Intermediate-mass black hole#Origin

The gravitational wave signal GW190521, which occurred on 21 May 2019 at 03:02:29 UTC,{{cite news |title=GW trigger S190521g ('GW 190521') |url=https://www.swift.ac.uk/LVC/S190521g/ |date=2020 |work=University of Leicester |access-date=26 June 2020 |archive-date=28 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200628111356/https://www.swift.ac.uk/LVC/S190521g/ |url-status=live }} and was published on 2 September 2020, resulted from the merger of two black holes. They had masses of 85 and 65 solar masses and merged to form a black hole of 142 solar masses, with 8 solar masses radiated away as gravitational waves.{{cite news |last=Siegel |first=Ethan |title=LIGO's Biggest Mass Merger Ever Foretells A Black Hole Revolution |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2020/09/03/ligos-biggest-mass-merger-ever-foretells-a-black-hole-revolution/ |date=3 September 2020 |work=Forbes |access-date=5 September 2020 |archive-date=4 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200904074001/https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2020/09/03/ligos-biggest-mass-merger-ever-foretells-a-black-hole-revolution/ |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |author=Abbott, R. |display-authors=et al. |title=Properties and Astrophysical Implications of the 150 M ⊙ Binary Black Hole Merger GW190521 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=2 September 2020 |volume=900 |issue=1 |pages=L13 |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/aba493 |arxiv=2009.01190 |bibcode=2020ApJ...900L..13A |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |author=Abbott, R. |display-authors=et al. |title=GW190521: A Binary Black Hole Merger with a Total Mass of 150 M ⊙ |journal=Physical Review Letters |date=2 September 2020 |volume=125 |issue=10 |pages=101102 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.125.101102 |pmid=32955328 |arxiv=2009.01075 |bibcode=2020PhRvL.125j1102A |doi-access=free}}{{cite news |author=Martin |title=GW190521: The Most Massive Black Hole collision Observed To Date |url=https://www.ligo.org/science/Publication-GW190521/flyer.pdf |date=2 September 2020 |work=LIGO Scientific Collaboration |access-date=2 September 2020 |archive-date=4 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200904170948/https://www.ligo.org/science/Publication-GW190521/flyer.pdf |url-status=live }}

Before that, the strongest evidence for IMBHs came from a few low-luminosity active galactic nuclei.{{cite book|last=Merritt|first=David|author-link=David Merritt|title=Dynamics and Evolution of Galactic Nuclei|date=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, NJ|isbn=9781400846122|url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL16802359W/Dynamics_and_Evolution_of_Galactic_Nuclei}} Due to their activity, these galaxies almost certainly contain accreting black holes, and in some cases the black hole masses can be estimated using the technique of reverberation mapping. For instance, the spiral galaxy NGC 4395 at a distance of about 4 Mpc appears to contain a black hole with mass of about {{gaps|3.6|×|10⁵}} solar masses.{{cite journal|last=Peterson|first=Bradley|display-authors=etal|title=Multiwavelength Monitoring of the Dwarf Seyfert 1 Galaxy NGC 4395. I. A Reverberation-based Measurement of the Black Hole Mass| journal=The Astrophysical Journal | date=2005 |volume=632 |issue=2|pages=799–808 |doi=10.1086/444494|arxiv = astro-ph/0506665 |bibcode = 2005ApJ...632..799P |s2cid=13886279}}{{relevance inline|reason=Ferrarese and Merritt classify this as “small supermassive”.|date=February 2014}}

The largest up-to-date sample of intermediate-mass black holes includes 305 candidates{{cite journal|last=Chilingarian|first=Igor|display-authors=etal|date=2018|title=A Population of Bona Fide Intermediate-mass Black Holes Identified as Low-luminosity Active Galactic Nuclei|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|volume=863|issue=1|pages=799–808|arxiv=1805.01467|bibcode=2018ApJ...863....1C|doi=10.3847/1538-4357/aad184|s2cid=119093965 |doi-access=free }} selected by sophisticated analysis of one million optical spectra of galaxies collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey.Sloan Digital Sky Survey https://www.sdss.org X-ray emission was detected from 10 of these candidates confirming their classification as IMBH.

