Quantitative geography

{{See also|History of geography}}

Quantitative geography emerged in the mid-20th century as a response to the increasing demand for more systematic, empirical, and data-driven approaches to studying geographic phenomena. It is a direct product of the quantitative revolution in geography.{{cite journal |last1=Haggett |first1=Peter |title=The Local Shape of Revolution: Reflections on Quantitative Geography at Cambridge in the 1950s and 1960s |journal=Geographical Analysis |date=16 July 2008 |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=336–352 |doi=10.1111/j.1538-4632.2008.00731.x |bibcode=2008GeoAn..40..336H |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1538-4632.2008.00731.x |access-date=3 February 2023|url-access=subscription }}

It was influenced by developments in statistics, mathematics, computer science, and the physical sciences.{{cite journal |last1=Ferreira |first1=Daniela |last2=Vale |first2=Mário |title=Geography in the Big Data Age: An Overview of the Historical Resonance of Current Debates |journal=Geographical Review |date=5 Oct 2020 |volume=112 |issue=2 |pages=250–266 |doi=10.1080/00167428.2020.1832424 |hdl=10451/44565 |s2cid=225166250 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00167428.2020.1832424 |access-date=3 February 2023|hdl-access=free }} Quantitative geographers sought to use mathematical and statistical methods to better understand patterns, relationships, and processes in the spatial distribution of human and physical phenomena.

Computers perhaps had the most profound impact on quantitative geography, with techniques such as map analysis, regression analysis, and spatial statistics to investigate various geographic questions. In the 1950s and 1960s, advances in computer technology facilitated the application of quantitative methods in geography, leading to new techniques such as geographic information systems (GIS).{{cite journal |last1=Tobler |first1=Waldo |title=Automation and Cartography |journal=Geographical Review |date=1959 |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=526–534 |doi=10.2307/212211 |jstor=212211 |bibcode=1959GeoRv..49..526T |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/212211 |access-date=10 March 2022|url-access=subscription }}{{cite web|title=The 50th Anniversary of GIS|url=http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/fall12articles/the-fiftieth-anniversary-of-gis.html|publisher=ESRI|access-date=18 April 2013}} Notable early pioneers in GIS are Roger Tomlinson and Waldo Tobler. Simultaneously, new data sources, such as remote sensing and GPS, were incorporated into geographic research.{{cite journal | title = Evolution of the Global Navigation satellite system (GNSS) | first1 = Christopher J. | last1 = Hegarty | first2 = Eric | last2 = Chatre | journal = Proceedings of the IEEE | date = December 2008 | pages = 1902–1917 | doi = 10.1109/JPROC.2008.2006090 | volume=96| issue = 12 | s2cid = 838848 }}{{cite book |last1=Jensen |first1=John |title=Introductory digital image processing: a remote sensing perspective |date=2016 |publisher=Pearson Education, Inc |location=Glenview, IL |isbn=978-0-13-405816-0 |pages=623}} These tools enabled geographers to collect, analyze, and visualize large amounts of spatial data in new ways, further advancing the field of quantitative geography.

In the late 20th century, quantitative geography became a central discipline within geography, and its influence was felt in fields such as urban, economic, and environmental geography. Within academia, groups such as the Royal Geographical Society Study Group in Quantitative Methods focused on spreading these methods to students and the public through publications such as the Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography series.{{cite journal |last1=Webber |first1=M J |title=Literature for teaching quantitative geography: technique by, for, but not of geographers |journal=Environment and Planning A |date=1980 |volume=12 |issue=9 |pages=1083–1090 |doi=10.1068/a121083|bibcode=1980EnPlA..12.1083W }}{{cite journal |last1=Hall |first1=Tim |title=Reflecting on resources |journal=Journal of Geography in Higher Education |date=2019 |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1080/03098265.2019.1570091|doi-access=free }} Economics and spatial econometrics both served as a driving force and area of application for quantitative geography.{{cite book |last1=Martinez-Galarraga |first1=Julio |last2=Silvestre |first2=Javier |last3=Tirado-Fabregat |first3=Daniel A. |editor1-last=Diebolt |editor1-first=Claude |editor2-last=Haupert |editor2-first=Michael |title=Handbook of Cliometrics |date=24 August 2023 |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-642-40458-0 |url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-642-40458-0_119-1 |access-date=15 December 2023 |chapter=Quantitative Economic Geography and Economic History|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-40458-0_119-1 }}

Today, research in quantitative geography continues, focusing on using innovative quantitative methods and technologies to address complex geographic questions and problems.

