Human Landing System
{{short description|Development of the Human Landing System spacecraft}}A Human Landing System (HLS) is a spacecraft in the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) Artemis program that is expected to land humans on the Moon. These are being designed to convey astronauts from the Lunar Gateway space station in lunar orbit to the lunar surface, sustain them there, and then return them to the Gateway station. {{Asof|2024}} NASA intends to use Starship HLS for Artemis III, an enhanced Starship HLS for Artemis IV, and a Blue Origin HLS for Artemis V.
Rather than leading the HLS development effort internally, NASA provided a reference design and asked commercial vendors compete to design, develop and deliver systems based on a NASA-produced set of requirements. Each selected vendor is required to deliver two landers: one for an uncrewed test lunar landing, and one to be used as the first Artemis crewed lander. NASA started the competition process in 2019 with the Starship HLS selected as the winner in 2021. The original timeline called for an uncrewed test flight before a crewed flight in 2024 as part of the Artemis III mission, but the crewed flight has been delayed to at least 2025.{{Cite web|last=Mahoney|first=Erin|date=22 October 2020|title=NASA, Human Lunar Lander Companies Complete Key Artemis Milestone|url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-human-lunar-lander-companies-complete-key-artemis-milestone|access-date=29 October 2020|publisher=NASA|archive-date=31 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031223912/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-human-lunar-lander-companies-complete-key-artemis-milestone/|url-status=live}} {{PD-notice}}{{update after|2022}}
In addition to the initial contract, NASA awarded two rounds of separate contracts in May 2019 and September 2021 on aspects of the HLS to encourage alternative designs, separately from the initial HLS development effort. It announced in March 2022 that it was developing new sustainability rules and pursuing both a Starship HLS upgrade and a new competing alternative design that would comply with the rules. In May 2023, Blue Origin was selected as the second provider for lunar lander services.{{Cite web |last=O’Shea |first=Claire |date=2023-05-19 |title=NASA Selects Blue Origin as Second Artemis Lunar Lander Provider |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-blue-origin-as-second-artemis-lunar-lander-provider |access-date=2023-05-19 |website=NASA |archive-date=2023-05-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519150415/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-blue-origin-as-second-artemis-lunar-lander-provider/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |last=Roulette |first=Joey |date=2023-05-19 |title=Jeff Bezos' Blue Origin wins NASA contract to build astronaut lunar lander |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/space/nasa-name-second-company-build-astronaut-lunar-lander-2023-05-19/ |access-date=2023-05-19 |archive-date=2023-05-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519154143/https://www.reuters.com/technology/space/nasa-name-second-company-build-astronaut-lunar-lander-2023-05-19/ |url-status=live }}
Reference design
File:Human Landing System Stand In.jpg
The Advanced Exploration Lander was a 2018 NASA concept for a three-stage lander, intended to serve as a design reference for the commercial HLS design proposals. After departing from the Lunar Gateway in its lunar near-rectilinear halo orbit (NRHO), a transfer module would take the lander and embarked crew to a low lunar orbit and then separate. The descent module would then land itself and the ascent module carrying the crew on the lunar surface. A crew of up to four could spend up to two weeks on the surface before using the ascent module to take them back to Gateway. Each of the three modules would have a mass of approximately 12 to 15 metric tons and would be delivered separately by commercial launchers for integration at Gateway.{{cite news |url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-studying-three-stage-approach-to-human-class-lunar-landers/ |title=NASA studying three-stage approach to human-class lunar landers |work=SpaceNews |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=20 November 2018 |access-date=16 January 2023}} Both the ascent and transfer modules could be designed to be reusable, with the descent module intended to be left on the lunar surface.
