Indigenous science

Indigenous knowledge and experiences are often passed down orally from generation to generation. Indigenous knowledge has an empirical basis and has traditionally been used to predict and understand the world. Such knowledge has informed studies of human management of natural processes.

This oral knowledge is embedded in songs and dances, which allows for accurate information to be passed down for centuries as songs and dances are easier to remember, and harder to change than spoken stories. Oral histories are not fairy tales or legends, but have arisen through intense observation and are a critical part of Indigenous culture.{{cite book |last1=Basso |first1=Keith H. |title=Wisdom Sits in Places: Landscape and Language Among the Western Apache |date=1996 |publisher=UNM Press |isbn=978-0-8263-1724-7 }}{{pn|date=December 2024}}{{Cite web |date=2018-03-27 |title=Aboriginal stories accurate |url=https://www.abc.net.au/listen/programs/greatmomentsinscience/aboriginal-stories-accurate/9576744 |access-date=2024-11-24 |website=ABC listen |language=en-AU}}

For instance, in Australian aboriginal tribes, oral traditions are a key tool for passing information of geological events. One recent application was the discovery of the Henbury Meteorite site, as songs and dances from various aboriginal tribes marked when and where the meteorite touched down, while no Western historians had been able to determine its placement. Oral storytelling is also used to map ocean levels after the most recent ice age, and is used in astronomy, ecology, and agriculture.{{Cite book |last=Kimmerer |first=Robin Wall |title=Braiding sweetgrass |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-57131-335-5 |edition=1st |location=Minneapolis, Minnesota |oclc=829743464 }}{{pn|date=December 2024}}{{Cite web |last=Hamacher |first=Duane |date=2015-03-03 |title=Finding meteorite impacts in Aboriginal oral tradition |url=https://theconversation.com/finding-meteorite-impacts-in-aboriginal-oral-tradition-38052 |access-date=2024-11-24 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}

{{main|traditional ecological knowledge}}

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Indigenous science is related to the term "traditional ecological knowledge" or "TEK" which is specific category of Indigenous science that applies to the natural world, usually focused on agriculture, sustainability and wildlife.{{Cite journal |last1=Snively |first1=Gloria |last2=Corsiglia |first2=John |year=2000 |title=Discovering indigenous science: Implications for science education |journal=Science Education |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=6–34 |doi=10.1002/1098-237x(200101)85:1<6::aid-sce3>3.0.co;2-r }}

The study of ecology focuses on the relationships and patterns between organisms in their environment.{{Cite book |last=Odum |first=Eugene |title=Fundamentals of Ecology |publisher=Saunders Philadelphia |year=1971 |edition=Vol. 3}} TEK is place-based, so the information and understanding that is applied to this field from Indigenous groups is context-dependent.{{Cite journal |last1=Alexander |first1=Steven M. |last2=Provencher |first2=Jennifer F. |last3=Henri |first3=Dominique A. |last4=Nanayakkara |first4=Lushani |last5=Taylor |first5=Jessica J. |last6=Berberi |first6=Albana |last7=Lloren |first7=Jed Immanuel |last8=Johnson |first8=Jay T. |last9=Ballard |first9=Myrle |last10=Cooke |first10=Steven J. |date=July 2021 |title=Bridging Indigenous and Western sciences in freshwater research, monitoring, and management in Canada |journal=Ecological Solutions and Evidence |volume=2 |issue=3 |doi=10.1002/2688-8319.12085 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021EcoSE...2E2085A }} One example of such work is ethnobiology which employs Indigenous knowledge and botany to identify and classify species.{{Cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Jay T. |last2=Howitt |first2=Richard |last3=Cajete |first3=Gregory |last4=Berkes |first4=Fikret |last5=Louis |first5=Renee Pualani |last6=Kliskey |first6=Andrew |date=2016-01-01 |title=Weaving Indigenous and sustainability sciences to diversify our methods |journal=Sustainability Science |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1007/s11625-015-0349-x |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016SuSc...11....1J }} TEK has been used to provide perspectives on matters such as how a declining fish population affects nature, the food web, and coastal ecosystems.{{Cite journal |last1=Díaz |first1=Sandra |last2=Demissew |first2=Sebsebe |last3=Carabias |first3=Julia |last4=Joly |first4=Carlos |last5=Lonsdale |first5=Mark |last6=Ash |first6=Neville |last7=Larigauderie |first7=Anne |last8=Adhikari |first8=Jay Ram |last9=Arico |first9=Salvatore |last10=Báldi |first10=András |last11=Bartuska |first11=Ann |last12=Baste |first12=Ivar Andreas |last13=Bilgin |first13=Adem |last14=Brondizio |first14=Eduardo |last15=Chan |first15=Kai MA |date=2015-06-01 |title=The IPBES Conceptual Framework — connecting nature and people |journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability |series=Open Issue |volume=14 |pages=1–16 |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2014.11.002 |bibcode=2015COES...14....1D |doi-access=free |hdl=11336/56765 |hdl-access=free }}

