottle of wine (250 ml) every day between the ages of 18 and 80. However the "combined THQ values" for metal ions in the red wine they analyzed were reported to be as high as 125. A subsequent study by the same university using a meta analysis of data based on wine samples from a selection of mostly European countries found equally high levels of vanadium in many red wines, showing combined THQ values in the range of 50 to 200, with some as high as 350.{{cite journal | vauthors = Naughton DP, Petróczi A | title = Heavy metal ions in wines: meta-analysis of target hazard quotients reveal health risks | journal = Chemistry Central Journal | volume = 2 | pages = 22 | date = October 2008 | pmid = 18973648 | pmc = 2628338 | doi = 10.1186/1752-153X-2-22 | doi-access = free }}

The findings sparked immediate controversy due to several issues: the study's reliance on secondary data; the assumption that all wines contributing to that data were representative of the countries stated; and the grouping together of poorly understood high-concentration ions, such as vanadium, with relatively low-level, common ions such as copper and manganese. Some publications pointed out that the lack of identifiable wines and grape varieties, specific producers or even wine regions, provided only misleading generalizations that should not be relied upon in choosing wines.[http://www.winespectator.com/webfeature/show/id/Study-of-Wines-Heavy-Metal-Hazard-Raises-Doubts-Among-Other-Experts_4444 Study of Wine's Heavy Metal Hazard Raises Doubts Among Other Experts] Wine Spectator, November 2008[http://www.nhs.uk/news/2008/10October/Pages/Metalsinwine.aspx Metal in wine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007104255/http://www.nhs.uk/news/2008/10October/Pages/Metalsinwine.aspx |date=2012-10-07 }}, UK NHS news bulletin, October 2008

In a news bulletin following the widespread reporting of the findings, the UK's National Health Service (NHS) were also concerned that "the way the researchers added together hazards from different metals to produce a final score for individual wines may not be particularly meaningful". Commentators in the US questioned the relevance of seafood-based THQ assessments to agricultural produce, with the TTB, responsible for testing imports for metal ion contamination, have not detected an increased risk. George Solas, quality assessor for the Canadian Liquor Control Board of Ontario (LCBO) claimed that the levels of heavy metal contamination reported were within the permitted levels for drinking water in tested reservoirs.

Whereas the NHS also described calls for improved wine labeling as an "extreme response" to research which provided "few solid answers", they acknowledged the authors call for further research to investigate wine production, including the influence that grape variety, soil type, geographical region, insecticides, containment vessels and seasonal variations may have on metal ion uptake.

Although red wine contains many chemicals under basic research for their potential health benefits, resveratrol has been particularly well studied and evaluated by regulatory authorities, such as the European Food Safety Authority and US Food and Drug Administration which identified it and other such phenolic compounds as not sufficiently understood to confirm their role as physiological antioxidants.{{cite journal|title=Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to various food(s)/food constituent(s) and protection of cells from premature aging, antioxidant activity, antioxidant content and antioxidant properties, and protection of DNA, proteins and lipids from oxidative damage pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/20061|journal = EFSA Journal|volume = 8|issue = 2|date=2010|doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1489|doi-access=free}}

{{Main article|Resveratrol}}

Red wine contains an average of 1.9 (±1.7) mg of trans-resveratrol per liter.{{cite journal | vauthors = Stervbo U, Vang O, Bonnesen C |title=A review of the content of the putative chemopreventive phytoalexin resveratrol in red wine |journal=Food Chemistry |date=1 January 2007 |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=449–457 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.01.047 |language=en |issn=0308-8146}} For comparison, dietary supplements of resveratrol (trans-resveratrol content varies) may contain as much as 500 mg.{{cite journal | vauthors = Galiniak S, Aebisher D, Bartusik-Aebisher D | title = Health benefits of resveratrol administration | journal = Acta Biochimica Polonica | volume = 66 | issue = 1 | pages = 13–21 | date = February 2019 | pmid = 30816367 | doi = 10.18388/abp.2018_2749 | s2cid = 73491480 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = García-Martínez BI, Ruiz-Ramos M, Pedraza-Chaverri J, Santiago-Osorio E, Mendoza-Núñez VM | title = Hypoglycemic Effect of Resveratrol: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | journal = Antioxidants | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 69 | date = January 2021 | pmid = 33430470 | doi = 10.3390/antiox10010069 | pmc = 7827898 | doi-access = free }}

Resveratrol is a stilbenoid phenolic compound found in wine produced in the grape skins and leaves of grape vines.{{rp|569}}

