Intermodal container#Specifications

{{Main|Containerization|Conex box}}

File:LMS freight containers on lorry and rail wagon (CJ Allen, Steel Highway, 1928).jpg|Transferring freight containers on the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS; 1928)

File:Gueterwagen anagoria.JPG|Freight car in railway museum Bochum-Dahlhausen, showing four different UIC-590 pa-containers

File:Conex box.jpeg|Side of Vietnam era U.S. Army steel 'CONEX' box container (3D)

File:Maersk Line containers in late 1960s (7312784586).jpg|In 1975, many containers still featured riveted aluminum sheet-and-post wall construction, instead of welded, corrugated steel.{{cite web|url=http://www.matts-place.com/intermodal/part1/modelerseras.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150814124136/http://www.matts-place.com/intermodal/part1/modelerseras.html|url-status = dead|archive-date=14 August 2015|title=Frequently Asked Questions – Modeling Eras|date=14 August 2015}}

Containerization has its origins in early coal mining regions in England beginning in the late 18th century. In 1766 James Brindley designed the box boat 'Starvationer' with ten wooden containers, to transport coal from Worsley Delph (quarry) to Manchester by Bridgewater Canal. In 1795, Benjamin Outram opened the Little Eaton Gangway, upon which coal was carried in wagons built at his Butterley Ironwork. The horse-drawn wheeled wagons on the gangway took the form of containers, which, loaded with coal, could be transshipped from canal barges on the Derby Canal, which Outram had also promoted.Ripley, David (1993). The Little Eaton Gangway and Derby Canal (Second ed.). Oakwood Press. {{ISBN|0-85361-431-8}}.

By the 1830s, railways were carrying containers that could be transferred to other modes of transport. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway in the UK was one of these, making use of "simple rectangular timber boxes" to convey coal from Lancashire collieries to Liverpool, where a crane transferred them to horse-drawn carriages.Essery, R. J, Rowland. D. P. & Steel W. O. British Goods Wagons from 1887 to the Present Day. Augustus M. Kelly Publishers. New York. 1979 p. 92 {{ISBN?}} Originally used for moving coal on and off barges, "loose boxes" were used to containerize coal from the late 1780s, at places like the Bridgewater Canal. By the 1840s, iron boxes were in use as well as wooden ones. The early 1900s saw the adoption of closed container boxes designed for movement between road and rail.

The first international standard for containers was established by the Bureau International des Containers et du Transport Intermodal in 1933, and a second one in 1935, primarily for transport between European countries. American containers at this time were not standardized, and these early containers were not yet stackable – neither in the U.S. nor Europe. In November 1932, the first container terminal in the world was opened by the Pennsylvania Rail Road Company in Enola, Pennsylvania. Containerization was developed in Europe and the US as a way to revitalize rail companies after the Wall Street crash of 1929, in New York, which resulted in economic collapse and a drop in all modes of transport.{{Cite journal |first=Krzysztof |last=Lewandowski |title= Czechoslovak activity to prepare European norms for containers before the Second World War |journal=Acta Logistica |volume=1 |year=2014 |issue=4 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.22306/al.v1i4.25 |issn=1339-5629 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270794211|doi-access=free }}

In April 1951 at Zürich Tiefenbrunnen railway station, the Swiss Museum of Transport and the Bureau International des Containers (BIC) held demonstrations of container systems for representatives from a number of European countries, and from the United States. A system was selected for Western Europe, based on the Netherlands' system for consumer goods and waste transportation called Laadkisten (lit. "Loading chests"), in use since 1934. This system used roller containers for transport by rail, truck and ship, in various configurations up to {{convert|5500|kg|lb|order=flip}} capacity, and up to {{cvt|3.1|x|2.3|x|2|m|ftin|frac=8|order=flip}} in size.{{cite journal |author=M.K. |title=Vorläufer der heutigen Container: pa, BT und B900 | trans-title=Predecessors of today's containers: pa, BT and B900 |language=de |url=http://s1gf.de/index.php?page=Attachment&attachmentID=15438&h=baff58dff7aacd89e3c5f73a93e2a6f668971165 |journal=MIBA |issue=Special 54 |pages=12–19 |access-date=23 July 2015}}{{cite web |url=http://www.nicospilt.com/index_laadkisten.htm |title=Laadkistvervoer – Langs de rails |author=Nico Spilt |language=nl |trans-title=Loading bin transport |access-date=20 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150720180139/http://www.nicospilt.com/index_laadkisten.htm |archive-date=20 July 2015}} This became the first post World War II European railway standard of the International Union of Railways – UIC-590, known as "pa-Behälter". It was implemented in the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, West Germany, Switzerland, Sweden and Denmark.{{Cite journal |first=Krzysztof |last=Lewandowski |title=Wymagania Organizacyjne Stosowania Systemu ACTS |language=pl |trans-title=Organizational Requirements Use the ACTS System |journal=Pojazdy Szynowe |volume=2 |year=2014 |pages=1–14 |issn=0138-0370 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269251044 }}

