saturated fat

{{short description|Fat in which the fatty acid chains have all or predominantly single bonds}}

A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acid chains have all single bonds between the carbon atoms. A fat known as a glyceride is made of two kinds of smaller molecules: a short glycerol backbone, and fatty acids that each contain a long linear or branched chain of carbon (C) atoms. Along the chain, some carbon atoms are linked by single bonds (-C-C-) and others are linked by double bonds (-C=C-).{{Cite book |last1=Reece |first1=Jane |url=https://archive.org/details/biologyc00camp/page/69 |title=Biology |last2=Campbell, Neil |publisher=Benjamin Cummings |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8053-6624-2 |location=San Francisco |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biologyc00camp/page/69 69–70] |url-access=registration}} A double bond along the carbon chain can react with a pair of hydrogen atoms to change into a single -C-C- bond, with each H atom now bonded to one of the two C atoms. Glyceride fats without any carbon chain double bonds are called saturated because they are "saturated with" hydrogen atoms, having no double bonds available to react with more hydrogen. In cellular metabolism, saturated fat molecules are more fluid and contain more energy (i.e., more calories) than an equivalent amount of unsaturated fat.

Most animal fats are saturated. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated. Various foods contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated. Many processed foods like foods deep-fried in hydrogenated oil and sausage are high in saturated fat content. Some store-bought baked goods are as well, especially those containing partially hydrogenated oils.{{Cite web |date=2014 |title=Saturated fats |url=http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/FatsAndOils/Fats101/Saturated-Fats_UCM_301110_Article.jsp |access-date=1 March 2014 |publisher=American Heart Association}}{{Cite web |date=2014 |title=Top food sources of saturated fat in the US |url=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/top-food-sources-of-saturated-fat-in-the-us/ |access-date=1 March 2014 |publisher=Harvard University School of Public Health}}{{Cite web |date=2020 |title=Saturated, Unsaturated, and Trans Fats |url=https://www.choosemyplate.gov/node/5664 |publisher=choosemyplate.gov}} Other examples of foods containing a high proportion of saturated fat and dietary cholesterol include animal fat products such as lard or schmaltz, fatty meats and dairy products made with whole or reduced fat milk like yogurt, ice cream, cheese and butter.{{Cite web |date=2020 |title=Saturated Fat |url=https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/fats/saturated-fats |publisher=American Heart Association}} Certain vegetable products have high saturated fat content, such as coconut oil and palm kernel oil.{{Cite web |year=2015 |title=What are "oils"? |url=http://www.choosemyplate.gov/food-groups/oils.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150609080528/http://www.choosemyplate.gov/food-groups/oils.html |archive-date=9 June 2015 |access-date=13 June 2015 |publisher=ChooseMyPlate.gov, US Department of Agriculture}}

Guidelines released by many medical organizations, including the World Health Organization, have advocated for reduction in the intake of saturated fat to promote health and reduce the risk from cardiovascular diseases.

Fat profiles

While nutrition labels regularly combine them, the saturated fatty acids appear in different proportions among food groups. Lauric and myristic acids are most commonly found in "tropical" oils (e.g., palm kernel, coconut) and dairy products. The saturated fat in meat, eggs, cacao, and nuts is primarily the triglycerides of palmitic and stearic acids.

class="wikitable sortable" \|+Saturated fat profile of common foods; Esterified fatty acids as percentage of total fat{{Cite web \|year=2007 \|title=USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20 \|url=http://www.ars.usda.gov/ba/bhnrc/ndl \|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120604173534/http://www.ars.usda.gov/ba/bhnrc/ndl \|archive-date=4 June 2012 \|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture}} ! style="width:120pt;"\| Food !! style="width:70pt;"\| Lauric acid !! style="width:70pt;"\| Myristic acid !! style="width:70pt;"\| Palmitic acid !! style="width:70pt;"\| Stearic acid
Coconut oil	47%	18%	9%	3%
Palm kernel oil	48%	1%	44%	5%
Butter	3%	11%	29%	13%
Ground beef	0%	4%	26%	15%
Salmon	0%	1%	29%	3%
Egg yolks	0%	0.3%	27%	10%
Cashews	2%	1%	10%	7%
Soybean oil	0%	0%	11%	4%
Cocoa butter{{Cite journal \|last=Kumar \|first=Vijay \|year=2014 \|title=Cocoa Butter and its Alternatives \|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308523494 \|journal=Journal of Bioresource Engineering and Technology \|volume=1 \|pages=7–17}}	1%	0–4%	24.5–33.7%	33.7–40.2%