The production and concentration of resveratrol is not equal among all the varieties of wine grapes. Differences in clones, rootstock, Vitis species as well as climate conditions can affect the production of resveratrol. Also, because resveratrol is part of the defence mechanism in grapevines against attack by fungi or grape disease, the degree of exposure to fungal infection and grape diseases also appear to play a role. The Muscadinia family of vines, which has adapted over time through exposure to North American grape diseases such as phylloxera, has some of the highest concentrations of resveratrol among wine grapes. Among the European Vitis vinifera, grapes derived from the Burgundian Pinot family tend to have substantially higher amounts of resveratrol than grapes derived from the Cabernet family of Bordeaux. Wine regions with cooler, wetter climates that are more prone to grape disease and fungal attacks such as Oregon and New York tend to produce grapes with higher concentrations of resveratrol than warmer, dry climates like California and Australia.{{rp|569}}

Although red wine and white vine varieties produce similar amounts of resveratrol, red wine contains more than white, since red wines are produced by maceration (soaking the grape skins in the mash). Other winemaking techniques, such as the use of certain strains of yeast during fermentation or lactic acid bacteria during malolactic fermentation, can have an influence on the amount of resveratrol left in the resulting wines. Similarly, the use of certain fining agents during the clarification and stabilization of wine can strip the wine of some resveratrol molecules.{{rp|569}}

Red grapes are high in anthocyanins which are the source of the color of various fruits, such as red grapes. The darker the red wine, the more anthocyanins present.{{cite journal | vauthors = Muñoz-Espada AC, Wood KV, Bordelon B, Watkins BA | title = Anthocyanin quantification and radical scavenging capacity of Concord, Norton, and Marechal Foch grapes and wines | journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume = 52 | issue = 22 | pages = 6779–86 | date = November 2004 | pmid = 15506816 | doi = 10.1021/jf040087y | bibcode = 2004JAFC...52.6779M }}{{original research inline|date=July 2014}}

Typical concentrations of free anthocyanins in full-bodied young red wines are around 500 mg per liter.{{cite journal | vauthors = He F, Liang NN, Mu L, Pan QH, Wang J, Reeves MJ, Duan CQ | title = Anthocyanins and their variation in red wines I. Monomeric anthocyanins and their color expression | journal = Molecules | volume = 17 | issue = 2 | pages = 1571–1601 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 22314380 | doi = 10.3390/molecules17021571 | pmc = 6268338 | doi-access = free }} For comparison, 100 g of fresh bilberry contain 300–700 mg{{cite book | vauthors = Chu WK, Cheung SC, Lau RA, Benzie IF |title=Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects |date=2011 |publisher=CRC Press/Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-4398-0713-2 |edition=2nd |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92770/ |chapter=Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.)|pmid=22593936 }} and 100 g FW elderberry contain around 603–1265 mg.{{cite journal | vauthors = Veberic R, Jakopic J, Stampar F, Schmitzer V |title=European elderberry (Sambucus nigra L.) rich in sugars, organic acids, anthocyanins and selected polyphenols |journal=Food Chemistry |date=15 May 2009 |volume=114 |issue=2 |pages=511–515 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.09.080 |language=en |issn=0308-8146}}

Following dietary ingestion, anthocyanins undergo rapid and extensive metabolism that makes the biological effects presumed from in vitro studies unlikely to apply in vivo.{{citation |title= New Roles for Polyphenols. A 3-Part report on Current Regulations & the State of Science | vauthors = Gross P| work = Nutraceuticals World|date= March 1, 2009 |url= http://www.nutraceuticalsworld.com/issues/2009-03/view_features/new-roles-for-polyphenols/ }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Williams RJ, Spencer JP, Rice-Evans C | title = Flavonoids: antioxidants or signalling molecules? | journal = Free Radical Biology & Medicine | volume = 36 | issue = 7 | pages = 838–49 | date = April 2004 | pmid = 15019969 | doi = 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2004.01.001 }}

Although anthocyanins are under basic and early-stage clinical research for a variety of disease conditions, there exists no sufficient evidence that they have any beneficial effect in the human body. The US FDA has issued warning letters, e.g.,{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/ICECI/EnforcementActions/WarningLetters/ucm202832.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100304141530/http://www.fda.gov/ICECI/EnforcementActions/WarningLetters/ucm202832.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 4, 2010|title= Redco Foods, Inc.|date=22 February 2010|publisher=Wagner, RF, Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations, US FDA|access-date=10 November 2014}} to emphasize that anthocyanins are not a defined nutrient, cannot be assigned a dietary content level and are not regulated as a drug to treat any human disease.

{{See also|History of medicine}}

Early medicine was intimately tied with religion and the supernatural, with early practitioners often being priests and magicians. Wine's close association with ritual made it a logical tool for these early medical practices. Tablets from Sumeria and papyri from Egypt dating to 2200 BC include recipes for wine based medicines, making wine the oldest documented human-made medicine.{{rp|433}}

File:Hippocrates Light.JPG, the father of modern medicine, prescribed wine for a variety of ailments including lethargy and diarrhea.]]