File:Worldwind.png|Geoinformatics

File:Fig 4.4.png|Geographic information science

File:Interpolation-nearest.svg|Geostatistics

File:MapAlgebra.png|Map algebra

File:Euclidean Voronoi diagram.svg|Statistical geography

File:Example_krig.png|Spatial analysis

{{Excerpt|Quantitative revolution|hat=yes|paragraphs=1}}

{{main|Category: Laws of geography}}

File:Waldo Tobler 2007.jpg

The concept of laws in geography is a product of the quantitative revolution and is a central focus of quantitative geography.{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=Robert Toovey |title=Geography, Von Thünen, and Tobler's first law: Tracing the evolution of a concept |journal=Geographical Review |date=28 Apr 2021 |volume=112 |issue=4 |pages=591–607 |doi=10.1080/00167428.2021.1906670|s2cid=233620037 }} Their emergence is highly influential and one of the major contributions of quantitative geography to the broader branch of technical geography.{{cite journal |last1=Haidu |first1=Ionel |title=What is Technical Geography – a letter from the editor |journal=Geographia Technica |date=2016 |volume=11 |pages=1–5 |doi=10.21163/GT_2016.111.01|doi-access=free }} The discipline of geography is unlikely to settle the matter anytime soon. Several laws have been proposed, and Tobler's first law of geography is the most widely accepted. The first law of geography, and its relation to spatial autocorrelation, is highly influential in the development of technical geography.

Some have argued that geographic laws do not need to be numbered. The existence of a first invites a second, and many are proposed as that. It has also been proposed that Tobler's first law of geography should be moved to the second and replaced with another.{{cite journal |last1=Goodchild |first1=Michael |title=The Validity and Usefulness of Laws in Geographic Information Science and Geography |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |date=2004 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=300–303 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09402008.x|s2cid=17912938 }} A few of the proposed laws of geography are below:

• Tobler's first law of geography: "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant"{{cite journal |last1=Tobler |first1=Waldo |title=On the First Law of Geography: A Reply |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |date=2004 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=304–310 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09402009.x |s2cid=33201684 |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09402009.x |access-date=10 March 2022|url-access=subscription }}
• Tobler's second law of geography: "The phenomenon external to a geographic area of interest affects what goes on inside."
• Arbia's law of geography: "Everything is related to everything else, but things observed at a coarse spatial resolution are more related than things observed at a finer resolution."{{cite journal |last1=Arbia |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Benedetti |first2=R. |last3=Espa |first3=G. |title="Effects of MAUP on image classification" |journal=Journal of Geographical Systems |date=1996 |volume=3 |pages=123–141}}{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Peter |title=The laws of geography |journal=Teaching Geography |date=2005 |volume=30 |issue=3 |page=150}}
• Uncertainty principle: "that the geographic world is infinitely complex and that any representation must therefore contain elements of uncertainty, that many definitions used in acquiring geographic data contain elements of vagueness, and that it is impossible to measure location on the Earth's surface exactly."

{{See also|Critical geography}}

{{more citations needed section|date=October 2023}}

Critical geography presents critiques against the approach adopted in quantitative geography, sometimes labeled by the critics as a "positivist" approach particularly in relation to the so-called "quantitative revolution" of the 1960s. One of the primary criticisms is reductionism, contending that the emphasis on quantifying data and utilizing mathematical models tends to oversimplify the intricate nature of social and spatial phenomena. Critics also argue that quantitative methods may disregard the unique cultural and historical contexts of specific geographical locations. Critics have likewise argued that reliance on digital mapping tools and technology can restrict the capacity to address certain complex geographical issues and claim that quantitative data collection methods can introduce partiality into the analysis; for example, existing power structures can influence quantitative research by shaping the types of data collected and analyzed.