Examples of saturated fatty acids

Some common examples of saturated fatty acids:

Lauric acid with 12 carbon atoms (contained in coconut oil, palm kernel oil, cow's milk, and breast milk)
Myristic acid with 14 carbon atoms (contained in cow's milk and dairy products)
Palmitic acid with 16 carbon atoms (contained in palm oil and meat)
Stearic acid with 18 carbon atoms (also contained in meat and cocoa butter)

{{Fat composition in different foods (table)|Food=Mustard oil|Saturated=11|Mono-unsaturated=59|Poly-unsaturated=21}}

Association with diseases

=Cardiovascular disease=

The effect of saturated fat on heart disease has been extensively studied.{{Cite journal |last1=Hooper |first1=Lee |last2=Martin |first2=Nicole |last3=Jimoh |first3=Oluseyi F. |last4=Kirk |first4=Christian |last5=Foster |first5=Eve |last6=Abdelhamid |first6=Asmaa S. |date=21 August 2020 |title=Reduction in saturated fat intake for cardiovascular disease |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2020 |issue=8 |pages=CD011737 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD011737.pub3 |pmc=8092457 |pmid=32827219}}{{cite book |last=Feingold |first=Kenneth R. |date=2024 |title=The Effect of Diet on Cardiovascular Disease and Lipid and Lipoprotein Levels |url= https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK570127/ |publisher=National Library of Medicine}} Saturated fat intake increases low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) concentrations. The American Heart Association have stated that "the scientific rationale for decreasing saturated fat in the diet has been and remains based on well-established effects of saturated fat to raise low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, a leading cause of atherosclerosis".

Many health authorities, such as the American Heart Association,{{Cite journal |vauthors=Sacks FM, Lichtenstein AH, Wu JH, Appel LJ, Creager MA, Kris-Etherton PM, Miller M, Rimm EB, Rudel LL, Robinson JG, Stone NJ, Van Horn LV |date=July 2017 |title=Dietary Fats and Cardiovascular Disease: A Presidential Advisory From the American Heart Association |journal=Circulation |volume=136 |issue=3 |pages=e1–e23 |doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510 |pmid=28620111 |doi-access=free |s2cid=367602}} the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics,{{Cite journal |vauthors=Kris-Etherton PM, Innis S |date=September 2007 |title=Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Dietary Fatty Acids |journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association |volume=107 |issue=9 |pages=1599–1611 [1603] |doi=10.1016/j.jada.2007.07.024 |pmid=17936958}} the British Dietetic Association,{{Cite web |title=Food Fact Sheet - Cholesterol |url=https://www.bda.uk.com/foodfacts/cholesterol.pdf |access-date=3 May 2012 |publisher=British Dietetic Association|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101122215655/https://www.bda.uk.com/foodfacts/cholesterol.pdf |archive-date=22 November 2010 }} the World Heart Federation,{{Cite web |date=30 May 2017 |title=Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors |url=http://www.world-heart-federation.org/cardiovascular-health/cardiovascular-disease-risk-factors |access-date=3 May 2012 |publisher=World Heart Federation}} the British National Health Service,{{Cite web |date=14 April 2020 |title=Fat: the facts |url=https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/food-types/different-fats-nutrition/ |publisher=National Health Service}} among others,{{Cite web |date=22 December 2009 |title=Nutrition Facts at a Glance – Nutrients: Saturated Fat |url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/LabelingNutrition/ConsumerInformation/ucm192658.htm |access-date=3 May 2012 |publisher=Food and Drug Administration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128112635/https://www.fda.gov/Food/LabelingNutrition/ConsumerInformation/ucm192658.htm |archive-date=28 January 2010 }}{{Cite web |date=25 March 2010 |title=Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for fats, including saturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, and cholesterol |url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1461 |access-date=3 May 2012 |publisher=European Food Safety Authority}} advise that saturated fat is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. In 2020, the World Health Organization recommended lowering dietary intake of saturated fats to less than 10% of total energy consumption, and increasing intake of unsaturated fats.{{Cite web |date=29 April 2020 |title=Healthy diet: key facts |url=https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/healthy-diet |access-date=6 July 2021 |publisher=World Health Organization}} There is moderate-quality evidence that reducing the proportion of saturated fat in the diet and replacing it with unsaturated fats or carbohydrates for a period of at least two years leads to a reduction in the risk of cardiovascular disease.