File:De medicina V00117 00000006.tif

When the Greeks introduced a more systematized approach to medicine, wine retained its prominent role. The Greek physician Hippocrates considered wine a part of a healthy diet, and advocated its use as a disinfectant for wounds, as well as a medium in which to mix other drugs for consumption by the patient. He also prescribed wine as a cure for various ailments ranging from diarrhea and lethargy to pain during childbirth.{{rp|433}}

The medical practices of the Romans involved the use of wine in a similar manner. In his 1st-century work De Medicina, the Roman encyclopedist Aulus Cornelius Celsus detailed a long list of Greek and Roman wines used for medicinal purposes. While treating gladiators in Asia Minor, the Roman physician Galen would use wine as a disinfectant for all types of wounds, and even soaked exposed bowels before returning them to the body. During his four years with the gladiators, only five deaths occurred, compared to sixty deaths under the watch of the physician before him.{{cite journal | vauthors = Nutton V | title = The chronology of Galen's early career | journal = Classical Quarterly | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 158–71 | date = May 1973 | pmid = 11624046 | doi = 10.1017/S0009838800036600 | jstor = 638137 | s2cid = 35645790 }}

Religion still played a significant role in promoting wine's use for health. The Jewish Talmud noted wine to be "the foremost of all medicines: wherever wine is lacking, medicines become necessary." In his first epistle to Timothy, Paul the Apostle recommended that his young colleague drink a little wine every now and then for the benefit of his stomach and digestion. While the Islamic Koran contained restrictions on all alcohol, Islamic doctors such as the Persian Avicenna in the 11th century AD noted that wine was an efficient digestive aid but, because of the laws, were limited to use as a disinfectant while dressing wounds. Catholic monasteries during the Middle Ages also regularly used wine for medical treatments.{{rp|433}} So closely tied was the role of wine and medicine, that the first printed book on wine was written in the 14th century by a physician, Arnaldus de Villa Nova, with lengthy essays on wine's suitability for treatment of a variety of medical ailments such dementia and sinus problems.{{cite book | vauthors = Johnson H |title=Vintage: The Story of Wine |page=126 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=1989}}

The lack of safe drinking water may have been one reason for wine's popularity in medicine. Wine was still being used to sterilize water as late as the Hamburg cholera epidemic of 1892 in order to control the spread of the disease. However, the late 19th century and early 20th century ushered in a period of changing views on the role of alcohol and, by extension, wine in health and society. The Temperance movement began to gain steam by touting the ills of alcoholism, which was eventually defined by the medical establishment as a disease. Studies of the long- and Short-term effects of alcohol consumption caused many in the medical community to reconsider the role of wine in medicine and diet.{{rp|433}} Soon, public opinion turned against consumption of alcohol in any form, leading to Prohibition in the United States and other countries. In some areas, wine was able to maintain a limited role, such as an exemption from Prohibition in the United States for "therapeutic wines" that were sold legally in drug stores. These wines were marketed for their supposed medicinal benefits, but some wineries used this measure as a loophole to sell large quantities of wine for recreational consumption. In response, the United States government issued a mandate requiring producers to include an emetic additive that would induce vomiting above the consumption of a certain dosage level.

File:Château Lafite Rothschild and glass.jpgs, such as cheeses, may be offset by red wine consumption to lower the risk of heart disease.]]

Throughout the mid to early 20th century, health advocates pointed to the risk of alcohol consumption and the role it played in a variety of ailments such as blood disorders, high blood pressure, cancer, infertility, liver damage, muscle atrophy, psoriasis, skin infections, strokes, and long-term brain damage. Studies showed a connection between alcohol consumption among pregnant mothers and an increased risk of mental retardation and physical abnormalities in what became known as fetal alcohol syndrome, prompting the use of alcohol packaging warning messages in several countries.{{rp|341–2}}

{{main article|French paradox}}

The hypothesis of the French paradox assumes a low prevalence of heart disease due to the consumption of red wine despite a diet high in saturated fat.{{cite journal | vauthors = Haseeb S, Alexander B, Baranchuk A | title = Wine and Cardiovascular Health: A Comprehensive Review | journal = Circulation | volume = 136 | issue = 15 | pages = 1434–1448 | date = October 2017 | pmid = 28993373 | doi = 10.1161/circulationaha.117.030387 | s2cid = 26520546 | doi-access = free }} Although epidemiological studies indicate red wine consumption may support the French paradox, there is insufficient clinical evidence to confirm it, as of 2017.

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Health Effects Of Wine}}

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