Preliminary HLS studies
{{Further|Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships}}
In December 2018 NASA announced that it was issuing a formal request for proposals as Appendix E of NextSTEP-2 inviting American companies to submit bids for the design and development of new reusable systems allowing astronauts to land on the lunar surface.{{cite web |last1=Shanessa Jackson |title=NASA Seeks US Partners to Develop Reusable Systems to Land Astronauts on Moon |date=12 December 2018 |url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-seeks-us-partners-to-develop-reusable-systems-to-land-astronauts-on-moon |publisher=NASA |access-date=December 13, 2018 |archive-date=14 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214000922/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-seeks-us-partners-to-develop-reusable-systems-to-land-astronauts-on-moon/ |url-status=live }} On February 14, 2019, NASA hosted an Industry Forum at NASA HQ to provide an overview of the Human Landing System (HLS) Broad Agency Announcement.{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander |title=NextSTEP E: Human Landing System Studies... |date=3 July 2018 |access-date=2021-09-12 |archive-date=2021-08-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827074319/https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander/ |url-status=live }}
In April 2019 NASA announced a formal request for proposals closing on November 15, 2019, for Appendix H of NextSTEP-2 inviting American companies to submit bids for the design and development of the Ascent Element of the Human Landing System (HLS) including the cabin used during landings.{{cite web |title=Human Landing System – Ascent Element |url=https://www.fbo.gov/index.php?s=opportunity&mode=form&id=820daf05b614ff8021aed77315eeee38&tab=core&tabmode=list&= |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610191829/https://www.fbo.gov/index.php?s=opportunity&mode=form&id=820daf05b614ff8021aed77315eeee38&tab=core&tabmode=list&= |archive-date=June 10, 2019 |access-date=April 9, 2019 |website=Federal Business Opportunities |publisher=NASA}} This was extended to cover an option for an integrated lander—a single vehicle that performs transfer, descent, and ascent.{{cite web |date=4 April 2019 |title=NextSTEP H: Human Landing System – Integrated Lander |url=https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208221410/https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander2/ |archive-date=8 December 2020 |access-date=April 28, 2019 |publisher=NASA}}
Design competition
File:Artemis program hls-ascending.jpg
Five companies responded to NASA's request for proposal by the November 2019 deadline, and after evaluating the proposals, NASA selected three for further design work. In April 2020, NASA awarded separate contracts totaling US$967 million in design development funding to Blue Origin, Dynetics, and SpaceX to begin a 10-month-long design processes.{{cite news |title=NASA Selects Blue Origin, Dynetics, and SpaceX Human Landers for Artemis |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/04/nasa-blue-origin-dynetics-spacex-hls-artemis/ |last=Burghardt|first=Thomas |date=1 May 2020 |publisher=NASASpaceFlight.com |access-date=12 June 2020 |archive-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515175509/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/04/nasa-blue-origin-dynetics-spacex-hls-artemis/|url-status=live}}{{cite news|last1=Berger|first1=Eric|author-link=Eric Berger (meteorologist)|title=NASA awards lunar lander contracts to Blue Origin, Dynetics and Starship|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/04/nasa-awards-lunar-lander-contracts-to-blue-origin-dynetics-and-starship/|publisher=Ars Technica|date=30 April 2020|access-date=12 June 2020|archive-date=13 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513224239/https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/04/nasa-awards-lunar-lander-contracts-to-blue-origin-dynetics-and-starship/|url-status=live}}{{cite web|title=NASA Names Companies to Develop Human Landers for Artemis Missions|url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-companies-to-develop-human-landers-for-artemis-moon-missions|last=Potter|first=Sean|date=30 April 2020|website=nasa.gov|publisher=NASA|access-date=12 June 2020|archive-date=11 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511104107/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-companies-to-develop-human-landers-for-artemis-moon-missions/|url-status=live}} {{PD-notice}} The companies/teams selected in the 2020 design awards were the "National Team" led by Blue Origin,{{efn|name="national"|the "National Team" was led by Blue Origin with partners Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, and Draper}} with US$579 million in NASA design funding; Dynetics, including SNC and other unspecified companies, with US$253 million in NASA funding; and SpaceX with a modified Starship spacecraft design called Starship HLS, with US$135 million in NASA design funding.{{cite web|title=NASA Names Companies to Develop Human Landers for Artemis Missions|url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-companies-to-develop-human-landers-for-artemis-moon-missions|last=Potter|first=Sean|date=30 April 2020|website=NASA|access-date=15 May 2020|archive-date=11 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511104107/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-companies-to-develop-human-landers-for-artemis-moon-missions/|url-status=live}} {{PD-notice}}
Although the HLS initial design phase was planned to be a ten-month program ending in February 2021 with the selection of up to two contractors, NASA delayed the selection process and announcement by two months.{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander2 |title=NextSTEP H: Human Landing System |publisher=NASA |date=2021-01-27 |access-date=2021-01-31 |archive-date=8 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208221410/https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander2/ |url-status=live }}