A 2017 review by the Sax Institute for the National Heart Foundation of Australia found that saturated fat consumption is associated with higher mortality and that replacement of saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat decreases risk of cardiovascular disease events and mortality.[https://web.archive.org/web/20231103221354/https://www.saxinstitute.org.au/wp-content/uploads/Dietary-fats-CVD-FINAL.pdf "Evidence Check: Dietary fats and cardiovascular disease"]. saxinstitute.org. Retrieved 25 October 2023. In 2019, the UK Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition concluded that higher saturated fat consumption is associated with raised blood cholesterol and increased risk of cardiovascular disease.{{Cite web |title=SACN's 'Saturated fats and health' Report |url=https://www.nutritionsociety.org/events/sacns-saturated-fats-and-health-report |access-date=30 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307033344/https://www.nutritionsociety.org/events/sacns-saturated-fats-and-health-report |archive-date=2023-03-07 |website=The Nutrition Society}}

A 2021 review found that diets high in saturated fat were associated with higher mortality from all causes, as well as from cardiovascular disease.{{Cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Y |last2=Youjin |first2=J |last3=Giovannucii |first3=EL |year=2021 |title=Association between dietary fat intake and mortality from all-causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies |journal=Clinical Nutrition |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=1060–1070 |doi=10.1016/j.clnu.2020.07.007 |pmid=32723506 |s2cid=220852791}}

A 2023 review by the World Health Organization found convincing evidence that higher saturated fat consumption is associated with higher coronary heart disease incidence and mortality.[https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/366301/9789240061668-eng.pdf "Saturated fat and trans-fat intakes and their replacement with other macronutrients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies"]. World Health Organization. Retrieved 16 March 2023.

A 2023 review by the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics found moderate certainty evidence to support reducing saturated fat intake for reduced risk of CVD and CVD events.{{cite journal|vauthors=Johnson SA, Kirkpatrick CF, Miller NH, Carson JA, Handu D, Moloney L|year=2023|title=Saturated Fat Intake and the Prevention and Management of Cardiovascular Disease in Adults: An Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Evidence-based Nutrition Practice Guideline|journal=Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2212267223012856|volume=S2212-2672|issue=23|pages=01285–6|doi=10.1016/j.jand.2023.07.017|pmid=37482268|s2cid=260103619 }}

A scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023 found that partial replacement of saturated fatty acid with omega-6 fatty acid decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease and improves the blood lipid profile.{{cite journal|author=Retterstøl K, Rosqvist F.|year=2024|title=Fat and fatty acids – a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023|journal=Food Nutr Res|url=https://foodandnutritionresearch.net/index.php/fnr/article/view/9980|volume=68|issue=|pages=|doi=10.29219/fnr.v68.9980|pmid=38327998|hdl=10852/114875|hdl-access=free}}