Indigenous science has helped to address ecological challenges including the restoration of salmon, management of seabird harvests, outbreaks of hantavirus, and addressing wildfires. As well as in ecology, Indigenous knowledge has been used in biological areas including animal behavior, evolution, physiology, life history, morphology, wildlife conservation, wildlife health, and taxonomy.{{cite journal |last1=Jessen |first1=Tyler D |last2=Ban |first2=Natalie C |last3=Claxton |first3=Nicholas XEMŦOLTW |last4=Darimont |first4=Chris T |date=15 November 2021 |title=Contributions of Indigenous Knowledge to ecological and evolutionary understanding |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |publisher=Wiley |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=93–101 |doi=10.1002/fee.2435 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=1828/13751 }}{{Cite journal |last=John, Kelsey Dayle. |first=John, Gilbert H |date=2023 |title=A Review of Indigenous Perspectives in Animal Biosciences |journal= Annual Review of Animal Biosciences|volume=11:307-319|pages=307–319 |doi=10.1146/annurev-animal-051622-091935 |pmid=36790889 |doi-access=free }}{{Cite web |title=Indigenous and local knowledge systems in wildlife conservation science {{!}} Tropical Resources Institute |url=https://tri.yale.edu/tropical-resources/tropical-resources-vol-39/indigenous-and-local-knowledge-systems-wildlife |access-date=2024-11-25 |website=tri.yale.edu}}

Indigenous science may offer a different perspective from what is traditionally thought of as "science".{{Citation |last=Anto. |first=Johnson, Peter |title=Indigenous North American cosmological and astronomical knowledge : perspectives & teachings |isbn=978-1-77369-702-4 |oclc=1333224828 }}{{pn|date=December 2024}} In particular, Indigenous science is tied to territory, cultural practices, and experiences/teachings in explicit ways that are often absent in normal scientific discourse.{{cite journal |last1=Aikenhead |first1=Glen S. |last2=Ogawa |first2=Masakata |title=Indigenous knowledge and science revisited |journal=Cultural Studies of Science Education |date=28 September 2007 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=539–620 |doi=10.1007/s11422-007-9067-8 |bibcode=2007CSSE....2..539A }}

