Injury#By cause

File:Zauneidechse 1469.jpg that has shed its tail when attacked by a predator, and has started to regrow a tail from the site of the injury]]

{{main|Injury in animals}}

Injury in animals is sometimes defined as mechanical damage to anatomical structure,{{cite journal |last1=Rennolds |first1=Corey W. |last2=Bely |first2=Alexandra E. |title=Integrative biology of injury in animals |journal=Biological Reviews |volume=98 |issue=1 |date=29 September 2022 |issn=1464-7931 |doi=10.1111/brv.12894 |pages=34–62|pmid=36176189 |pmc=10087827 }} but it has a wider connotation of physical damage with any cause, including drowning, burns, and poisoning.{{Cite journal |last1=de Ramirez |first1=Sarah Stewart |last2=Hyder |first2=Adnan A. |last3=Herbert |first3=Hadley K. |last4=Stevens |first4=Kent |date=2012 |title=Unintentional injuries: magnitude, prevention, and control |journal=Annual Review of Public Health |volume=33 |pages=175–191 |doi=10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031811-124558 |issn=1545-2093 |pmid=22224893 |doi-access=free }} Such damage may result from attempted predation, territorial fights, falls, and abiotic factors.

Injury prompts an inflammatory response in animals of many different phyla; this prompts coagulation of the blood or body fluid,{{cite journal |last1=Cerenius |first1=Lage |last2=Söderhäll |first2=Kenneth |title=Coagulation in Invertebrates |journal=Journal of Innate Immunity |volume=3 |issue=1 |date=6 November 2010 |issn=1662-811X |doi=10.1159/000322066 |pages=3–8|pmid=21051883 |s2cid=20798250 |doi-access=free }} followed by wound healing, which may be rapid, as in the cnidaria.{{cite book |last=Sparks |first=Albert |title=Invertebrate Pathology Noncommunicable Diseases |date=1972 |publisher=Academic Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0y2JO0v_np0C |pages=20, 133|isbn=9780323151962 }} Arthropods are able to repair injuries to the cuticle that forms their exoskeleton to some extent.{{cite journal |last1=Parle |first1=Eoin |last2=Dirks |first2=Jan-Henning |last3=Taylor |first3=David |title=Bridging the gap: wound healing in insects restores mechanical strength by targeted cuticle deposition |journal=Journal of the Royal Society Interface |volume=13 |issue=117 |year=2016 |issn=1742-5689 |doi=10.1098/rsif.2015.0984 |page=20150984 |pmid=27053653 |pmc=4874426 }}

Animals in several phyla, including annelids, arthropods, cnidaria, molluscs, nematodes, and vertebrates are able to produce antimicrobial peptides to fight off infection following an injury.

{{main|Injury in humans}}

File:US Navy 041117-M-0000G-004 U.S. Navy Surgeons and Hospital Corpsman, assigned to the Surgical-Shock Trauma Platoon (SSTP) at Camp Taqaddum, Iraq, operate on a Marine.jpg, trauma surgery (illustrated), and pain management.]]