A 2024 meta-analysis found that odd-chain and longer-chain saturated fatty acids were negatively associated with the risk of cardiovascular disease, including stroke.{{cite journal |vauthors=Shi F, Chowdhury R, Sofianopoulou E, Koulman A, Sun L, Steur M, Aleksandrova K, Dahm CC, Schulze MB, van der Schouw YT, Agnoli C, Amiano P, Boer JM, Bork CS, Cabrera-Castro N, Eichelmann F, Elbaz A, Farràs M, Heath AK, Kaaks R, Katzke V, Keski-Rahkonen P, Masala G, Moreno-Iribas C, Panico S, Papier K, Petrova D, Quirós JR, Ricceri F, Severi G, Tjønneland A, Tong TY, Tumino R, Wareham N, Weiderpass E, Di Angelantonio E, Forouhi N, Danesh J, Butterworth AS, Kaptoge S |title=Association of circulating fatty acids with cardiovascular disease risk: Analysis of individual-level data in three large prospective cohorts and updated meta-analysis |journal=European Journal of Preventive Cardiology |date=October 2024 |pmid=39365172 |doi=10.1093/eurjpc/zwae315 |url=https://academic.oup.com/eurjpc/advance-article/doi/10.1093/eurjpc/zwae315/7810960|pmc=11832215 }}

=Dyslipidemia=

The consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia, which in turn is a risk factor for some types of cardiovascular disease.{{Cite web |title=Position Statement on Fat |url=http://www.fph.org.uk/uploads/ps_fat.pdf |access-date=25 January 2011}}{{Cite web |year=2003 |title=Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases |url=https://www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/who_fao_expert_report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030404172324/http://www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/who_fao_expert_report.pdf |archive-date=4 April 2003 |access-date=11 March 2011 |publisher=World Health Organization}}{{Cite web |title=Cholesterol |url=http://www.irishheart.ie/iopen24/cholesterol-t-7_20_87.html |access-date=28 February 2011 |publisher=Irish Heart Foundation}}{{Cite book |url=https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/dietaryguidelines2010.pdf |title=Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 |date=December 2010 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |edition=7th |location=Washington, DC}}{{Cite book |editor=Cannon C, O'Gara P |title=Critical Pathways in Cardiovascular Medicine|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7817-9439-8 |edition=2nd |page=243}}

Abnormal blood lipid levels {{ndash}} high total cholesterol, high levels of triglycerides, high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) or low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol {{ndash}} are associated with increased risk of heart disease and stroke.

Meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Clarke R, Frost C, Collins R, Appleby P, Peto R |year=1997 |title=Dietary lipids and blood cholesterol: quantitative meta-analysis of metabolic ward studies |journal=BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) |volume=314 |issue=7074 |pages=112–7 |doi=10.1136/bmj.314.7074.112 |pmc=2125600 |pmid=9006469}} High total cholesterol levels, which may be caused by many factors, are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Bucher HC, Griffith LE, Guyatt GH |date=February 1999 |title=Systematic review on the risk and benefit of different cholesterol-lowering interventions |journal=Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=187–195 |doi=10.1161/01.atv.19.2.187 |pmid=9974397 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |vauthors=Lewington S, Whitlock G, Clarke R, Sherliker P, Emberson J, Halsey J, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R |date=December 2007 |title=Blood cholesterol and vascular mortality by age, sex, and blood pressure: a meta-analysis of individual data from 61 prospective studies with 55,000 vascular deaths |journal=Lancet |volume=370 |issue=9602 |pages=1829–39 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61778-4 |pmid=18061058 |s2cid=54293528}}

There are other pathways involving obesity, triglyceride levels, insulin sensitivity, endothelial function, and thrombogenicity, among others, that play a role in cardiovascular disease. Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels.{{Cite book |title=Atherosclerosis: Diet and Drugs |vauthors=Thijssen MA, Mensink RP |publisher=Springer |year=2005 |isbn=978-3-540-22569-0 |series=Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology |volume=170 |pages=165–94 |chapter=Fatty acids and atherosclerotic risk |doi=10.1007/3-540-27661-0_5 |pmid=16596799 |issue=170}} There is strong evidence that lauric, myristic, and palmitic acids raise LDL-C, while stearic acid is more neutral.{{Cite book |last=Gropper |first=Sareen S. |title=Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-305-62785-7 |edition=Seventh |location=Boston |page=153}}