Some ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) in nearby galaxies are suspected to be IMBHs, with masses of a hundred to a thousand solar masses.{{Cite journal |last1=Maccarone |first1=T.J. |last2=Kundu |title=A black hole in a globular cluster |journal=Nature |date=2007 |volume=445 |doi=10.1038/nature05434 |pages=183–185 |pmid=17203062 |first2=A |last3=Zepf |first3=SE |last4=Rhode |first4=KL |issue=7124 |arxiv = astro-ph/0701310 |bibcode = 2007Natur.445..183M |s2cid=4323113 }} The ULXs are observed in star-forming regions (e.g., in starburst galaxy M82{{cite journal

|author1=Patruno, A. |author2=Portegies Zwart, S. |author3=Dewi, J. |author4=Hopman, C. | title=The ultraluminous X-ray source in M82: an intermediate-mass black hole with a giant companion

| journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters

| date=2006

| volume=370

| issue=1

| pages=L6–L9

| bibcode=2006MNRAS.370L...6P | doi=10.1111/j.1745-3933.2006.00176.x

|doi-access=free |arxiv = astro-ph/0506275 |s2cid=10694200 }}), and are seemingly associated with young star clusters which are also observed in these regions. However, only a dynamical mass measurement from the analysis of the optical spectrum of the companion star can unveil the presence of an IMBH as the compact accretor of the ULX.

A few globular clusters have been claimed to contain IMBHs, based on measurements of the velocities of stars near their centers; the figure shows one candidate object. However, none of the claimed detections has stood up to scrutiny. For instance, the data for M31 G1, the object shown in the figure, can be fit equally well without a massive central object.{{cite journal|last=Baumgardt|first=H.|display-authors=etal|title=A Dynamical Model for the Globular Cluster G1|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=2003|volume=589|issue=1|pages=L25–L28|doi=10.1086/375802|arxiv = astro-ph/0301469 |bibcode = 2003ApJ...589L..25B |s2cid=119464795}}

Additional evidence for the existence of IMBHs can be obtained from observation of gravitational radiation, emitted from a binary containing an IMBH and a compact remnant or another IMBH.{{cite journal| title=Gravitational waves from remnants of ultraluminous X-ray sources| first= Clovis| last= Hopman|author2=Simon Portegies Zwart | journal=Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. Lett.| volume= 363| date=2005| issue=1| pages= L56–L60| doi=10.1111/j.1745-3933.2005.00083.x| doi-access= free| arxiv=astro-ph/0506181|bibcode = 2005MNRAS.363L..56H | s2cid= 6904146}}{{cite web|title=Measuring Intermediate-Mass Black-Hole Binaries with Advanced Gravitational Wave Detectors|url=http://www.sr.bham.ac.uk/gwgroup/science.php#150305953|website=Gravitational Wave Group|publisher=University of Birmingham|access-date=28 November 2015}}

Finally, the M–sigma relation predicts the existence of black holes with masses of 10⁴ to 10⁶ solar masses in low-luminosity galaxies.{{cite journal |title=The M_• − σ relation for intermediate-mass black holes in globular clusters |first=N. |last=Lützgendorf |display-authors=et al. |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |date=2013 |volume=555 |number=A26 |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201321183 |arxiv=1304.7156}} The smallest black hole from the M–sigma relation prediction is the nucleus of RGG 118 galaxy with only about 50,000 solar masses.{{cite journal|title=A ~50,000 M ⊙ Solar Mass Black Hole in the Nucleus of RGG 118|journal=The Astrophysical Journal |year=2015 |doi=10.1088/2041-8205/809/1/L14 |arxiv=1506.07531 |last1=Baldassare |first1=Vivienne F. |last2=Reines |first2=Amy E. |last3=Gallo |first3=Elena |last4=Greene |first4=Jenny E. |volume=809 |issue=1 |pages=L14 |bibcode=2015ApJ...809L..14B |s2cid=84177579 }}

