Icterid

The name, meaning "jaundiced ones" (from the prominent yellow feathers of many species) comes from the {{Langx|grc|ἴκτερος}} - íkteros via the {{Langx|la|ictericus}}.

This group includes the New World blackbirds, New World orioles, the bobolink, meadowlarks, grackles, cowbirds, oropendolas, and caciques.

Despite the similar names, the first groups are only distantly related to the Old World common blackbird (a thrush) or to the Old World orioles.

The Icteridae are not to be confused with the Icteriidae, a family created in 2017 and consisting of one species — the yellow-breasted chat (Icteria virens).{{Cite journal|last1=Chesser|first1=R. Terry|last2=Burns|first2=Kevin J.|last3=Cicero|first3=Carla|last4=Dunn|first4=Jon L.|last5=Kratter|first5=Andrew W.|last6=Lovette|first6=Irby J.|last7=Rasmussen|first7=Pamela C.|last8=Remsen|first8=J. V.|last9=Rising|first9=James D. | year=2017 |title=Fifty-eighth supplement to the American Ornithological Society's Check-list of North American Birds|journal=The Auk|volume=134|issue=3|pages=751–773|doi=10.1642/auk-17-72.1|doi-access=free|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1236363}}

Most icterid species live in the tropics, although many species also occur in temperate regions, such as the red-winged blackbird and the long-tailed meadowlark. The highest densities of breeding species are found in Colombia and southern Mexico.Lowther P (1975) "Geographic and Ecological Variation in the Family Icteridae" Wilson Bulletin 87 (4): 481-495 They inhabit a range of habitats, including scrub, swamp, forest, and savanna. Temperate species are migratory, with many species that nest in the United States and Canada moving south into Mexico and Central America.

File:Euphagus cyanocephalus male gaping.jpg apparently gaping (see text) in soil]]

Icterids are variable in size, and often display considerable sexual dimorphism, with brighter coloration and greater size in males being typical. While such dimorphism is widely known in passerines, the sexual dimorphism by size is uniquely extreme in icterids. For example, the male great-tailed grackle is 60% heavier than the female. The smallest icterid species is the orchard oriole, in which the female averages 15 cm in length (6 in) and {{convert|18|g|lb|abbr=on}} in weight, while the largest is the Amazonian oropendola, the male of which measures {{convert|52|cm|in|abbr=on}} and weighs about {{convert|550|g|lb|abbr=on}}. This variation is greater than in any other passerine family (unless the kinglet calyptura belongs with the cotingas, which would then have greater variation{{Citation | last1 = Prum | first1 = Richard O. | last2 = Snow | first2 = David W. | year = 2003 | title = Firefly Encyclopedia of Birds | chapter = Cotingas | editor = Christopher Perrins | pages = [https://archive.org/details/fireflyencyclope0000unse/page/432 432–433] | publisher = Firefly Books | isbn = 1-55297-777-3 | chapter-url-access = registration | chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/fireflyencyclope0000unse/page/432 }}). One unusual morphological adaptation shared by the icterids is gaping, where the skull is configured to allow them to open their bills strongly rather than passively, allowing them to force open gaps to obtain otherwise hidden food. Most icterids have rounded tails and lack rictal bristles. They have nine primary feathers{{cite book |author=Austin, Oliver Luther |title=Birds of the world : a survey of the twenty-seven orders and one hundred and fifty-five families |publisher=Hamlyn |year=1962 |page=287}} and are placed among the nine-primaried oscines.

Icterids have adapted to taking a wide range of foods. Oropendolas and caciques use their gaping motion to open the skins of fruit to obtain the soft insides, and have long bills adapted to the process. Others such as cowbirds and the bobolink have shorter, stubbier bills for crushing seeds. The Jamaican blackbird uses its bill to pry amongst tree bark and epiphytes, and has adopted the evolutionary niche filled elsewhere in the Neotropics by woodcreepers. Orioles drink nectar.