Place based Indigenous science also is common outside of the academic sphere. Climatology scientists in Alaska and the Artic commonly work with traditional knowledge (Qaujimajatuqangit) among the Inuit when studying long-term changes in sea ice, along with studying other aspects of biology.{{cite web |last1=Nicholas |first1=George |date=21 February 2018 |title=When Scientists "Discover" What Indigenous People Have Known For Centuries |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/why-science-takes-so-long-catch-up-traditional-knowledge-180968216/ |access-date=12 August 2022 |publisher=Smithsonian |archive-date=12 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812184923/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/why-science-takes-so-long-catch-up-traditional-knowledge-180968216/ |url-status=live }}{{cite web |title=Enabling Resiliency in the Face of Climate Change: SmartICE is an award-winning technological innovation for the North. |url=https://smartice.org/ |access-date=12 August 2022 |website=SmartIce |quote=We are the worldʼs first climate change adaptation tool to integrate traditional knowledge of sea ice with advanced data acquisition and remote monitoring technology. Our system combines these approaches to provide invaluable, data-driven insights into sea ice thickness and local ice conditions, in near real-time. |archive-date=4 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220804094003/https://smartice.org/ |url-status=live }} In the Canadian Arctic, large data organizations like the [https://www.beaufortseapartnership.ca/initiatives/beaufortsea-online-platform/ Inuvialuit Settlement Region Online Platform], Marxan, and [https://nunaliit.org/ Nunaliit Atlas Framework] inform marine and coastal management practices by using Inuit knowledge.{{Cite web |title=Research at a Glance |url=https://irc.inuvialuit.com/research/research-at-a-glance/ |access-date=2024-11-25 |website=Inuvialuit Regional Corporation}} Many times, this information is passed down in Inuit communities by generation using oral tradition and informs the communities on harvesting, hunting, traveling, and living on the land.{{Cite web |last=chloe |date=2024-09-13 |title=Inuit Storytelling: Preserving Heritage Through Oral Traditions |url=https://www.momentslog.com/culture/inuit-storytelling-preserving-heritage-through-oral-traditions |access-date=2024-11-25 |website=Moments Log |language=en-US}} This information may apply to decisions on conservation of harvesting sties and mating sites of various animals in the Artic. Inuit knowledge of these areas includes seasonal variations, ecological dynamics, wind direction, and ice dynamics. This knowledge has been gained through historical memories, family and community relations, place names, and open water or sea ice routes.{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-44975-9_8 |chapter=Knowledge and Data: An Exploration of the Use of Inuit Knowledge in Decision Support Systems in Marine Management |title=Governance of Arctic Shipping |series=Springer Polar Sciences |date=2020 |last1=Aporta |first1=Claudio |last2=Bishop |first2=Breanna |last3=Choi |first3=Olivia |last4=Wang |first4=Weishan |pages=151–169 |isbn=978-3-030-44974-2 }}

Place names are common in many different Indigenous groups cultures, and are relevant for ecological knowledge.{{Cite web |title=The Relationship Between Indigenous Peoples and Place Names |url=https://www.ictinc.ca/blog/the-relationship-between-indigenous-peoples-and-place-names?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2024-11-25 |website=www.ictinc.ca |language=en}} In Inuit communities, place names indicate group knowledge, memories, experiences and observations of the area. One example is Salliq, an island east of Igloolik. Salliq means "the furthest island from the mainland", and contextualizes the island in reference to its surroundings. Place names are also common in Kānaka Maoli culture, or Native Hawaiian culture.{{Cite book |last=Kanaÿiaupuni, Shawn Malia. |first=Malone, Nolan |title=Hülili: Multidisciplinary Research on Hawaiian Well-Being, This Land Is My Land: The Role of Place in Native Hawaiian Identity |date=2006 |publisher=Kamehameha Publishing |isbn=1-932660-04-6 |edition=3 No.1 |location=Honolulu, Hawaiÿi}} One example is the naming of mountains and craters. Halemaʻumaʻu is a crater on Hawai’i and means "House [surrounded by] ʻamaʻu ferns." This name is tied both to ecology, and to oral histories of the Kānaka Maoli, as it tells of a battle between two supernatural beings - Pele and Kamapuaʻa, but also describes that this crater is home to the largest tree ferns on the island.{{cite book |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195143904.003.0006 |chapter=Na Kānaka Maoli |title=Diversity in Human Interactions |date=2003 |last1=Kenui |first1=Cynthia Kanoelani |pages=93–110 |isbn=978-0-19-514390-4 }}{{Cite web |last= |first= |last2= |first2= |title=Restoration of Indigenous Place Names - Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/havo/learn/historyculture/place-names.htm |access-date=2024-11-25 |website=www.nps.gov |language=en}}