The companies were bidding on a contract to provide design, development, build, test, and evaluation of an HLS, plus two lunar landings, one uncrewed and one crewed, for a fixed price. NASA evaluated the bids based on three evaluation factors: technical merit, managerial ability, and price, in that order, and found SpaceX better.{{cite web|url=https://www.gao.gov/products/b-419783%2Cb-419783.2%2Cb-419783.3%2Cb-419783.4|title=GAO finding denying the protest of the award|date=30 July 2021|access-date=22 September 2021|archive-date=29 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829160816/https://www.gao.gov/products/b-419783%2Cb-419783.2%2Cb-419783.3%2Cb-419783.4|url-status=live}}
| class="wikitable"
! {{diagonal split header|Factor|Company}} ! SpaceX ! Blue Origin ! Dynetics |
| Technical
| {{shade|color=green|50|Acceptable}} || {{shade|color=green|50|Acceptable}} || {{shade|color=green|10|Marginal}} |
|---|
| Management
| {{shade|color=green|100|Outstanding}} || {{shade|color=green|80|Very good}} || {{shade|color=green|80|Very good}} |
| Bid price US$ billion | {{right|2.94}} || {{right|5.99}} || {{right|9.08}} |
On 16 April 2021, NASA selected only a single lander—Starship HLS—to move on to a full development contract.{{Cite web|last=Brown|first=Katherine|date=2021-04-16|title=NASA Picks SpaceX to Land Next Americans on Moon|url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon|access-date=2021-04-22|website=NASA|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422144134/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon/|url-status=live}} NASA awarded a US$2.89 billion contract to SpaceX to develop the Starship HLS lander and to provide two operational lunar missions—one uncrewed demonstration mission, and one crewed lunar landing—as early as 2025.{{Cite news |last=Berger |first=Eric |date=16 April 2021 |title=NASA selects SpaceX as its sole provider for a lunar lander – "We looked at what's the best value to the government." |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/04/nasa-selects-spacex-as-its-sole-provider-for-a-lunar-lander/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417003215/https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/04/nasa-selects-spacex-as-its-sole-provider-for-a-lunar-lander/ |archive-date=17 April 2021 |accessdate=17 April 2021 |work=Ars Technica}}{{cite news |last1=Davenport |first1=Christian |title=Elon Musk's SpaceX wins contract to develop spacecraft to land astronauts on the moon |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/04/16/nasa-lunar-lander-contract-spacex/ |access-date=16 April 2021 |newspaper=The Washington Post |archive-date=16 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416175151/https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/04/16/nasa-lunar-lander-contract-spacex/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite web|last=Brown|first=Katherine|date=2021-04-16|title=As Artemis Moves Forward, NASA Picks SpaceX to Land Next Americans on Moon|url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon|url-status=live|website=NASA.gov|access-date=17 April 2021|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416221751/http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon/}} NASA had stated that they would have preferred to award two contracts, but that insufficient funds were appropriated by Congress to allow the awarding of a second contract. This had been stated as a possible outcome in the contract solicitation.
| class="wikitable" | |||
| +Design and development contracts
!rowspan=2 | Company !!rowspan=2 | Vehicles !! colspan=2| contract award | |||
| design | develop | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Boeing | The Boeing Lunar Lander concept consisted of a descent and ascent stage, to be launched on an SLS Block 1B rather than assembled in multiple launches. | {{No|None}} | {{N/a|N/A}} |
| Vivace
| A two-stage HLS concept with an appearance similar{{according to whom|date=January 2021}} to the Altair LSAM. | {{No|None}} | {{N/a|N/A}} | |
| National Team{{efn|name="national"}} | The Integrated Lander Vehicle (ILV), a three-element lunar lander concept (transfer, descent, and ascent elements) with each element intended to be launched via either New Glenn or ULA Vulcan Centaur launch vehicle and assembled in lunar orbit. | {{Yes|579}} | {{No|None}} |
| Dynetics | Dynetics HLS, an integrated single-stage system concept, intended to launch on either the ULA Vulcan Centaur or NASA's Space Launch System.{{cite web|title=Dynetics To Develop Nasas Artemis Human Lunar Landing System|url=https://www.dynetics.com/newsroom/news/2020/dynetics-to-develop-nasas-artemis-human-lunar-landing-system|access-date=24 August 2020|publisher=Dynetics|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809080853/https://dynetics.com/newsroom/news/2020/dynetics-to-develop-nasas-artemis-human-lunar-landing-system|url-status=live}} | {{Yes|253}} | {{No|None}} |
| SpaceX | Starship HLS, single-stage lunar design variation of the SpaceX Starship spacecraft, launched by the Super Heavy booster and serving as its own second stage to reach low Earth orbit (LEO). Refueled by multiple Starship tanker spacecraft in LEO before boosting itself to lunar orbit to meet the Gateway and Orion crew capsule. Moves between Gateway and the lunar surface as a lunar single-stage-to-orbit. | {{Yes|135}} | {{Yes|2890}} |
Post-competition protests and litigation
{{Main|Blue Origin v. United States & Space Exploration Technologies Corp.}}