The use of standardized steel shipping containers began during the late 1940s and early 1950s, when commercial shipping operators and the US military started developing such units.Intermodal Marine Container Transportation: Impediments and Opportunities, Issue 236 // National Research Council: [https://books.google.com/books?id=FmZsxfFs-zIC&pg=PA18 The container revolution] (page 18): "This [Army] box in turn served as a model for the small containers that most major ship operators began using during the late 1940s and early 1950s. These however, were mainly loaded and unloaded at the docks, and not used intermodally." In 1948 the U.S. Army Transportation Corps developed the "Transporter", a rigid, corrugated steel container, able to carry {{convert|9000|lb|kg}}. It was {{cvt|8|ft|6|in|1}} long, {{cvt|6|ft|3|in|1}} wide, and {{cvt|6|ft|10|in|1}} high, with double doors on one end, was mounted on skids, and had lifting rings on the top four corners.{{cite web |url=http://www.transportation.army.mil/museum/transportation%20museum/CONEX.htm |title=History & Development of the Container – The 'Transporter', predecessor to the CONEX |author= |date=15 May 2013 |website=transportation.army.mil |publisher=U.S. Army Transportation Museum |access-date=20 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150720104152/http://www.transportation.army.mil/museum/transportation%20museum/CONEX.htm |archive-date=20 July 2015}} After proving successful in Korea, the Transporter was developed into the Container Express (CONEX) box system in late 1952. Based on the Transporter, the size and capacity of the Conex were about the same,{{#tag:ref|8 ft 6 in length, 6 ft 3 in width and 6 ft {{frac|10|1|2}} in height, and 9000 lb capacity{{cite thesis |last=Heins |first=Matthew |date=2013 |title=The Shipping Container and the Globalization of American Infrastructure |type=dissertation |chapter=2 |publisher=University of Michigan |page=15 |chapter-url=http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/102480/mheins_1.pdf |access-date=21 July 2015}}{{cite book |last=Levinson |first=Marc |date=2006 |title=The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger |location=Princeton, New Jersey |publisher=Princeton University Press |chapter=Chapter 7: Setting the Standard |page=[https://archive.org/details/boxhowshippin00levi/page/127 127] |isbn=978-0-691-12324-0 |access-date=21 July 2015 |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/boxhowshippin00levi/page/127 }}|group="nb"}} but the system was made modular, by the addition of a smaller, half-size unit of {{cvt|6|ft|3|in|1}} long, {{cvt|4|ft|3|in|1}} wide and {{cvt|6|ft|10+1/2|in|1}} high.{{sfnp|van Ham|van Ham|Rijsenbrij|2012|p=8}}{{sfnp|Monograph 7: Containerization|1970|p=10|ps=, "The dimensions of the CONEX II are 75 by {{frac|82|1|2}} by 102 in. The CONEX container is a metal reusable shipping box. The most common type has a 295-cu. ft. capacity, is about {{frac|8|2|2}} by 6 by 7 ft, and can carry 9,000 lbs. The dimensions of the Half-CONEX or CONEX I container are 75 by {{frac|82|1|2}} by 51 in."}}{{#tag:ref| Some sources also mention a 12-foot version.{{cite book|title=Falloff|first=Robert|last=Flanagan|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nuTu4FIZdhoC&pg=PA7|chapter=Fleeing G.o.D.|page=7|date=2011|publisher=AuthorHouse |isbn=978-1-4670-7295-3}}{{cite web |url=http://everhartfamily.com/vietnam1970.html |title=My Vietnam Tour – 1970 |author=Michael J. Everhart |date=7 July 2014 |access-date=21 July 2015 |quote= CONEX ... container that ... was about 7' high by 8' wide and about 12' long...}}|group="nb"}} Conexes could be stacked three high, and protected their contents from the elements. By 1965 the US military used some 100,000 Conex boxes, and more than 200,000 in 1967,{{sfnp|van Ham|van Ham|Rijsenbrij|2012|p=8}}{{sfnp|Monograph 7: Containerization|1970|pp=9–11}} making this the first worldwide application of intermodal containers. Their invention made a major contribution to the globalization of commerce in the second half of the 20th century, dramatically reducing the cost of transporting goods and hence of long-distance trade.{{cite book|chapter-url=http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9383.html|last=Levinson|first=Marc|title=The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger|chapter=Chapter 1: The World the Box Made |publisher=Princeton University Press|access-date=17 February 2013|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122131825/http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9383.html|archive-date=22 January 2013}}{{cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/business/how-the-invention-of-a-box-changed-our-world/2006/06/11/1149964409162.html|title=How the invention of a box changed our world |last=Gittins|first=Ross|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|date=12 June 2006|access-date=17 February 2013}}