Injury in humans has been studied extensively for its importance in medicine. Much of medical practice, including emergency medicine and pain management, is dedicated to the treatment of injuries.{{Cite journal |last1=Maerz |first1=Linda L. |last2=Davis |first2=Kimberly A. |last3=Rosenbaum |first3=Stanley H. |date=2009 |title=Trauma |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19131750/ |journal=International Anesthesiology Clinics |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=25–36 |doi=10.1097/AIA.0b013e3181950030 |issn=1537-1913 |pmid=19131750|s2cid=220567282 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmadi |first1=Alireza |last2=Bazargan-Hejazi |first2=Shahrzad |last3=Heidari Zadie |first3=Zahra |last4=Euasobhon |first4=Pramote |last5=Ketumarn |first5=Penkae |last6=Karbasfrushan |first6=Ali |last7=Amini-Saman |first7=Javad |last8=Mohammadi |first8=Reza |display-authors=3 |date=2016 |title=Pain management in trauma: A review study |journal=Journal of Injury and Violence Research |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=89–98 |doi=10.5249/jivr.v8i2.707 |issn=2008-4072 |pmc=4967367 |pmid=27414816}} The World Health Organization has developed a classification of injuries in humans by categories including mechanism, objects/substances producing injury, place of occurrence, activity when injured and the role of human intent.{{cite web |title=International Classification of External Causes of Injury (ICECI) |url=https://www.who.int/classifications/icd/adaptations/iceci/en/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041017011406/http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/adaptations/iceci/en/ |archive-date=17 October 2004 |access-date=22 September 2023 |publisher=World Health Organization}} In addition to physical harm, injuries can cause psychological harm, including post-traumatic stress disorder.{{Cite journal |last1=Agarwal |first1=Tulika Mehta |last2=Muneer |first2=Mohammed |last3=Asim |first3=Mohammad |last4=Awad |first4=Malaz |last5=Afzal |first5=Yousra |last6=Al-Thani |first6=Hassan |last7=Alhassan |first7=Ahmed |last8=Mollazehi |first8=Monira |last9=El-Menyar |first9=Ayman |display-authors=3 |date=2020 |title=Psychological trauma in different mechanisms of traumatic injury: A hospital-based cross-sectional study |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=15 |issue=11 |pages=e0242849 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0242849 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=7703890 |pmid=33253298 |bibcode=2020PLoSO..1542849A |doi-access=free }}

File:Oak tree struck by lightning - geograph.org.uk - 4084083.jpg, an abiotic cause of injury.]]