On April 30, 2021, both Blue Origin and Dynetics filed formal protests with the US Government Accountability Office claiming that NASA had improperly evaluated aspects of the proposals.{{cite news |url=https://spacenews.com/blue-origin-protests-nasa-human-landing-system-award/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20211020191705/https://spacenews.com/blue-origin-protests-nasa-human-landing-system-award/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 20, 2021 |title=Blue Origin protests NASA Human Landing System award |work=SpaceNews |date=26 April 2021 |access-date=28 April 2021 }}{{cite news |url=https://spacenews.com/dynetics-protests-nasa-hls-award/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20211020191703/https://spacenews.com/dynetics-protests-nasa-hls-award/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 20, 2021 |title=Dynetics protests NASA HLS award |work=SpaceNews |date=27 April 2021 |access-date=28 April 2021 }} On April 30, 2021, NASA suspended the Starship HLS contract and funding until such time as the GAO could issue a ruling on the protests.{{Cite web|url = https://www.theverge.com/2021/4/30/22412771/nasa-spacex-hls-moon-lander-blue-origin-protest|title = NASA suspends SpaceX's $2.9 billion moon lander contract after rivals protest|date = 30 April 2021|access-date = 12 September 2021|archive-date = 28 August 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210828162019/https://www.theverge.com/2021/4/30/22412771/nasa-spacex-hls-moon-lander-blue-origin-protest|url-status = live}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/30/nasa-tells-spacex-to-halt-lunar-lander-work-pending-contract-challenges.html|title=NASA tells SpaceX to halt lunar lander work pending contract challenges|website=CNBC |date=May 2021|access-date=2021-09-12|archive-date=2021-07-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713013557/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/30/nasa-tells-spacex-to-halt-lunar-lander-work-pending-contract-challenges.html|url-status=live}} In May 2021, Sen. Cantwell, from Blue Origin's state of Washington, introduced an amendment to the "Endless Frontier Act" that directed NASA to reopen the HLS competition and select a second lander proposal and authorized spending of an additional US$10 billion. This funding would have required a separate appropriations act. Sen. Sanders criticized the amendment as a "multibillion dollar Bezos bailout", as the money would likely go to Blue Origin, which was founded by Jeff Bezos.{{cite web |last1=Sirota |first1=Sara |last2=Grim |first2=Ryan |title=Senate Preparing $10 Billion Bailout Fund for Jeff Bezos Space Firm |url=https://theintercept.com/2021/05/25/jeff-bezos-blue-origin-senate-bailout/ |publisher=The Intercept |access-date=2 June 2021 |date=25 May 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602045911/https://theintercept.com/2021/05/25/jeff-bezos-blue-origin-senate-bailout/ |url-status=live }}{{cite web |last1=Ferreira |first1=Becky |title=Bernie Sanders Is Fighting a Massive "Bailout" to Jeff Bezos' Space Company |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/bernie-sanders-is-fighting-a-massive-bailout-to-jeff-bezos-space-company/ |publisher=Vice |access-date=2 June 2021 |date=26 May 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215544/https://www.vice.com/en/article/qj8k57/bernie-sanders-is-fighting-a-massive-bailout-to-jeff-bezos-space-company |url-status=live }}{{cite web |last1=Berger |first1=Eric |title=Bernie vs. Blue – Bernie Sanders wants to stop NASA funding for Blue Origin |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/05/bernie-sanders-seeks-to-eliminate-the-bezos-bailout-in-space/ |publisher=Ars Technica |access-date=2 June 2021 |date=24 May 2021 |archive-date=1 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601053636/https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/05/bernie-sanders-seeks-to-eliminate-the-bezos-bailout-in-space/ |url-status=live }}{{cite web |last1=Hamilton |first1=Isobel |title=Bernie Sanders is trying to block Jeff Bezos' Blue Origin from getting $10 billion NASA funding for a moon-landing mission |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/bernie-sanders-jeff-bezos-blue-origin-nasa-funding-amendment-moon-2021-5 |publisher=Business Insider |access-date=2 June 2021 |date=25 May 2021 |archive-date=1 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601191901/https://www.businessinsider.com/bernie-sanders-jeff-bezos-blue-origin-nasa-funding-amendment-moon-2021-5 |url-status=live }} The act, including this amendment, was passed by the U.S. Senate on June 8, 2021.{{cite web |date=8 June 2021 |title=S.1260 – Endless Frontier Act |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate-bill/1260 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609233901/https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate-bill/1260 |archive-date=9 June 2021 |access-date=10 June 2021 |website=Congress.gov}}{{cite web |last1=Berger |first1=Eric |title=NASA doesn't need to test SLS anymore, but the Senate mandates it anyway |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/06/legislation-requires-nasa-to-build-sls-test-article-after-initial-flights/ |publisher=Ars Technica |access-date=10 June 2021 |date=10 June 2021 |archive-date=10 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610131839/https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/06/legislation-requires-nasa-to-build-sls-test-article-after-initial-flights/ |url-status=live }}{{update after|2021|8|2}}