Collaboration between Indigenous communities and research scientists can be seen in Indigenous-led projects and community work enacted as a starting point for the collaborations.{{Cite journal |last1=Hernandez |first1=Jessica |last2=Spencer |first2=Michael |year=2022 |title=Weaving Indigenous Science into Ecological Sciences: Culturally Grounding Our Indigenous Scholarship |journal=Human Biology |doi=10.1353/hub.2017.0088 }} This collaboration has steadily been increasing, one reason being higher education, especially at Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCU).{{Cite web |title=Tribal Colleges and Universities in the United States: What They Are, Who They Serve, and Why They Matter |url=https://www.onlineu.com/magazine/tribal-colleges-universities |access-date=2024-11-25 |website=www.onlineu.com |language=en}} Many TCUs offer associates degrees, while 19 offer a bachelor’s degree and 3 universities offer a masters (Haskell Indian Nations University, the Institute of American Indian and Alaska Native Culture and Arts Development, and Sinte Gleska University).{{Cite web |title=Tribal Colleges and Universities in the United States: What They Are, Who They Serve, and Why They Matter |url=https://www.onlineu.com/magazine/tribal-colleges-universities |access-date=2024-11-25 |website=www.onlineu.com |language=en}} TCUs were created to give American Indian and Alaska Native students education, but students from other demographics can attend as well. There are many barriers to higher education, especially for historically marginalized and underrepresented groups.{{Cite journal |last1=Thiem |first1=Kelsey C. |last2=Dasgupta |first2=Nilanjana |date=January 2022 |title=From Precollege to Career: Barriers Facing Historically Marginalized Students and Evidence-Based Solutions |journal=Social Issues and Policy Review |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=212–251 |doi=10.1111/sipr.12085 }} TCUs are a way to overcome these barriers. These universities are usually located close to reservations and serve low-income students, allowing education to be accessible to Native Americans. TCUs also provide a platform for scientific advancement and action, as Haskell University hosted their first symposium on climate change in November, 2024. This event connected Haskell students and professors with individuals from larger public and private research universities, such as University of Kansas, University of Missouri-Kansas City, UCLA and Harvard.{{Cite web |date=2024-11-12 |title=Haskell to host first symposium on climate change, childhood health |url=https://lawrencekstimes.com/2024/11/12/haskell-climate-change-symposium-pre/ |access-date=2024-11-25 |website=The Lawrence Times |language=en-US}}

The definition of technology is "the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry."{{fact|date=December 2024}} Examples of Indigenous technologies that were developed for specific use based on their location and culture include: clam gardens, fish weirs, and culturally modified trees (CMTs).{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-981-287-170-1_4 |chapter=Indigenous Technology in Technology Education Curricula and Teaching |title=The Future of Technology Education |date=2015 |last1=Gumbo |first1=Mishack T. |pages=57–75 |isbn=978-981-287-169-5 }} Indigenous technologies are available in a wide range of subjects such as: agri- and mari-culture, fishing, forest management and resource exploitation, astronomy, atmospheric, and land based management techniques.