{{main|Injury in plants}}

In plants, injuries result from the eating of plant parts by herbivorous animals including insects and mammals,{{cite book |last=Tarr |first=S. A. J. |title=Principles of Plant Pathology |chapter=Plant injury due to insects, mites, nematodes and other pests |publisher=Macmillan |publication-place=London |year=1972 |isbn=978-1-349-00357-0 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-00355-6_9 |pages=126–137}} from damage to tissues by plant pathogens such as bacteria and fungi, which may gain entry after herbivore damage or in other ways,{{cite journal |last1=Cappelli |first1=Seraina Lisa |last2=Koricheva |first2=Julia |author2-link=Julia Koricheva |title=Interactions between mammalian grazers and plant pathogens: an elephant in the room? |journal=New Phytologist |publisher=Wiley |volume=232 |issue=1 |date=2 July 2021 |issn=0028-646X |doi=10.1111/nph.17533 |pages=8–10|pmid=34213785 |bibcode=2021NewPh.232....8C |s2cid=235708670 }} and from abiotic factors such as heat,{{cite journal |last1=Smillie |first1=R.M. |last2=Nott |first2=R. |title=Heat Injury in Leaves of Alpine, Temperate and Tropical Plants |journal=Functional Plant Biology |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |volume=6 |issue=1 |year=1979 |issn=1445-4408 |doi=10.1071/pp9790135 |page=135}} freezing,{{cite journal |last1=Burke |first1=M. J. |last2=Gusta |first2=L. V. |last3=Quamme |first3=H. A. |last4=Weiser |first4=C. J. |last5=Li |first5=P. H. |title=Freezing and Injury in Plants |journal=Annual Review of Plant Physiology |publisher=Annual Reviews |volume=27 |issue=1 |year=1976 |issn=0066-4294 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pp.27.060176.002451 |pages=507–528}} flooding,{{cite journal |last=Kramer |first=Paul J. |title=Causes of Injury to Plants Resulting from Flooding of the Soil |journal=Plant Physiology |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=26 |issue=4 |date=1 October 1951 |issn=0032-0889 |doi=10.1104/pp.26.4.722 |pages=722–736|pmid=16654407 |pmc=437542 }} lightning,{{cite journal |last=Nelson |first=Scot C. |title=Lightning Injury to Plants |journal=Plant Disease |date=July 2008 |issue=PD-40 |url=https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/PD-40.pdf}} and pollutants{{cite journal |last=Heath |first=R. L. |title=Initial Events in Injury to Plants by Air Pollutants |journal=Annual Review of Plant Physiology |publisher=Annual Reviews |volume=31 |issue=1 |year=1980 |issn=0066-4294 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pp.31.060180.002143 |pages=395–431}} such as ozone.{{cite journal |last1=Hill |first1=A. C. |last2=Pack |first2=M. R. |last3=Treshow |first3=M. |title=Plant injury induced by ozone |journal=Phytopathology |date=1961 |volume=51 |osti=5518148 |url=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/5518148}} Plants respond to injury by signalling that damage has occurred,{{cite journal |last1=Turlings |first1=Ted C. |last2=Tumlinson |first2=James H. |title=Systemic release of chemical signals by herbivore-injured corn |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=89 |year=1992 |issue=17 |pages=8399–8402 |doi=10.1073/pnas.89.17.8399 |pmid=11607325 |pmc=49926 |bibcode=1992PNAS...89.8399T |doi-access=free }} by secreting materials to seal off the damaged area,{{cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=Qiang |last2=Rost |first2=Thomas L. |last3=Matthews |first3=Mark A. |title=Wound-induced vascular occlusions in Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae): Tyloses in summer and gels in winter¹ |journal=American Journal of Botany |publisher=Wiley |volume=95 |issue=12 |year=2008 |issn=0002-9122 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0800061 |pages=1498–1505|pmid=21628157 }} by producing antimicrobial chemicals,{{cite journal |last=Shigo |first=Alex L. |date=1985 |title=Compartmentalization of Decay in Trees |journal=Scientific American |volume=252 |issue=4 |pages=96–103 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0485-96 |bibcode=1985SciAm.252d..96S |hdl=2027/uva.x002416568 |issn=0036-8733 |url=http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/309547 |hdl-access=free}}{{cite journal |last1=González-Lamothe |first1=Rocío |last2=Mitchell |first2=Gabriel |last3=Gattuso |first3=Mariza |last4=Diarra |first4=Moussa |last5=Malouin |first5=François |last6=Bouarab |first6=Kamal |title=Plant Antimicrobial Agents and Their Effects on Plant and Human Pathogens |journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences |publisher=MDPI AG |volume=10 |issue=8 |date=31 July 2009 |issn=1422-0067 |doi=10.3390/ijms10083400 |pages=3400–3419 |pmid=20111686 |pmc=2812829 |doi-access=free }} and in woody plants by regrowing over wounds.{{cite journal |last=Shigo |first=Alex L. |doi=10.1139/b85-193 |title=How tree branches are attached to trunks |date=1985 |journal=Canadian Journal of Botany |volume=63 |issue=8 |pages=1391–1401 |bibcode=1985CaJB...63.1391S }}{{cite journal |last=O'Hara |first=Kevin L. |title=Pruning Wounds and Occlusion: A Long-Standing Conundrum in Forestry |url=https://academic.oup.com/jof/article/105/3/131/4598767 |journal=Journal of Forestry |volume=105 |issue=3 |pages=131–138 |s2cid=10075580|doi=10.1093/jof/105.3.131|year=2007}}{{cite web|url=http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/howtos/ht_prune/cuts.htm |title=Tree pruning guide|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070426071433/http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/howtos/ht_prune/cuts.htm |archive-date=April 26, 2007 |publisher= US Forest Service for the US Department of Agriculture}}

{{main|Cell damage}}

Cell injury is a variety of changes of stress that a cell suffers due to external as well as internal environmental changes. Amongst other causes, this can be due to physical, chemical, infectious, biological, nutritional or immunological factors. Cell damage can be reversible or irreversible. Depending on the extent of injury, the cellular response may be adaptive and where possible, homeostasis is restored.{{Cite book |last=Wolf |first=Ronni |title=Emergency Dermatology |url=https://archive.org/details/emergencydermato00wolf|url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=9780521717335 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/emergencydermato00wolf/page/n14 1]–10 |display-authors=etal}} Cell death occurs when the severity of the injury exceeds the cell's ability to repair itself.{{Cite journal |last=Cobb |first=J. P. |date=1996 |title=Mechanisms of cell injury and death |journal=British Journal of Anaesthesia |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=3–10 |doi=10.1093/bja/77.1.3 |pmid=8703628 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free}} Cell death is relative to both the length of exposure to a harmful stimulus and the severity of the damage caused.{{-}}

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Category:Physiology

Category:Biological concepts