=Type 2 diabetes=

A 2022 review of cohort studies found that the risk of type 2 diabetes was not associated with dietary intake of total saturated fats, palmitic acid, and stearic acid. Dietary lauric acid and myristic acid, present in plant oils and also in dairy fat, were associated with reduced risk of diabetes.{{Cite journal |last1=Gaeini |first1=Zahra |last2=Bahadoran |first2=Zahra |last3=Mirmiran |first3=Parvin |date=3 September 2022 |title=Saturated Fatty Acid Intake and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: An Updated Systematic Review and Dose–Response Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies |journal=Advances in Nutrition |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=2125–2135 |doi=10.1093/advances/nmac071 |pmid=36056919|pmc=9776642 }}

=Cancer=

{{further|Epidemiology and etiology of breast cancer#Specific dietary fatty acids}}

Several reviews of case–control studies have found that saturated fat intake is associated with breast cancer risk and mortality.{{Cite journal |last1=Xia |first1=H |last2=Ma |first2=S |last3=Wang |first3=S |last4=Sun |first4=G. |year=2015 |title=Meta-Analysis of Saturated Fatty Acid Intake and Breast Cancer Risk |journal=Medicine |volume=94 |issue=52 |pages=e2391 |doi=10.1097/MD.0000000000002391 |pmc=5291630 |pmid=26717389}}{{Cite journal |last1=Brennan |first1=SF |last2=Woodside |first2=JV |last3=Lunny |first3=PM |last4=Cardwell |first4=CR |last5=Cantwell |first5=MM. |year=2017 |title=Dietary fat and breast cancer mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://pure.qub.ac.uk/en/publications/dietary-fat-and-breast-cancer-mortality-a-systematic-review-and-metaanalysis(d733bb2c-2e38-494e-bb66-03b38759e0c2).html |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=57 |issue=10 |pages=1999–2008 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2012.724481 |pmid=25692500 |s2cid=34098509}}{{Cite journal |last1=Dandamudi |first1=A |last2=Tommie |first2=J |last3=Nommsen-Rivers |first3=L |last4=Couch |first4=S. |year=2018 |title=Dietary Patterns and Breast Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review |journal=Anticancer Research |volume=38 |issue=6 |pages=3209–3222 |doi=10.21873/anticanres.12586 |pmid=29848668 |s2cid=44149964|doi-access=free }} Observational studies have shown that a diet high in saturated fat is associated with increased prostate cancer risk.{{Cite journal |last1=Gathirua-Mwangi |first1=Wambui G. |last2=Zhang |first2=Jianjun |year=2014 |title=Dietary factors and risk for advanced prostate cancer |journal=European Journal of Cancer Prevention |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=96–109 |doi=10.1097/CEJ.0b013e3283647394 |pmc=4091618 |pmid=23872953}}

A 2024 systematic review found that higher levels of myristic acid, palmitic acid and stearic acid are associated with increased cancer risk.{{cite journal |vauthors=Mei J, Qian M, Hou Y, Liang M, Chen Y, Wang C, Zhang J |date=2024 |title=Association of saturated fatty acids with cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://lipidworld.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12944-024-02025-z |journal=Lipids in Health and Disease |volume=23 |issue=1 |article-number=32 |doi=10.1186/s12944-024-02025-z |doi-access=free|pmid=38291432|pmc=10826095 }}