Indigenous tribes that utilize agriculture technologies include the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois), O'odham, Wampanoag, Cherokee, Great Lakes tribes (including the Menominee, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi) and more.{{Cite web |last=zschaeffer |date=2013-10-07 |title=The Three Sisters... And that Fourth Sister No One Really Talks About |url=https://rodaleinstitute.org/blog/the-three-sistersand-that-fourth-sister-no-one-really-talks-about/ |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=Rodale Institute |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |last1=Hill |first1=Christina Gish |last2=University |first2=Iowa State |last3=Conversation |first3=The |date=2024-11-25 |title=Returning the 'three sisters' – corn, beans and squash – to Native American farms nourishes people, land and cultures |url=https://www.northcountrynow.com/premium/theconversation/stories/returning-the-three-sisters-corn-beans-and-squash-to-native-american-farms-nourishes,273900 |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=North Country Now |language=en}} Some of these agricultural techniques are based on a mixed-crop, shifting cultivation system{{Cite journal |last=Foster |first=I. H. T |year=2010 |title=Risk Management among Native American Horticulturalists of the Southeastern United States (1715-1825) |journal=Journal of Anthropological Research |volume=66 |pages=69–96 |doi=10.3998/jar.0521004.0066.104 }} growing corn, beans, and squash together in the same mounds; an inter-cropping system known as the three sisters.{{cite journal |last1=Ngapo |first1=Tania M. |last2=Bilodeau |first2=Pauline |last3=Arcand |first3=Yves |last4=Charles |first4=Marie Thérèse |last5=Diederichsen |first5=Axel |last6=Germain |first6=Isabelle |last7=Liu |first7=Qiang |last8=MacKinnon |first8=Shawna |last9=Messiga |first9=Aimé J. |last10=Mondor |first10=Martin |last11=Villeneuve |first11=Sébastien |last12=Ziadi |first12=Noura |last13=Gariépy |first13=Stéphane |title=Historical Indigenous Food Preparation Using Produce of the Three Sisters Intercropping System |journal=Foods |date=3 March 2021 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=524 |doi=10.3390/foods10030524 |pmid=33802384 |doi-access=free |pmc=8001537 }} The use of the three sisters originated in the 1100s in Mesoamerica and is known as milpa, and diffused throughout North America and Canada. In this horticultural technique, each plant offers something to the others, thus improving the crop yield.{{Cite web |date=2024-10-22 |title=Milpa {{!}} Description, History, Three Sisters, Indigenous Agriculture, Benefits, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/three-sisters |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Mookerjee |first=Dr Sonali |date=2024-09-30 |title=Why Did The Indigenous People Of The Americas Grow The Three Sisters? |url=https://www.scienceabc.com/nature/why-did-the-indigenous-people-of-the-americas-grow-the-three-sisters.html |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=ScienceABC |language=en-US}} Corn is a high-caloric food, supported by the beans, which provide nitrogen from nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live on their roots, and squash provide ground cover (suppresses weeds and keeps soil moist). Other crops incorporated in the inter-cropping system included sunflowers or grains like barley or maygrass.{{Cite journal |last1=Scarry |first1=C Margaret |last2=Scarry |first2=John F |date=June 2005 |title=Native American 'garden agriculture' in southeastern North America |journal=World Archaeology |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=259–274 |doi=10.1080/00438243500095199 }}

Many different Indigenous tribes in America have built homes from natural resources. One example can be found at Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde, or Anasazi, in Northwestern New Mexico and Southwestern Colorado.{{cite journal |last1=Hudson |first1=Dee T. |date=20 August 1972 |title=Anasazi Measurement Systems at Chaco Canyon, New Mexico |journal=Kiva |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=27–42 |doi=10.1080/00231940.1972.11757770 |jstor=30247773}}{{Cite web |last= |first= |last2= |first2= |title=Mesa Verde National Park (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/meve/index.htm |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=www.nps.gov |language=en}} Ancestral Puebloans built houses on the ground near the cliffs of the Colorado Plateau, and carved others into the face of the cliff, ultimately spanning almost 10,000 square miles across Utah, Colorado and New Mexico. Mesa Verde and Chaco Canyon both have more than 600 rooms each, many of which were made from sandstone that was carved into rectangular blocks, and glued together with a mix of mud and water.{{Cite web |last=Nageezi |title=History & Culture - Chaco Culture National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/chcu/learn/historyculture/index.htm |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=www.nps.gov |language=}}{{Cite web |last=Oswald |first=Benjamin |title=Chaco Canyon |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Chaco_Canyon/ |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}} In addition to physically building these homes, the Ancestral Puebloans used mathematical knowledge like the golden ratio - which has been used to make the Egyptian pyramids, Ancient Greek architecture and the Notre Dame -  to construct a Sun Temple.{{Cite web |last=Insider |first=The Arch |date=2020-04-09 |title=Importance of Golden Ratio in Architecture |url=https://thearchinsider.com/importance-of-golden-ratio-in-architecture/ |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=The Arch Insider |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |title=How did ancient engineers of Mesa Verde harness water? |url=https://www.asce.org/publications-and-news/civil-engineering-source/civil-engineering-magazine/issues/magazine-issue/article/2022/11/how-did-ancient-engineers-of-mesa-verde-harness-water |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=www.asce.org |language=en-US}}