On July 30, 2021, the GAO rejected the protests and found that "NASA did not violate procurement law" in awarding the contract to SpaceX, who bid a much lower cost and more capable system.{{cite news |title=GAO denies Blue Origin and Dynetics protests of NASA lunar lander contract |url=https://spacenews.com/gao-denies-blue-origin-and-dynetics-protests-of-nasa-lunar-lander-contract/ |last=Foust |first=Jeff |work=SpaceNews |date=30 July 2021 |access-date=2 August 2021 |archive-date=18 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918120931/https://spacenews.com/gao-denies-blue-origin-and-dynetics-protests-of-nasa-lunar-lander-contract/ |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=https://www.gao.gov/press-release/statement-blue-origin-dynetics-decision |title=Statement on Blue Origin-Dynetics Decision |date=30 July 2021 |access-date=12 September 2021 |archive-date=18 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918120931/https://www.gao.gov/press-release/statement-blue-origin-dynetics-decision |url-status=live }} Nevertheless, CNBC reported on August 4 that "Jeff Bezos' space company remains on the offensive in criticizing NASA's decision to award Elon Musk's SpaceX with the sole contract to build a vehicle to land astronauts on the moon" and the company had produced an infographic highlighting several Starship deficiencies compared to the Blue Origin proposal, but noted the infographic avoided showing the Blue Origin bid price as roughly double the SpaceX bid price.{{cite news |last=Sheetz |first=Michael |title=Bezos' Blue Origin calls Musk's Starship 'immensely complex & high risk' for NASA moon missions |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/04/bezos-blue-origin-musks-spacex-starship-complex-high-risk.html |work=CNBC |date=4 August 2021 |access-date=4 August 2021 |archive-date=4 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804181825/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/04/bezos-blue-origin-musks-spacex-starship-complex-high-risk.html |url-status=live }} Soon after the appeal was rejected, NASA made the contracted initial payment of US$300M to SpaceX.{{cite web |title=WORK REQUIRED FOR THE DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT, MANUFACTURE, TEST, LAUNCH, DEMONSTRATION, AND ENGINEERING SUPPORT OF THE HUMAN LANDING SYSTEM (HLS) INTEGRATED LANDER. |url=https://www.usaspending.gov/award/CONT_AWD_80MSFC20C0034_8000_-NONE-_-NONE- |website=usaspending.gov |access-date=4 September 2021 |date=30 July 2021 |archive-date=4 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210904195414/https://www.usaspending.gov/award/CONT_AWD_80MSFC20C0034_8000_-NONE-_-NONE- |url-status=live }}
On August 13, 2021, Blue Origin filed a lawsuit in the US Court of Federal Claims challenging "NASA's unlawful and improper evaluation of proposals."{{cite news |title=Jeff Bezos' Blue Origin sues NASA, escalating its fight for a Moon lander contract |url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/8/16/22623022/jeff-bezos-blue-origin-sue-nasa-lawsuit-hls-lunar-lander |work=The Verge |date=16 August 2021 |access-date=16 August 2021 |quote=protest prevented SpaceX from starting its contract for 95 days while the GAO adjudicated the case. |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816145930/https://www.theverge.com/2021/8/16/22623022/jeff-bezos-blue-origin-sue-nasa-lawsuit-hls-lunar-lander |url-status=live }}{{cite news |last=Sheetz |first=Michael |title=Bezos' Blue Origin takes NASA to federal court over award of lunar lander contract to SpaceX |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/16/jeff-bezos-blue-origin-takes-nasa-to-federal-court-over-hls-contract.html |work=CNBC |date=16 August 2021 |access-date=16 August 2021 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816150200/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/16/jeff-bezos-blue-origin-takes-nasa-to-federal-court-over-hls-contract.html |url-status=live }} Blue Origin asked the court for an injunction to halt further spending by NASA on the existing contract with SpaceX.{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/08/16/blue-origin-spacex-rivalry-lawsuit-nasa/ |title=Jeff Bezos's Blue Origin takes its lunar rivalry with Elon Musk's SpaceX to claims court - the Washington Post |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=2021-09-12 |archive-date=2021-08-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817133525/https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/08/16/blue-origin-spacex-rivalry-lawsuit-nasa/ |url-status=live }} Reaction to the lawsuit was mostly negative in the space community, at NASA, and among Blue Origin employees according to space journalist Eric Berger.{{Cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/08/heres-why-blue-origin-thinks-it-is-justified-in-continuing-to-protest-nasa/|title=Here's why Blue Origin thinks it is justified in continuing to protest NASA|first=Eric|last=Berger|date=16 August 2021|website=Ars Technica|access-date=12 September 2021|archive-date=18 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818120831/https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/08/heres-why-blue-origin-thinks-it-is-justified-in-continuing-to-protest-nasa/|url-status=live}} The judge dismissed the suit on November 4, 2021, and NASA was allowed to resume working with SpaceX.{{cite news|title="Bezos' Blue Origin loses NASA lawsuit over SpaceX $2.9 billion lunar lander contract"|date=November 4, 2021|first=Michael|last=Sheetz|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/11/04/bezos-blue-origin-loses-lawsuit-against-nasa-over-spacex-lunar-lander.html|access-date=November 4, 2021|publisher=CNBC|archive-date=January 4, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104030923/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/11/04/bezos-blue-origin-loses-lawsuit-against-nasa-over-spacex-lunar-lander.html|url-status=live}}
Starship HLS
{{Main|Starship HLS}}
The Starship Human Landing System (Starship HLS) was selected by NASA for long-duration crewed lunar landings as part of NASA's Artemis program.