Quantitative geography has been criticized as being limited in scope because spatial data may not adequately capture certain dimensions of cultural, political, and social relations in human geographies. Lastly, critics emphasize the absence of a critical perspective within this approach, arguing that the unwavering focus on objective and empirical data analysis can divert attention from vital social and political questions, hindering a holistic understanding of geographical issues. The critics argue that these criticisms collectively suggest the need for a more nuanced and context-aware approach in the field of geography.

Quantitative geographers have responded to the criticisms to various degrees, including that the critiques' broad brush and associated labeling are misplaced.

{{Cquote|quote="Quantitative geographers do not often concern themselves with philosophy, and although externally we are often labeled (incorrectly in many cases) as positivists, such a label has little or zero impact on the way in which we prosecute research. We do not, for example, concern ourselves with whether our intended research strategy breaches some tenet of positivist philosophy. Indeed, most of us would have scant knowledge of what such tenets are. As Barnes (2001) observes, for many of us, our first experience with positivism occurs when it is directed at us as a form of criticism." |author=Stewart Fotheringham|source={{cite book|last=Fotheringham|first=A. Stewart|title=Approaches to Human Geography|date=2006|publisher=Sage|chapter=Quantification, Evidence and Positivism|editor-last1=Aitken|editor-first1=Stuart|editor-last2=Valentine|editor-first2=Gil|chapter-url=https://sk.sagepub.com/books/approaches-to-human-geography/n23.xml}}}}

{{See also|List of geographers}}

• Alexander Stewart Fotheringham (1954) – contributed to the development of geographically weighted regression.
• Arthur Getis (1934–2022) – influential in spatial statistics
• Brian Berry (1934) – contributed to the refinement of central place theory.
• Dana Tomlin – developer of map algebra
• Duane Marble (1931-2022) – influential in geographic information science
• Edward Augustus Ackerman (1911–1973) - advocated for approaching human-environment interaction as an interaction between systems.
• Fred K. Schaefer (1904–1953)- called for a scientific approach to geography based upon the search for geographical laws
• George F. Jenks (1916-1996) – influential in computer cartography and thematic mapping
• Mei-Po Kwan (born 1962) - geographer that coined the Uncertain geographic context problem and the neighborhood effect averaging problem.
• Michael DeMers (born 1951) – geographer who wrote numerous books contributing to geographic information systems
• Mark Monmonier (born 1943) – cartographic theorist who wrote numerous books contributing to geographic information systems
• Michael Frank Goodchild (born 1944) – GIS scholar and winner of the RGS founder's medal in 2003
• Richard J. Chorley (1927–2002) - played an instrumental role in bringing in the use of systems theory to geography.{{cite book|last1=Jackson|first1= Michael C|title=Systems approaches to management|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|date=2000|doi=10.1007/b100327|isbn= 0-306-46500-0}}
• Roger Tomlinson (1933–2014) – the primary originator of modern geographic information systems
• Stan Openshaw (1946 – 2022) – influential British geographer in the use of computer-based/computational geography
• Kelvyn Jones (born 1953) - developed multilevel models that analyze at multiple scales simultaneously
• Torsten Hägerstrand (1916–2004)- established the discipline of time geography
• Waldo Tobler (1930–2018) – coined the first and second law of geography
• William Bunge (1928–2013) - early quantitative geographer
• William Garrison (1924–2015) - Early leader of the quantitative revolution and one of the founders of regional science.

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• Areography (geography of Mars)
• Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography
• Design of experiments
• Map communication model
• Modifiable areal unit problem
• Modifiable temporal unit problem
• Neogeography
• Planetary science
• Quantitative history
• Scientific Geography Series
• Uncertain geographic context problem

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{{notelist|30em}}

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{{Geography topics|state=uncollapsed}}

Category:Technical geography

Category:Quantitative research