File:A black hole of puzzling lightness.jpg is a spiral galaxy, centered on a lighter, intermediate-mass black hole.{{cite web|title=A black hole of puzzling lightness|url=https://www.spacetelescope.org/images/potw1702a/|website=www.spacetelescope.org|access-date=9 January 2017}}]]

In November 2004 a team of astronomers reported the discovery of GCIRS 13E, the first intermediate-mass black hole in the Milky Way galaxy, orbiting three light-years from Sagittarius A*.{{Cite web|url=http://www.solstation.com/x-objects/s2.htm|title=S2 and Central Black Hole}} This medium black hole of 1,300 solar masses is within a cluster of seven stars, possibly the remnant of a massive star cluster that has been stripped down by the Galactic Center. This observation may add support to the idea that supermassive black holes grow by absorbing nearby smaller black holes and stars. However, in 2005, a German research group claimed that the presence of an IMBH near the galactic center is doubtful, based on a dynamical study of the star cluster in which the IMBH was said to reside.{{cite journal | title= A Black Hole in the Galactic Center Complex IRS 13E?| first= R.| last= Schoedel|author2=A. Eckart |author3=C. Iserlohe |author4=R. Genzel |author5=T. Ott | journal= Astrophysical Journal| volume= 625| date=2005| issue=2| pages= L111–L114 | doi= 10.1086/431307 | arxiv= astro-ph/0504474|bibcode = 2005ApJ...625L.111S | s2cid= 10250848}} An IMBH near the galactic center could also be detected via its perturbations on stars orbiting around the supermassive black hole.{{cite journal| title=Perturbations of Intermediate-mass Black Holes on Stellar Orbits in the Galactic Center| first1= A.| last1= Gualandris| first2=D.|last2=Merritt|author2-link=David Merritt| journal= Astrophys. J.| volume= 705| issue=1| date=2009| pages= 361–371| doi=10.1088/0004-637X/705/1/361|bibcode = 2009ApJ...705..361G |arxiv = 0905.4514 | s2cid= 17649160}}

In January 2006 a team led by Philip Kaaret of the University of Iowa announced the discovery of a quasiperiodic oscillation from an intermediate-mass black hole candidate located using NASA's Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer. The candidate, M82 X-1, is orbited by a red giant star that is shedding its atmosphere into the black hole.{{Cite web|url=http://www.scienceblog.com/cms/dying_star_reveals_more_evidence_for_new_kind_of_black_hole_9685|title=Dying Star Reveals More Evidence for New Kind of Black Hole | Science Blog}} Neither the existence of the oscillation nor its interpretation as the orbital period of the system are fully accepted by the rest of the scientific community, as the periodicity claimed is based on only about four cycles, meaning that it is possible for this to be random variation. If the period is real, it could be either the orbital period, as suggested, or a super-orbital period in the accretion disk, as is seen in many other systems.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}

In 2009, a team of astronomers led by Sean Farrell discovered HLX-1, an intermediate-mass black hole with a smaller cluster of stars around it,Soria, Roberto; Hau, George K. T.; Graham, Alister W.; Kong, Albert K. H.; Kuin, N. Paul M.; Li, I.-Hui; Liu, Ji-Feng; Wu, Kinwah (2010), [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010MNRAS.405..870S "Discovery of an optical counterpart to the hyperluminous X-ray source in ESO 243-49"] in the galaxy ESO 243–49. This evidence suggested that ESO 243-49 had a galactic collision with HLX-1's galaxy and absorbed the majority of the smaller galaxy's matter.