The Starship HLS is a modified configuration of SpaceX's Starship spacecraft, optimized to operate on and around the Moon. As a result, the heat shield and flight control surfaces — parts of the main Starship design needed for atmospheric re-entry — are not included in Starship HLS. The entire spacecraft will land on the Moon and will then launch from the Moon. If needed, the variant will use high-thrust CH4/O2 RCS thrusters located mid-body on Starship HLS during the final "tens of meters" of the terminal lunar descent and landing, and will be powered by a solar array located on its nose below the docking port. Elon Musk stated that Starship HLS would be able to deliver "potentially up to 200 tons" to the lunar surface.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}
Starship HLS would be launched to Earth orbit using the SpaceX Super Heavy booster, and would use a series of tanker spacecraft to refuel the Starship HLS vehicle in Earth orbit for lunar transit and lunar landing operations. Starship HLS would then act as its own transit vehicle to reach lunar orbit for rendezvous with Orion. In the mission concept, a NASA Orion spacecraft would carry a NASA crew to the lander, where they would depart and descend to the surface of the Moon. After lunar surface operations, Starship HLS would lift off from the lunar surface acting as a single-stage to orbit and return the crew to Orion.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}
NASA highlighted two weaknesses with SpaceX's proposal. Starship's propulsion systems were described as "notably complex", and the report referred to prior delays under the Commercial Crew program and Falcon Heavy launch vehicle development as evidence of potential threats to their development schedule.
Blue Origin selected as second provider
In May 2023, Blue Origin was selected as a second provider for lunar lander services with a $3.4 billion contract.{{Cite web |last=O’Shea |first=Claire |date=2023-05-19 |title=NASA Selects Blue Origin as Second Artemis Lunar Lander Provider |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-blue-origin-as-second-artemis-lunar-lander-provider |access-date=2023-05-19 |website=NASA |archive-date=2023-05-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519150415/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-blue-origin-as-second-artemis-lunar-lander-provider/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |last=Roulette |first=Joey |date=2023-05-19 |title=Jeff Bezos' Blue Origin wins NASA contract to build astronaut lunar lander |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/space/nasa-name-second-company-build-astronaut-lunar-lander-2023-05-19/ |access-date=2023-05-19 |archive-date=2023-05-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519154143/https://www.reuters.com/technology/space/nasa-name-second-company-build-astronaut-lunar-lander-2023-05-19/ |url-status=live }} NASA stated that it decided to add another human landing system partner to: "increase competition, reduce costs to taxpayers, support a regular cadence of lunar landings, further invest in the lunar economy."
Unselected proposals
= Integrated Lander Vehicle =
{{main|Integrated Lander Vehicle}}
The Integrated Lander Vehicle (ILV) or National Human Landing System (NHLS) was a lunar lander design concept proposed by the "National Team" led by Blue Origin, along with Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, and Draper Laboratory as major partners.
The main selling point{{according to whom|date=April 2021}} of the lander was that all the components had been in development in one form or another for some time.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} The transfer stage was based on the Cygnus spacecraft, the Blue Moon was to be used as the descent stage, and the ascent stage was based on the Orion spacecraft.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}} It was to be launched in three parts on either the New Glenn and Vulcan Centaur but could also be launched on a single SLS Block 1B.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}
In the April 2020 HLS source selection statement, NASA stated that the vehicle passed all requirements but faced risks with its power, propulsion, and communications systems which posed a significant risk to the developmental timeline.
