Human geography

{{History of geography sidebar}}{{See also|History of geography}}

The Royal Geographical Society was founded in England in 1830.{{Cite web |title=History |url=http://www.rgs.org/AboutUs/History.htm |last=Royal Geographical Society |access-date=9 March 2011 |archive-date=26 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526192438/http://www.rgs.org/AboutUs/History.htm |url-status=live }} The first professor of geography in the United Kingdom was appointed in 1883,{{Cite journal |date=1961 |title=Chairs of Geography in British Universities |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40565547 |journal=Geography |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=349–353 |jstor=40565547 |issn=0016-7487 |access-date=16 July 2023 |archive-date=16 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716133828/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40565547 |url-status=live }} and the first major geographical intellect to emerge in the UK was Halford John Mackinder, appointed professor of geography at the London School of Economics in 1922.

The National Geographic Society was founded in the United States in 1888 and began publication of the National Geographic magazine which became, and continues to be, a great popularizer of geographic information. The society has long supported geographic research and education on geographical topics.

The Association of American Geographers was founded in 1904 and was renamed the American Association of Geographers in 2016 to better reflect the increasingly international character of its membership.

One of the first examples of geographic methods being used for purposes other than to describe and theorize the physical properties of the earth is John Snow's map of the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak. Though Snow was primarily a physician and a pioneer of epidemiology rather than a geographer, his map is probably one of the earliest examples of health geography.

The now fairly distinct differences between the subfields of physical and human geography developed at a later date. The connection between both physical and human properties of geography is most apparent in the theory of environmental determinism, made popular in the 19th century by Carl Ritter and others, and has close links to the field of evolutionary biology of the time. Environmental determinism is the theory that people's physical, mental and moral habits are directly due to the influence of their natural environment. However, by the mid-19th century, environmental determinism was under attack for lacking methodological rigor associated with modern science, and later as a means to justify racism and imperialism.

A similar concern with both human and physical aspects is apparent during the later 19th and first half of the 20th centuries focused on regional geography. The goal of regional geography, through something known as regionalisation, was to delineate space into regions and then understand and describe the unique characteristics of each region through both human and physical aspects. With links to possibilism and cultural ecology some of the same notions of causal effect of the environment on society and culture remain with environmental determinism.

By the 1960s, however, the quantitative revolution led to strong criticism of regional geography. Due to a perceived lack of scientific rigor in an overly descriptive nature of the discipline, and a continued separation of geography from its two subfields of physical and human geography and from geology, geographers in the mid-20th century began to apply statistical and mathematical models in order to solve spatial problems. Much of the development during the quantitative revolution is now apparent in the use of geographic information systems; the use of statistics, spatial modeling, and positivist approaches are still important to many branches of human geography. Well-known geographers from this period are Fred K. Schaefer, Waldo Tobler, William Garrison, Peter Haggett, Richard J. Chorley, William Bunge, and Torsten Hägerstrand.

From the 1970s, a number of critiques of the positivism now associated with geography emerged. Known under the term 'critical geography,' these critiques signaled another turning point in the discipline. Behavioral geography emerged for some time as a means to understand how people made perceived spaces and places and made locational decisions. The more influential 'radical geography' emerged in the 1970s and 1980s. It draws heavily on Marxist theory and techniques and is associated with geographers such as David Harvey and Richard Peet. Radical geographers seek to say meaningful things about problems recognized through quantitative methods,{{Cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |title=Social Justice and the City |publisher=Edward Arnold |year=1973 |location=London |pages=128–129 }} provide explanations rather than descriptions, put forward alternatives and solutions, and be politically engaged,{{Cite web |title=Antipode: A Radical Journal of Geography: Celebrating Over 40 years of Radical Geography 1969–2009 |url=http://www.wiley.com/bw/journal.asp?ref=0066-4812&site=1 |last=Antipode: A Radical Journal of Geography |year=2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091010193949/http://www.wiley.com/bw/journal.asp?ref=0066-4812&site=1 |archive-date=10 October 2009 |access-date=31 May 2010 }} rather than using the detachment associated with positivists. (The detachment and objectivity of the quantitative revolution was itself critiqued by radical geographers as being a tool of capital). Radical geography and the links to Marxism and related theories remain an important part of contemporary human geography (See: Antipode). Critical geography also saw the introduction of 'humanistic geography', associated with the work of Yi-Fu Tuan, which pushed for a much more qualitative approach in methodology.

The changes under critical geography have led to contemporary approaches in the discipline such as feminist geography, new cultural geography, settlement geography, and the engagement with postmodern and post-structural theories and philosophies.