Dietary sources

Dietary recommendations

Recommendations to reduce, limit or replace dietary intake of trans fats and saturated fats, in favor of unsaturated fats, are made by the World Health Organization,{{efn|See the article Food pyramid (nutrition) for more information.}} American Heart Association, Health Canada,{{Cite web |date=10 October 2018 |title=Choosing foods with healthy fats |url=https://food-guide.canada.ca/en/healthy-eating-recommendations/make-it-a-habit-to-eat-vegetables-fruit-whole-grains-and-protein-foods/choosing-foods-with-healthy-fats/ |access-date=24 September 2019 |publisher=Health Canada}} the US Department of Health and Human Services,{{Cite web |title=Cut Down on Saturated Fats |url=https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/resources/DGA_Cut-Down-On-Saturated-Fats.pdf |access-date=24 September 2019 |publisher=United States Department of Health and Human Services}} the UK National Health Service,{{Cite web |date=27 April 2018 |title=Fat: the facts |url=https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/different-fats-nutrition/ |access-date=24 September 2019 |website=National Health Service}} the UK Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition,{{Cite web |title=Saturated Fats and Health |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/814995/SACN_report_on_saturated_fat_and_health.pdf |access-date=26 July 2021 |publisher=Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN).}} the Australian Department of Health and Aging,{{Cite web |date=24 September 2012 |title=Fat |url=https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/food-essentials/fat-salt-sugars-and-alcohol/fat |access-date=24 September 2019 |publisher=Australia's National Health and Medical Research Council and Department of Health and Ageing}} the Singapore Ministry of Health,{{Cite web |title=Getting the Fats Right! |url=https://www.healthhub.sg/live-healthy/458/Getting%20the%20Fats%20Right |access-date=24 September 2019 |publisher=Singapore's Ministry of Health}} the Indian Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,{{Cite web |title=Health Diet |url=https://www.nhp.gov.in/healthlyliving/healthy-diet |access-date=24 September 2019 |publisher=India's Ministry of Health and Family Welfare}} the New Zealand Ministry of Health,{{Cite web |title=Making healthier food choices |url=https://www.health.govt.nz/your-health/healthy-living/food-activity-and-sleep/healthy-eating/making-healthier-food-choices |access-date=3 June 2021 |publisher=New Zealand's Ministry of Health}} and Hong Kong's Department of Health.{{Cite web |title=Know More about Fat |url=https://www.chp.gov.hk/en/static/100023.html |access-date=24 September 2019 |publisher=Hong Kong's Department of Health}}

In 2003, the World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) expert consultation report concluded:{{Cite book |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/42665/1/WHO_TRS_916.pdf |title=Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases (WHO technical report series 916) |publisher=World Health Organization |year=2003 |isbn=978-92-4-120916-8 |pages=81–94 |access-date=4 April 2016}}

{{blockquote|text=The evidence shows that intake of saturated fatty acids is directly related to cardiovascular risk. The traditional target is to restrict the intake of saturated fatty acids to less than 10% of daily energy intake and less than 7% for high-risk groups. If populations are consuming less than 10%, they should not increase that level of intake. Within these limits, the intake of foods rich in myristic and palmitic acids should be replaced by fats with a lower content of these particular fatty acids. In developing countries, however, where energy intake for some population groups may be inadequate, energy expenditure is high and body fat stores are low (BMI <18.5 kg/m²). The amount and quality of fat supply have to be considered keeping in mind the need to meet energy requirements. Specific sources of saturated fat, such as coconut and palm oil, provide low-cost energy and may be an important source of energy for the poor.}}

A 2004 statement released by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) determined that "Americans need to continue working to reduce saturated fat intake…"{{Cite web |year=2004 |title=Trends in Intake of Energy, Protein, Carbohydrate, Fat, and Saturated Fat — United States, 1971–2000 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/od/oc/media/mmwrnews/n040206.htm#mmwr2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201152506/http://www.cdc.gov/od/oc/media/mmwrnews/n040206.htm#mmwr2 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |publisher=Centers for Disease Control}} In addition, reviews by the American Heart Association led the Association to recommend reducing saturated fat intake to less than 7% of total calories according to its 2006 recommendations.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Lichtenstein AH, Appel LJ, Brands M, Carnethon M, Daniels S, Franch HA, Franklin B, Kris-Etherton P, Harris WS, Howard B, Karanja N, Lefevre M, Rudel L, Sacks F, Van Horn L, Winston M, Wylie-Rosett J |date=July 2006 |title=Diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee |journal=Circulation |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=82–96 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.176158 |pmid=16785338 |doi-access=free |s2cid=647269}}{{Cite journal |vauthors=Smith SC, Jackson R, Pearson TA, Fuster V, Yusuf S, Faergeman O, Wood DA, Alderman M, Horgan J, Home P, Hunn M, Grundy SM |date=June 2004 |title=Principles for national and regional guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention: a scientific statement from the World Heart and Stroke Forum |url=http://www.sisalombardia.it/pdfs/guideline_world_heart_and_stroke_forum.pdf |journal=Circulation |volume=109 |issue=25 |pages=3112–21 |doi=10.1161/01.CIR.0000133427.35111.67 |pmid=15226228 |doi-access=free}} This concurs with similar conclusions made by the US Department of Health and Human Services, which determined that reduction in saturated fat consumption would positively affect health and reduce the prevalence of heart disease.{{Cite web |year=2005 |title=Dietary Guidelines for Americans |url=https://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dockets/06q0458/06q-0458-sup0001-02.pdf |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture}}