A team at the CSIRO radio telescope in Australia announced on 9 July 2012 that it had discovered the first intermediate-mass black hole.{{cite news|work=The Bunsen Burner|agency=Phillips Cronkite Media Group|date=9 July 2012|access-date=9 July 2012|author=Nease, Eric|url=http://www.thebunsenburner.com/news/astronomers-spot-the-very-first-intermediate-mass-black-hole/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713035550/http://www.thebunsenburner.com/news/astronomers-spot-the-very-first-intermediate-mass-black-hole/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=13 July 2012|title=Astronomers spot the very first intermediate-mass black hole}}

In 2015 a team at Keio University in Japan found a gas cloud (CO-0.40-0.22) with very wide velocity dispersion.{{cite journal|last1=Oka|first1=Tomoharu|last2=Mizuno|first2=Reiko|last3=Miura|first3=Kodai|last4=Takekawa|first4=Shunya|title=Signature of an Intermediate-Mass Black Hole in the Central Molecular Zone of Our Galaxy|journal=Astrophysical Journal|date=December 28, 2015|volume=816|issue=1|page=L7|doi=10.3847/2041-8205/816/1/L7|arxiv = 1512.04661 |bibcode = 2016ApJ...816L...7O |s2cid=119228384 |doi-access=free }} They performed simulations and concluded that a model with a black hole of around 100,000 solar masses would be the best fit for the velocity distribution.{{cite news|title=Signs of Second Largest Black Hole in the Milky Way – Possible Missing Link in Black Hole Evolution|newspaper=Naoj: National Astronomical Observatory of Japan|url=http://www.nao.ac.jp/en/news/science/2016/20160115-nro.html|publisher=National Astronomical Observatory of Japan|date=January 15, 2016}} However, a later work pointed out some difficulties with the association of high-velocity dispersion clouds with intermediate mass black holes and proposed that such clouds might be generated by supernovae.{{citation | last1=Yalinewich | first1=Almog | last2=Beniamini | first2=Paz | title=Supernovae generated High Velocity Compact Clouds | journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics | volume=612 | pages=L9 | arxiv = 1709.05738 | bibcode=2018A&A...612L...9Y | doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201732389 | year=2018 | s2cid=119012130 }}

Further theoretical studies of the gas cloud and nearby IMBH candidates have been inconclusive but have reopened the possibility.{{cite journal |last1=Ballone |first1=Alessandro |last2=Mapelli |first2=Michela |last3=Pasquato |first3=Mario |title=Weighing the IMBH candidate CO-0.40-0.22* in the Galactic Centre |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |date=11 November 2018 |volume=480 |issue=4 |pages=4684–4692 |doi=10.1093/mnras/sty2139 |doi-access=free |issn=0035-8711|arxiv=1809.01664 |bibcode=2018MNRAS.480.4684B |s2cid=119252027 }}

In 2017, it was announced that a black hole of a few thousand solar masses may be located in the globular cluster 47 Tucanae. This was based on the accelerations and distributions of pulsars in the cluster;{{cite journal

| doi = 10.1038/nature21361

| pmid = 28179649

| last1 = Kızıltan

| first1 = Bülent

| last2 = Baumgardt

| first2 = Holger

| last3 = Loeb

| first3 = Abraham

| title = An intermediate-mass black hole in the centre of the globular cluster 47 Tucanae

| journal = Nature

| volume = 542

| issue = 7640

| pages = 203–205

| date = 2017

| bibcode = 2017Natur.542..203K |arxiv = 1702.02149 | s2cid = 1289123

}} however, a later analysis of an updated and more complete data set on these pulsars found no positive evidence for this.{{cite journal

|title=Long-term observations of the pulsars in 47 Tucanae - II. Proper motions, accelerations and jerks

|last1=Freire|first1=Paulo

|last2=Ridolfi|first2=Alessandro

|last3=Kramer|first3=Michael

|date=2017

|journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society

|volume=471

|issue=7640|pages =857–876

|bibcode=2017MNRAS.471..857F

|doi=10.1093/mnras/stx1533|doi-access=free |arxiv = 1706.04908 |s2cid=119240682}}