The primary fields of study in human geography focus on the core fields of:

Cultural geography is the study of cultural products and norms – their variation across spaces and places, as well as their relations. It focuses on describing and analyzing the ways language, religion, economy, government, and other cultural phenomena vary or remain constant from one place to another and on explaining how humans function spatially.{{Cite book |last1=Jordan-Bychkov, Terry G. |title=The human mosaic: a thematic introduction to cultural geography |last2=Domosh |first2=Mona |last3=Rowntree |first3=Lester |publisher=HarperCollinsCollegePublishers |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-06-500731-2 |location=New York}}

File:Agriculture in Asia.jpg

• Subfields include: Social geography, Animal geographies, Language geography, Sexuality and space, Children's geographies, and Religion and geography.

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Development geography is the study of the Earth's geography with reference to the standard of living and the quality of life of its human inhabitants, study of the location, distribution and spatial organization of economic activities, across the Earth. The subject matter investigated is strongly influenced by the researcher's methodological approach.

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File:Shan Street Bazaar.JPG street bazaar, market in Myanmar]]

Economic geography examines relationships between human economic systems, states, and other factors, and the biophysical environment.

• Subfields include: Marketing geography and Transportation geography

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Medical or health geography is the application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of health, disease, and health care. Health geography deals with the spatial relations and patterns between people and the environment. This is a sub-discipline of human geography, researching how and why diseases are spread and contained.{{Cite journal |last=Dummer |first=Trevor J.B. |date=22 April 2008 |title=Health geography: supporting public health policy and planning |journal=CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal |volume=178 |issue=9 |pages=1177–1180 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.071783 |issn=0820-3946 |pmc=2292766 |pmid=18427094}}

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Historical geography is the study of the human, physical, fictional, theoretical, and "real" geographies of the past. Historical geography studies a wide variety of issues and topics. A common theme is the study of the geographies of the past and how a place or region changes through time. Many historical geographers study geographical patterns through time, including how people have interacted with their environment, and created the cultural landscape.

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Political geography is concerned with the study of both the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and the ways in which political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures.

Subfields include: Electoral geography, Geopolitics, Strategic geography and Military geography.

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Population geography is the study of ways in which spatial variations in the distribution, composition, migration, and growth of populations are related to their environment or location.

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Settlement geography, including urban geography, is the study of urban and rural areas with specific regards to spatial, relational and theoretical aspects of settlement. That is the study of areas which have a concentration of buildings and infrastructure. These are areas where the majority of economic activities are in the secondary sector and tertiary sectors.

Urban geography is the study of cities, towns, and other areas of relatively dense settlement. Two main interests are site (how a settlement is positioned relative to the physical environment) and situation (how a settlement is positioned relative to other settlements). Another area of interest is the internal organization of urban areas with regard to different demographic groups and the layout of infrastructure. This subdiscipline also draws on ideas from other branches of Human Geography to see their involvement in the processes and patterns evident in an urban area.{{Cite journal |last=Palm |first=Risa |date=1982 |title=Urban geography: city structures |journal=Progress in Geography |language=en |volume=6 |pages=89–95 |doi=10.1177/030913258200600104|s2cid=157288359 }}{{Cite book |last1=Kaplan |first1=Dave H. |title=Urban Geography, 3rd. Edition |last2=Holloway |first2=Steven |last3=Wheeler |first3=James O. |publisher=Wiley |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-118-57385-3 |location=Hoboken, NJ}}

Subfields include: Economic geography, Population geography, and Settlement geography. These are clearly not the only subfields that could be used to assist in the study of Urban geography, but they are some major players.

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Within each of the subfields, various philosophical approaches can be used in research; therefore, an urban geographer could be a Feminist or Marxist geographer, etc.

Such approaches are:

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• Animal geographies
• Behavioral geography
• Cognitive geography
• Critical geography
• Feminist geography
• Marxist geography
• Non-representational theory
• Positivism
• Postcolonialism
• Poststructuralist geography
• Psychoanalytic geography
• Psychogeography
• Spatial analysis
• Time geography

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{{main|List of notable human geographers}}

As with all social sciences, human geographers publish research and other written work in a variety of academic journals. Whilst human geography is interdisciplinary, there are a number of journals that focus on human geography.