= Dynetics ALPACA HLS =
{{Main|Dynetics HLS}}
The Dynetics ALPACA (Autonomous Logistics Platform for All-Moon Cargo Access) Human Landing System design concept was proposed by Dynetics and Sierra Nevada Corporation with support from a number of subcontractors. The vehicle design consisted of a single-stage lander powered by methalox engines, although an earlier design used drop tanks. ALPACA was proposed to launch on a Vulcan Centaur or SLS Block 1B rocket, and be refueled by up to three Vulcan Centaur tanker flights. Ultimately, NASA did not select the proposal, citing negative mass margins and an experimental thrust structure, which could pose threat to development time.{{cite web|last=Mahoney|first=Erin|date=30 April 2020|url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-blue-origin-dynetics-spacex-for-artemis-human-landers|title=NASA Selects Blue Origin, Dynetics, SpaceX for Artemis Human Landers|publisher=NASA|access-date=9 June 2020|archive-date=4 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304022702/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-selects-blue-origin-dynetics-spacex-for-artemis-human-landers/|url-status=live}} {{PD-notice}}{{cite web|title=Meet Dynetics, the company racing against SpaceX and Blue Origin to return astronauts to the Moon|last=Sheetz|first=Michael|publisher=CNBC|date=19 August 2020|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/08/19/dynetics-racing-against-spacex-and-blue-origin-in-nasas-hls-program.html|website=cnbc.com|access-date=27 August 2020|archive-date=30 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200830155756/https://www.cnbc.com/2020/08/19/dynetics-racing-against-spacex-and-blue-origin-in-nasas-hls-program.html|url-status=live}}
= Boeing HLS =
{{main|Boeing Lunar Lander}}
The Boeing Human Landing System proposal was submitted to NASA in early November 2019. The primary solution was a two-stage lander designed to launch on a single SLS Block 1B, with Intuitive Machines working with Boeing to provide engines,{{cite web|url=https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-selected-to-build-engines-for-boeing-s-human-lander-system-technology-development|title=Intuitive Machines selected to build engines for Boeing's Human Lander System Technology Development|date=24 October 2019|website=intuitivemachines.com|access-date=9 November 2019|archive-date=9 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109104506/https://www.intuitivemachines.com/post/intuitive-machines-selected-to-build-engines-for-boeing-s-human-lander-system-technology-development|url-status=live}} and reusing technologies from their Starliner spacecraft.{{cite web|url=https://boeing.mediaroom.com/2019-11-05-Boeing-Proposes-Fewest-Steps-to-the-Moon-for-NASAs-Human-Lander#assets_20295_130548-117:20659|title=Boeing Proposes "Fewest Steps to the Moon" for NASA's Human Lander|date=5 November 2019|website=boeing.mediaroom.com|access-date=6 November 2019|archive-date=6 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106140037/https://boeing.mediaroom.com/2019-11-05-Boeing-Proposes-Fewest-Steps-to-the-Moon-for-NASAs-Human-Lander#assets_20295_130548-117:20659|url-status=live}} To cover the possibility that the SLS Block 1B was not ready by 2024, Boeing proposed a solution where the descent stage was launched on an SLS Block 1 while the ascent stage would be launched by a commercial launcher and assembled in lunar orbit.{{cite web|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/11/09/boeing-proposes-sls-launched-lunar-lander/|title=Boeing proposes SLS-launched lunar lander|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|access-date=11 November 2019|archive-date=11 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111001201/https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/11/09/boeing-proposes-sls-launched-lunar-lander/|url-status=live}} The Boeing proposal was not selected for design funding by NASA in the April 2020 design funding announcements.{{cite web|last=Sheetz|first=Michael|title=NASA awards contracts to Jeff Bezos and Elon Musk to land astronauts on the Moon|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/04/30/nasa-selects-hls-lunar-lander-teams-blue-origin-spacex-dynetics.html|date=30 April 2020|website=cnbc.com|access-date=30 April 2020|archive-date=30 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430230903/https://www.cnbc.com/2020/04/30/nasa-selects-hls-lunar-lander-teams-blue-origin-spacex-dynetics.html|url-status=live}}
= Vivace HLS =
The Vivace Human Landing System was a lunar landing concept by aerospace firm Vivace. Little is known about the vehicle other than its resemblance to NASA's Altair lunar lander from the Constellation program. Vivace's concept was not selected for full design funding.{{cite web|last=D'Zio|first=Bill|date=1 May 2020|title=NASA picks who will land people on the Moon... sort of...|url=https://westeastspace.com/2020/05/01/nasa-picks-who-will-land-people-on-the-moon-sort-of/|access-date=3 July 2020|website=westeastspace.com|archive-date=17 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517065923/https://westeastspace.com/2020/05/01/nasa-picks-who-will-land-people-on-the-moon-sort-of/|url-status=dead}}
Alternative design studies
In addition to the design and development RFP for Appendix H of NextSTEP-2, NASA announced 11 contracts worth US$45.5 million in total for Appendix E of NextSTEP-2 in May 2019. These were short-term studies on transfer vehicles, descent elements, descent element prototypes, refueling element studies and prototypes. One of the requirements was that selected companies would contribute at least 20% of the total cost of the project "to reduce costs to taxpayers and encourage early private investments in the lunar economy".{{cite web|date=22 May 2019|title=NASA awards US$45.5 million to 11 American companies to "advance human lunar landers"|url=https://www.mlive.com/news/2019/05/nasa-awards-455m-to-11-american-companies-to-advance-human-lunar-landers.html|website=mlive.com|access-date=3 July 2020|archive-date=26 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726111305/https://www.mlive.com/news/2019/05/nasa-awards-455m-to-11-american-companies-to-advance-human-lunar-landers.html|url-status=live}}
A second set of contracts totaling $146 million was awarded on September 14, 2021.{{cite web|date=14 September 2021|title=NASA Selects Five U.S. Companies to Mature Artemis Lander Concepts|url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-five-us-companies-to-mature-artemis-lander-concepts|publisher=NASA|access-date=15 September 2021|archive-date=15 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210915115320/http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-five-us-companies-to-mature-artemis-lander-concepts/|url-status=live}} These contracts were for studies of a second-generation HLS that is to be used for missions after Artemis III. As with the first set of contracts, NASA intends to award more than one HLS if there is sufficient funding.