In 2018, the Keio University team found several molecular gas streams orbiting around an invisible object near the galactic center, designated HCN-0.009-0.044, suggested that it is a black hole of 32,000 solar masses and, if so, is the third IMBH discovered in the region.{{cite journal |last1=Takekawa |first1=Shunya |last2=Oka |first2=Tomoharu |last3=Iwata |first3=Yuhei |last4=Tsujimoto |first4=Shiho |last5=Nomura |first5=Mariko |title=Indication of Another Intermediate-mass Black Hole in the Galactic Center |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=16 January 2019 |volume=871 |issue=1 |pages=L1 |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/aafb07 |issn=2041-8213|arxiv=1812.10733 |bibcode=2019ApJ...871L...1T |s2cid=119418223 |doi-access=free }}

File:STScI-01H0MY22SC4HPS3SYE78B4EZ4F AdobeExpress.gif, where astronomers suspect that an intermediate-mass black hole could be present.{{cite journal|last=Vitral|first=E.|display-authors=etal|title=An elusive dark central mass in the globular cluster M4|journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society|date=2023|volume=522|issue=4 |pages=5740–5757|doi=10.1093/mnras/stad1068|doi-access=free |arxiv =2305.12702 |bibcode = 2023MNRAS.522.5740V }}{{cite news |date=23 May 2023|title=NASA's Hubble Hunts for Intermediate-Sized Black Hole Close to Home | url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2023/nasas-hubble-hunts-for-intermediate-sized-black-hole-close-to-home/ |work=NASA|access-date=23 May 2023}} If confirmed, the black hole would be in the center of the cluster, and would have a sphere of influence (black hole) limited by the red circle.]]

Observations in 2019 found evidence for a gravitational wave event (GW190521) arising from the merger of two stellar-mass black holes, with masses of 66 and 85 times that of the Sun.{{Cite web|title=LIGO Scientific Collaboration – The science of LSC research|url=https://www.ligo.org/science/Publication-GW190521/|access-date=2020-09-02|website=www.ligo.org}} In September 2020 it was announced that the resulting merged black hole weighed 142 solar masses, with 9 solar masses being radiated away as gravitational waves.

In 2020, astronomers reported the possible finding of an intermediate-mass black hole, named 3XMM J215022.4-055108, in the direction of the Aquarius constellation, about 740 million light years from Earth.{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Overbye |title=Deep in the Cosmic Forest, a Black Hole Goldilocks Might Like |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/06/science/black-hole-intermediate.html |date=6 May 2020 |work=The New York Times |access-date=7 May 2020 }}{{cite journal |last=Lin |first=Dachenge |display-authors=etal |title= Multiwavelength Follow-up of the Hyperluminous Intermediate-mass Black Hole Candidate 3XMM J215022.4−055108|journal=The Astrophysical Journal |year=2020 |volume=892 |issue=2 |pages=L25 |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/ab745b |arxiv=2002.04618 |bibcode=2020ApJ...892L..25L |s2cid=211082676 |doi-access=free }}

In 2021 the discovery of a 100,000 solar-mass intermediate-mass black hole in the globular cluster B023-G78 in the Andromeda Galaxy was posted to arXiv in a preprint.{{cite web|website=ScienceAlert|title= Astronomers May Have Detected a Rare 'Missing Link' Black Hole in Our Closest Neighbor|first=Michelle |last=Starr|date=19 November 2021 |url= https://www.sciencealert.com/astronomers-have-detected-a-rare-missing-link-black-hole-in-the-andromeda-galaxy }}

In 2023, an analysis of proper motions of the closest known globular cluster, Messier 4, revealed an excess mass of roughly 800 solar masses in the center, which appears to not be extended, and could thus be considered as kinematic evidence for an IMBH (even if an unusually compact cluster of compact objects, white dwarfs, neutron stars or stellar-mass black holes cannot be completely discounted).