These include:

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• ACME: An International E-Journal for Critical Geographies[http://www.acme-journal.org/Home.html ACME journal homepage.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506082829/http://www.acme-journal.org/Home.html |date=6 May 2015 }} Accessed: 18 May 2015.
• Antipode
• Area
• Dialogues in Human Geography
• Economic geography
• Environment and Planning
• Geoforum
• Geografiska Annaler
• GeoHumanities{{cite news |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rgeo20/current |title=GeoHumanities |newspaper=Taylor & Francis |access-date=26 July 2017 |archive-date=23 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240923015933/https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rgeo20/current |url-status=live }}
• Global Environmental Change: Human and Policy Dimensions{{Cite web |title=Global Environmental Change |url=https://www.journals.elsevier.com/global-environmental-change/ |via=www.journals.elsevier.com |access-date=11 May 2020}}
• Human Geography
• Migration Letters
• Progress in Human Geography
• Southeastern Geographer{{Project MUSE|279|type=journal}}
• Social & Cultural Geography{{cite news |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rscg20/current |title=Social & Cultural Geography |newspaper=Taylor & Francis |access-date=26 July 2017 |archive-date=29 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829014000/http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rscg20/current |url-status=live }}
• Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie
• Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers

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{{portal|Geography}}

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• {{Annotated link|Areography (geography of Mars)}}
• {{Annotated link|Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography}}
• {{Annotated link|History of cartography}}
• {{Annotated link|Neogeography}}
• {{Annotated link|Planetary science}}
• {{Annotated link|Political ecology}}

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{{Reflist}}

{{Library resources box}}

• {{Cite book |title=Key Concepts in Geography |publisher=SAGE |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4129-3021-5 |editor-last=Clifford |editor-first=N.J. |editor-link=Nick Clifford |edition=2nd |location=London |editor-last2=S.L. |editor-last3=Rice |editor-first3=S.P. |editor-last4=Valentine |editor-first4=G.}}
• {{Cite book |title=Modern Geographical Thought |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=1998 |isbn=978-1-55786-378-2 |editor-last=Peet |editor-first=Richard |location=Oxford}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Cloke |first1=Paul J. |title=Introducing human geographies |last2=Crang |first2=Phil |last3=Crang |first3=Philip |last4=Goodwin |first4=Mark |publisher=Hodder Arnold |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-340-88276-4 |edition=2nd |location=London}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Cloke |first1=Paul J. |title=Envisioning human geographies |last2=Crang |first2=Philip |last3=Goodwin |first3=Mark |publisher=Arnold |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-340-72013-4 |location=London}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Crang |first1=Mike |title=Thinking space |last2=Thrift |first2=Nigel J. |publisher=Routledge |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-415-16016-2 |location=London |author-link=Mike Crang |author-link2=Nigel Thrift}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Daniels |first1=Peter |title=An Introduction to Human Geography: issues for the 21st century |last2=Bradshaw |first2=Michael |last3=Shaw |first3=Denis J.B. |last4=Sidaway |first4=James D. |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-13-121766-9 |edition=2nd}}
• {{Cite book |last1=de Blij |first1=Harm |title=Geography: realms, regions, and concepts |last2=Jan |first2=De |publisher=John Wiley |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-470-12905-0 |location=Hoboken, NJ |author-link=Harm de Blij}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Flowerdew |first1=Robin |title=Methods in human geography: a guide for students doing a research project |last2=Martin |first2=David |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-582-47321-8 |edition=2nd |location=Harlow}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Gregory |first1=Derek |title=Human geography: society, space and social science |last2=Martin |first2=Ron G. |last3=Smith |first3=Graham |publisher=Macmillan |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-333-45251-6 |location=Basingstoke}}
• {{Cite book |last=Harvey |first=David D. |title=Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference |publisher=Blackwell Pub |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-55786-680-6 |author-link=David Harvey (geographer)}}
• {{Cite book |last=Johnston |first=R.J. |title=Geography and Geographers. Anglo-American Human Geography since 1945 |publisher=Edward Arnold, London |year=1979}}
• {{Cite book |last=Johnston |first=R.J. |title=The Dictionary of Human Geography |publisher=Blackwell Publishers, London |year=2009 |edition=5th}}
• {{Cite book |last=Johnston |first=R.J |title=Geographies of Global Change: Remapping the World |publisher=Blackwell Publishers, London |year=2002}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Moseley |first1=William W. |title=The Introductory Reader in Human Geography: Contemporary Debates and Classic Writings |last2=Lanegran |first2=David A. |last3=Pandit |first3=Kavita |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Limited |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4051-4922-8 |location=Malden, MA}}
• {{Cite book|last=Soja|first=Edward W.|title=Postmodern geographies : the reassertion of space in critical social theory|date=1989|publisher=Verso|isbn=0-86091-225-6|location=London|oclc=18190662}}

• {{Commons category-inline}}
• [https://worldmapper.org/ Worldmapper] – Mapping project using social data sets

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