The United Kingdom, National Health Service claims the majority of British people eat too much saturated fat. The British Heart Foundation also advises people to cut down on saturated fat, and to read labels on the food they buy.{{Cite web |date=26 March 2020 |title=Eat less saturated fat |url=http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/Goodfood/Pages/Eat-less-saturated-fat.aspx |access-date=1 November 2021 |publisher=Nhs.uk}}{{Cite web |title=Fats explained |url=https://www.bhf.org.uk/heart-health/preventing-heart-disease/healthy-eating/fats-explained |website=British Heart Foundation}} The British Nutrition Foundation have said that based on the totality of available evidence the saturated fatty acids should make up no more than 10% of total dietary energy.{{Cite web |title=Fat |website=British Nutrition Foundation |url=https://www.nutrition.org.uk/healthy-sustainable-diets/fat/?level=Health%2520professional |access-date=30 December 2022 |language=en}}

A 2004 review stated that "no lower safe limit of specific saturated fatty acid intakes has been identified" and recommended that the influence of varying saturated fatty acid intakes against a background of different individual lifestyles and genetic backgrounds should be the focus in future studies.{{Cite journal |vauthors=German JB, Dillard CJ |date=September 2004 |title=Saturated fats: what dietary intake? |journal=American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=550–559 |doi=10.1093/ajcn/80.3.550 |pmid=15321792 |doi-access=free}}

Blanket recommendations to lower saturated fat were criticized at a 2010 conference debate of the American Dietetic Association for focusing too narrowly on reducing saturated fats rather than emphasizing increased consumption of healthy fats and unrefined carbohydrates. Concern was expressed over the health risks of replacing saturated fats in the diet with refined carbohydrates, which carry a high risk of obesity and heart disease, particularly at the expense of polyunsaturated fats which may have health benefits. None of the panelists recommended heavy consumption of saturated fats, emphasizing instead the importance of overall dietary quality to cardiovascular health.{{Cite journal |last=Zelman |first=K |author-link=Kathleen Zelman |year=2011 |title=The Great Fat Debate: A Closer Look at the Controversy—Questioning the Validity of Age-Old Dietary Guidance |journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association |volume=111 |issue=5 |pages=655–658 |doi=10.1016/j.jada.2011.03.026 |pmid=21515106}}

In a 2017 comprehensive review of the literature and clinical trials, the American Heart Association published a recommendation that saturated fat intake be reduced or replaced by products containing monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, a dietary adjustment that could reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases by 30%.

Molecular description

File:Myristic acid.svg]]

File:Myristic-acid-3D-vdW.png of the saturated fatty acid myristic acid]] The two-dimensional illustration has implicit hydrogen atoms bonded to each of the carbon atoms in the polycarbon tail of the myristic acid molecule (there are 13 carbon atoms in the tail; 14 carbon atoms in the entire molecule).

Carbon atoms are also implicitly drawn, as they are portrayed as intersections between two straight lines. "Saturated," in general, refers to a maximum number of hydrogen atoms bonded to each carbon of the polycarbon tail as allowed by the Octet Rule. This also means that only single bonds (sigma bonds) will be present between adjacent carbon atoms of the tail.

Notes

References

Category:Lipids

Category:Nutrition

Category:Edible oil chemistry