Water management was critical as well in this area, and ancestral Pueblo people had early knowledge of hydrological theory, water transport and storage. This allowed them to create four main reservoirs that helped sustain the population.

The Hohokam tribe in Arizona also managed their water resources up until 1450, and created irrigation networks that were more extensive than any other irrigation system created during their time.{{Cite web |last1=Mola |first1=Paul Joseph De |last2=FRGS |title=Popular Archeology - The Hohokam: Canal Masters of the American Southwest |url=https://popular-archaeology.com/article/the-hohokam-canal-masters-of-the-american-southwest/ |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=Popular Archeology |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |title=Hohokam Canal System {{!}} Invention & Technology Magazine |url=https://www.inventionandtech.com/content/hohokam-canal-system |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=www.inventionandtech.com}}{{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|2407579534}} |last1=Caseldine |first1=Christopher Robert |date=2020 |title=Hohokam Irrigation Longevity and Agricultural Success in the Lower Salt River Valley, Arizona }}{{pn|date=December 2024}} This allowed an influx of agriculture, as canals spread across 135 miles of land and brought water to crops far from the rivers.{{Cite journal |last=Woodbury |first=Richard B. |date=1961 |title=A Reappraisal of Hohokam Irrigation |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=550–560 |doi=10.1525/aa.1961.63.3.02a00070 |jstor=667728 }} Ultimately, the population of Hohokam became too large to sustain in the late 15th century, and the irrigation systems failed. However, their descendants, the Akimel O'odham and Tohono O'odham people, continue to live in Phoenix, Arizona and surrounding areas, and farming continues to be an important part of their cultures.{{Cite journal |last1=Hill |first1=J. Brett |last2=Lyons |first2=Patrick D. |last3=Clark |first3=Jeffery J. |last4=Doelle |first4=William H. |date=2015 |title=The 'Collapse' of Cooperative Hohokam Irrigation in the Lower Salt River Valley |journal=Journal of the Southwest |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=609–674 |doi=10.1353/jsw.2015.0015 |jstor=26310200 }}{{Cite web |title=Native Peoples of the Sonoran Desert: The O'odham (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/oodham.htm |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=www.nps.gov |language=en}}

The Menominee tribe in Wisconsin operates the Menominee Forest which covers 217,000 acres of land, and promotes sustainable forest management.{{Cite news |last=Buckley |first=Cara |date=April 22, 2023 |title=The Giving Forest |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/22/climate/menominee-forest-sustainable-earth-day.html |work=New York Times}} For more than 150 years, the Menominee tribe has been utilizing techniques such as silviculture, even and uneven-aged management, tree grouping, and conservation. Silviculture is the practice of developing and managing forests and takes into consideration the age of the tree, the species, shade tolerance, and the health of the entire forest.{{Cite web |title=Sustainable forest management, harvesting, and silviculture {{!}} Menominee Tribal Enterprises Neopit, Wisconsin |url=https://www.mtewood.com/SustainableForestry/ForestManagement |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=www.mtewood.com}} Even-aged management cultivates shade intolerant trees, and relies on wind and fire disturbances. The Menominee forestry workers mimic these natural disturbances with various treatments like group openings and clear cuts.{{Cite web |title=MITW - Cultural Museum |url=https://www.menominee-nsn.gov/CulturePages/CulturalMuseum |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=www.menominee-nsn.gov}} Uneven-aged management favors trees that are shade tolerant by only cutting a couple in one area, as to not leave any land fully bare. Their strategies have been effective, as there is currently more timber on the land than when the business was in its early management, in 1854. This forest land has been recognized by the United Nations and was certified by the Forest Stewardship Council, a prestigious label given to responsible forestry departments.