On March 23, 2022, NASA announced it intended to initiate a formal request for proposals for second-generation HLS designs, drafting new sustainability rules to support it with a 2026–2027 delivery date for the design. NASA stated it would solicit designs from the broader aerospace industry out of a need for redundancy and competition. Under the current HLS contract, NASA also exercised an option calling for a second Starship HLS demonstration mission to the Moon, with the Starship design updated to meet the new sustainability rules. In addition, NASA announced a target date of April 2025 for Artemis III, likely using the first-generation Starship HLS design. Space.com journalist Mike Wall speculated that, based on statements from NASA Administrator Bill Nelson, NASA had gained enough congressional and presidential support to make the requests.{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-provides-update-to-astronaut-moon-lander-plans-under-artemis|date=23 March 2022|access-date=24 March 2022|website=NASA|last1=McGuinness|first1=Jackie|last2=Russell|first2=Jimi|last3=Sudnik|first3=Janet|last4=Potter|first4=Sean|title=NASA Provides Update to Astronaut Moon Lander Plans Under Artemis|archive-date=12 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012232853/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-provides-update-to-astronaut-moon-lander-plans-under-artemis/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.space.com/nasa-more-artemis-moon-landers-for-astronauts|last=Wall|first=Mike|website=Space.com|title=NASA wants another moon lander for Artemis astronauts, not just SpaceX's Starship|date=23 March 2022|access-date=24 March 2022|archive-date=16 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220916234250/https://www.space.com/nasa-more-artemis-moon-landers-for-astronauts|url-status=live}}
| class="wikitable" | |||
| +Additional studies
! Date!!Company !!Amount | |||
| style="vertical-align: top;"
|rowspan=11|May | Aerojet Rocketdyne | One transfer vehicle study | |
| Blue Origin | One descent element study, one transfer vehicle study, and one transfer vehicle prototype | ||
| Boeing | One descent element study, two descent element prototypes, one transfer vehicle study, one transfer vehicle prototype, one refueling element study, and one refueling element prototype | ||
| Dynetics | One descent element study and five descent element prototypes | ||
| Lockheed Martin Space Systems | One descent element study, four descent element prototypes, one transfer vehicle study, and one refueling element study | ||
| Masten Space Systems | One descent element prototype | ||
| Maxar (formerly SSL) | One refueling element study and one refueling element prototype | ||
| Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems | One descent element study, four descent element prototypes, one refueling element study, and one refueling element prototype | ||
| OrbitBeyond | Two refueling element prototypes | ||
| Sierra Nevada Corporation | One descent element study, one descent element prototype, one transfer vehicle study, one transfer vehicle prototype, and one refueling element study | ||
| SpaceX | One descent element study, one descent element prototype | ||
| style="vertical-align: top;"
|rowspan=5|September | Blue Origin | {{right|25.6}} | |
| Dynetics | {{right|40.8}} | ||
| Lockheed Martin | {{right|35.2}} | ||
| Northrop Grumman | {{right|34.8}} | ||
| SpaceX | {{right|9.4}} |
Follow-on programs
In 2021, NASA began studies on the future Lunar Exploration Transportation Services (LETS) for regular trips between the Gateway station, lunar orbits, and the lunar surface; for sustainable HLS operations.{{cite web |url= https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander3 |title= NextSTEP N: Sustainable Human Landing System Studies and Risk Reduction |access-date= 14 September 2021 |publisher= NASA |author= NASA |date= 27 April 2021 |archive-date= 17 September 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210917200308/https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander3/ |url-status= live }}
Notes
{{notelist}}