A study from July 10, 2024, examined seven fast-moving stars from the center of the globular cluster Omega Centauri, finding that these stars were consistent with being bound to an intermediate-mass black hole of at least 8,200 solar masses.{{Cite journal |title=Fast-moving stars around an intermediate-mass black hole in Omega Centauri |journal=Nature |last1=Haberle |first1=Maximiliam |last2=and 17 others |date=10 July 2024|volume=631 |issue=8020 |pages=285–288 |doi=10.1038/s41586-024-07511-z |pmid=38987499 |pmc=11236702 |arxiv=2405.06015 |bibcode=2024Natur.631..285H }}

Intermediate-mass black holes are too massive to be formed by the collapse of a single star, which is how stellar black holes are thought to form. Their environments lack the extreme conditions—i.e., high density and velocities observed at the centers of galaxies—which seemingly lead to the formation of supermassive black holes. There are three postulated formation scenarios for IMBHs. The first is the merging of stellar mass black holes and other compact objects by means of accretion. The second one is the runaway collision of massive stars in dense stellar clusters and the collapse of the collision product into an IMBH. The third is that they are primordial black holes formed in the Big Bang.{{cite journal | first1=Rachel | last1= Bean | first2=Joao | last2=Magueijo | title = Could supermassive black holes be quintessential primordial black holes? | journal=Physical Review D | year= 2002 | volume=66 | issue= 6 | pages=063505 | doi =10.1103/PhysRevD.66.063505|arxiv=astro-ph/0204486 | bibcode= 2002PhRvD..66f3505B | s2cid= 36067101 }}{{cite journal| first1 =M.| last1= Kawasaki | first2 = A. | last2=Kusenko | first3= T. | last3 =Yanagida | title=Primordial seeds of supermassive black holes | journal=Physics Letters B | year= 2012 | volume=711

| issue= 1 | pages=1–5 | doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2012.03.056 | arxiv=1202.3848 | bibcode=2012PhLB..711....1K| s2cid= 119229231 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Clesse |first1=S. |last2=Garcia-Bellido |first2=J. |year=2015

|title=Massive Primordial Black Holes from Hybrid Inflation as Dark Matter and the seeds of Galaxies |journal=Physical Review D |volume=92 |issue=2 |pages=023524 |arxiv=1501.07565 |bibcode= 2015PhRvD..92b3524C|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.92.023524|hdl=10486/674729 |s2cid=118672317 }}

Scientists have also considered the possibility of the creation of intermediate-mass black holes through mechanisms involving the collapse of a single star, such as the possibility of direct collapse into black holes of stars with pre-supernova helium core mass >{{solar mass|133}} (to avoid a pair instability supernova which would completely disrupt the star), requiring an initial total stellar mass of > {{solar mass|260}}, but there may be little chance of observing such a high-mass supernova remnant. Recent theories suggest that such massive stars which could lead to the formation of intermediate mass black holes may form in young star clusters via multiple stellar collisions.{{cite journal

|author1=Di Carlo, U. N. | title= Merging black holes in young star clusters

| journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters

| date=2019

| volume=487

| issue=2

| pages=2947–2960

| bibcode=2019MNRAS.487.2947D | doi=10.1093/mnras/stz1453

| doi-access= free

|arxiv = 1901.00863v1 | s2cid= 119252415

}}

• Pair-instability supernova

{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

• [https://www.nasa.gov/feature/black-hole-seeds-missing-in-cosmic-garden/ Black Hole Seeds Missing in Cosmic Garden] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804230243/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/black-hole-seeds-missing-in-cosmic-garden/ |date=2020-08-04 }}
• [http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2000/0094/index.html Chandra images of starburst galaxy M82]
• [http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/2002/18/text/ NASA press release for discovery of IMBHs by] Hubble Space Telescope
• A New Breed of Black Holes, by Davide Castelvecchi Sky & Telescope April 2006

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