Polynesian and Hawaiian Wayfinders have been trained to navigate the oceans using stars, the sun, and the ocean swells to understand where a vessel is when it is at sea.{{Cite web |title=Polynesian Wayfinding |url=https://hokulea.com/polynesian-wayfinding/ |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=Hōkūleʻa |language=en-US}} This requires understanding of trade winds, currents, astronomy, fish and weather cycles. Wayfinding was only possible due to more than 1,500 years of practice and observation by Pacific Islanders. Currently, there is a reclamation movement for wayfinding, which started in the 1970s, when one voyaging canoe, the Hōkūle‘a, was created by the [https://hokulea.com/polynesian-wayfinding/ Polynesian Wayfinding Society] with the purpose of bringing back this traditional practice and reclaiming culture.{{Cite web |title=Polynesian Voyaging Story Map |url=https://waahonua.com/voyaging-story-map/ |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=Wa'a Honua |language=en-US}} The Hōkūle‘a has made multiple voyages, the first being from Maui to Tahiti and has inspired multiple other voyaging canoes to set out, and for education of wayfinding to increase.{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://hokulea.com/ |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=Hōkūleʻa |language=en-US}}

• Nancy C. Maryboy
• Karlie Noon
• Lydia Jennings
• Ian Saem Majnep
• Robin Wall Kimmerer

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{{Cite journal |last1=Kadykalo |first1=Andrew N. |last2=Cooke |first2=Steven J. |last3=Young |first3=Nathan |year=2021 |title=The role of western-based scientific, Indigenous and local knowledge in wildlife management and conservation |journal=People and Nature |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=610–626 |doi=10.1002/pan3.10194 |bibcode=2021PeoNa...3..610K |doi-access=free }}

{{Cite web |last=Footen |first=Brian |title=Darkness to Dawn: Columbia River Native Tribes' Science and Salmon Restoration Success |url=https://nativecases.evergreen.edu/collection/cases/darkness-to-dawn-columbia-river-native-tribes-science-and-salmon-restoration-success |access-date=7 August 2022 |website=Native Case Studies |archive-date=7 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807202507/https://nativecases.evergreen.edu/collection/cases/darkness-to-dawn-columbia-river-native-tribes-science-and-salmon-restoration-success |url-status=live }}

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{{Cite web |last=Stumpff |first=Linda |title=Hantavirus and the Navajo Nation: A Double Jeopardy Disease |url=https://nativecases.evergreen.edu/collection/cases/hantavirus-navajo |access-date=7 August 2022 |website=Native Case Studies |archive-date=4 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704123301/https://nativecases.evergreen.edu/collection/cases/hantavirus-navajo |url-status=live }}

{{Cite web |last=Stumpff |first=Linda |title=Your Tribal Land is Not Secure: Traditional Knowledge and Science Face Wildfire in the Valley of the Wild Roses |url=https://nativecases.evergreen.edu/collection/cases/your-tribal-land-is-not-secure-traditional-knowledge-and-science-face-wildfire-in-the-valley-of-the-wild-roses |access-date=7 August 2022 |website=Native Case Studies |archive-date=7 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807202803/https://nativecases.evergreen.edu/collection/cases/your-tribal-land-is-not-secure-traditional-knowledge-and-science-face-wildfire-in-the-valley-of-the-wild-roses |url-status=live }}

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Category:Oral tradition

Category:History of science

Category:Traditional knowledge

Category:Indigenous culture