The nesting habits of these birds are also variable, including pendulous woven nests in the oropendolas and orioles. Many icterids are colonial, nesting in colonies of up to 100,000 birds. Some cowbird species engage in brood parasitism; females lay their eggs in the nests of other species, in a similar fashion to some cuckoos.{{Citation |editor=Forshaw, Joseph|author= Parkes, Kenneth C.|year=1991|title=Encyclopaedia of Animals: Birds|publisher= Merehurst Press|location=London|pages= 214–215|isbn= 1-85391-186-0}}

Some species of icterid have become agricultural pests; for example, red-winged blackbirds in the United States are considered the worst vertebrate pests on some crops, such as rice.Dolbeer, R & S Ickes (1994) "Red-winged Blackbird feeding preferences and response to wild rice treated with Portland cement or plaster" Vertebrate Pest Conference Proceedings collection Proceedings of the Sixteenth Vertebrate Pest Conference (1994) (W.S. Halverson& A.C. Crabb, Eds.) Univ. of Calif.:Davis. The cost of controlling blackbirds in California was $30 per acre in 1994. Not all species have been as successful, and a number of species are threatened with extinction. These include insular forms such as the Jamaican blackbird, yellow-shouldered blackbird, and St Lucia oriole, all threatened by habitat loss; and the tricolored blackbird of California, which is threatened by habitat loss and destruction of nests.

Cacique and oropendola species are called paucar or similar names in Peru.{{Citation|title=Manu Peru Manu - Aves |year=2007 |publisher=Enjoy Corporation S. A. |url=http://www.enjoyperu.com/guiadedestinos/manu/birds/index2.htm |access-date=2007-09-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060225233559/http://www.enjoyperu.com/guiadedestinos/manu/birds/index2.htm |archive-date=2006-02-25 }}{{citation | title = Muyuna Amazon Lodge, Iquitos - Peru | url = http://www.muyuna.com/ | access-date = 2007-09-28}}. Click the link to Fauna and scroll forward one page. As paucares are considered very intelligent, Native Americans feed the brains to their children to make them fast learners.{{citation | title = Moyobamba - Peru | year = 2007 | url = http://www.moyobamba.com/online/leyendas_moyobamba.php | access-date = 2007-09-28 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080106225025/http://www.moyobamba.com/online/leyendas_moyobamba.php | archive-date = 2008-01-06 }}. The source given is Moyobamba, apuntes turísticos y geográficos by Pedro Vargas Roja. As the male plays no part in nesting and care of the young, a man who does not work may be called a "male paucar".{{citation | title = Aves en Soritor - Distrito de soritor Moyobamba - Alto Mayo - San Martín - Peru | year = 2006 | url = http://www.soritor.com/recursos-naturales/aves-en-soritor/index.html | access-date = 2007-09-28}}

{{See also|List of icterid species}}

The family group was introduced in 1825 as a subfamily Icterina by Irish zoologist Nicholas Vigors. He placed the subfamily in the starling family Sturnidae.{{ cite journal | last=Vigors | first=Nicholas Aylward | author-link=Nicholas Aylward Vigors | year=1825 | title=Sketches in ornithology ; or, observations on the leading affinities of some of the more extensive groups of birds (continued) | journal=Zoological Journal | volume=2 | issue=6 | pages=182–197 [184] | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2255443 }}

A phylogenetic analysis of the passerine families by Carl Oliveros and collaborators published in 2019 found that the family Icteridae was sister to the family Icteriidae (containing the yellow breasted chat) and together these two families formed a clade that was sister to the New World warbler family Parulidae.{{ cite journal | last1=Oliveros | first1=C.H. | display-authors=etal | year=2019 | title=Earth history and the passerine superradiation | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States | volume=116 | issue=16 | pages=7916–7925 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1813206116 | doi-access=free | pmid=30936315 | pmc=6475423 | bibcode=2019PNAS..116.7916O }}

{{Clade | style=font-size:100%;line-height:100%

|1={{clade

|1=Parulidae – New World warblers (120 species)

|2={{clade

|1=Icteriidae – yellow breasted chat

|2=Icteridae

}}

}}

}}

The genus level cladogram shown below is based on a molecular phylogenetic study by Alexis Powell and collaborators that was published in 2014. The study compared mitochondrial gene sequences.{{ cite journal | last1=Powell | first1=A.F.L.A. | last2=Barker | first2=F.K. | last3=Lanyon | first3=S.M. | last4=Burns | first4=K.J. | last5=Klicka | first5=J. | last6=Lovette | first6=I.J. | year=2014 | title=A comprehensive species-level molecular phylogeny of the New World blackbirds (Icteridae) | journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume=71 | pages=94–112 | doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2013.11.009 | pmid=24291659 | bibcode=2014MolPE..71...94P }} The subfamilies are those that were proposed in 2016 by Van Remsen and collaborators.{{ cite journal | last1=Remsen | first1=J.V. Jr. | last2=Powell | first2=A.F.L.A. | last3=Schodde | first3=R. | last4=Barker | first4=F.K. | last5=Lanyon | first5=S.M. | year=2016 | title=A revised classification of the Icteridae (Aves) based on DNA sequence data | journal=Zootaxa | volume=4093 | issue=2 | pages=285–292 | doi=10.11646/zootaxa.4093.2.9 | pmid=27394496 }} The numbers of species are taken from the list maintained by Frank Gill, Pamela Rasmussen and David Donsker on behalf of the International Ornithological Committee (IOC).{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela Rasmussen | date=July 2023 | title=Oropendolas, orioles, blackbirds | work=IOC World Bird List Version 13.2 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/blackbirds/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=19 November 2023 }}

{{Clade | style=font-size:90%;line-height:90%

|label1=Icteridae

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|label1=Xanthocephalinae

|1=Xanthocephalus – yellow-headed blackbird

|2={{clade

|label1=Dolichonychinae

|1=Dolichonyx – bobolink

|label2=Sturnellinae

|2={{clade

|1=Sturnella – meadow larks (3 species)

|2=Leistes – blackbirds and meadowlarks (5 species)

}}

}}

}}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|label1=Amblycercinae

|1=Amblycercus – yellow-billed cacique

|label2=Cassicinae

|2={{clade

|1=Cassiculus – Mexican cacique

|2={{clade

|1=Psarocolius – oropendolas (9 species)

|2=Cacicus – Caciques and oropendolas (11 species)

}}

}}

}}

|2={{clade

|label1=Icterinae

|1=Icterus – orioles (32 species)

|label2=Agelaiinae

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Nesopsar – Jamaican blackbird

|2=Agelaius – (5 species)

}}

|2={{clade

|1=Molothrus – cowbirds (6 species)

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Dives – blackbirds (2 species)

|2={{clade

|1=Ptiloxena – Cuban blackbird

|2={{clade

|1=Euphagus – blackbirds (2 species)

|2=Quiscalus – grackles (7 species)

}}

}}

}}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Lampropsar – velvet-fronted grackle

|2=Hypopyrrhus – red-bellied grackle

}}

|2={{clade

|1=Gymnomystax – oriole blackbird

|2=Macroagelaius – mountain grackles (2 species)

}}

}}

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Amblyramphus – scarlet-headed blackbird

|2=Curaeus – austral blackbird

}}

|2={{clade

|1=Anumara – Forbes's blackbird

|2={{clade

|1=Gnorimopsar – chopi blackbird

|2={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=Agelaioides – baywings (2 species)

|2=Oreopsar – Bolivian blackbird

}}

|2={{clade

|1=Agelasticus – blackbirds (3 species)

|2={{clade

|1=Chrysomus – blackbirds (2 species)

|2={{clade

|1=Xanthopsar – saffron-cowled blackbird

|2=Pseudoleistes – marshbirds (2 species)

}}

}}

}}

}}

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Prehistoric icterid genera that have been described from Pleistocene fossil remains are Pandanaris from Rancho La Brea and Pyelorhamphus from Shelter Cave.

==References ==

{{Reflist|}}

{{EB1911 poster|Icterus}}

• [http://ibc.lynxeds.com/family/new-world-blackbirds-icteridae New World Blackbirds (Icteridae)] - videos, photos and sounds at the Internet Bird Collection
• [http://tolweb.org/Icteridae/67292 Icteridae] - Tree of Life Web Project

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Category:Birds of the Americas

Category:Taxa named by Nicholas Aylward Vigors