From 1949 onward, engineer Keith Tantlinger repeatedly contributed to the development of containers, as well as their handling and transportation equipment. In 1949, while at Brown Trailers Inc. of Spokane, Washington, he modified the design of their stressed skin aluminum 30-foot trailer, to fulfil an order of two-hundred {{convert|30|x|8|x|8.5|ft|m|1|adj=on}} containers that could be stacked two high, for Alaska-based Ocean Van Lines. Steel castings on the top corners provided lifting and securing points.{{sfnp|van Ham|van Ham|Rijsenbrij|2012|p=14}}

In 1955, trucking magnate Malcom McLean bought Pan-Atlantic Steamship Company, to form a container shipping enterprise, later known as Sea-Land. The first containers were supplied by Brown Trailers Inc, where McLean met Keith Tantlinger, and hired him as vice-president of engineering and research.{{sfnp|van Ham|van Ham|Rijsenbrij|2012|p=18}} Under the supervision of Tantlinger, a new {{cvt|35|x|8|x|8.5|ft|1}} Sea-Land container was developed, the length determined by the maximum length of trailers then allowed on Pennsylvanian highways. Each container had a frame with eight corner castings that could withstand stacking loads.{{sfnp|van Ham|van Ham|Rijsenbrij|2012|p=20}} Tantlinger also designed automatic spreaders for handling the containers, as well as the twistlock mechanism that connects with the corner castings.

Containers in their modern 21st-century form first began to gain widespread use around 1956. Businesses began to devise a structured process to use and to get optimal benefits from the role and use of shipping containers. Over time, the invention of the modern telecommunications of the late 20th century made it highly beneficial to have standardized shipping containers and made these shipping processes more standardized, modular, easier to schedule, and easier to manage.{{Cite web |last=Heilweil |first=Rebecca |date=2021-12-14 |title=The history of the metal box that's wrecking the supply chain |url=https://www.vox.com/recode/22832884/shipping-containers-amazon-supply-chain |website=Vox |language=en}}

File:Recklinghausen - Uferstraße - Umspannwerk 22 ies.jpg

Two years after McLean's first container ship, the Ideal X, started container shipping on the US East Coast,{{cite magazine|url=http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/trnews/trnews246.pdf|title=The Containership Revolution: Malcom McLean's 1956 Innovation Goes Global|first=Brian J.|last=Cudahy|magazine=TR News|number=246|date=September–December 2006|access-date=2011-03-01|url-status=live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304190442/http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/trnews/trnews246.pdf|archive-date=4 March 2016}} Matson Navigation followed suit between California and Hawaii. Just like Pan-Atlantic's containers, Matson's were {{convert|8|ft|2|abbr=on}} wide and {{convert|8|ft|6|in|2|abbr=on}} high, but due to California's different traffic code Matson chose to make theirs {{convert|24|ft|2|abbr=on}} long.{{sfnp|van Ham|van Ham|Rijsenbrij|2012|p=26}} In 1968, McLean began container service to South Vietnam for the US military with great success.

ISO standards for containers were published between 1968 and 1970 by the International Maritime Organization. These standards allow for more consistent loading, transporting, and unloading of goods in ports throughout the world, thus saving time and resources.{{cite web|last=Bartsch|first=Butsri|title=Sea freight – somehow antique yet modern!|url=http://www.transport-bbhandel.de/en/blog/detail/sCategory/199/blogArticle/21#|access-date=20 May 2013|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130608071732/http://www.transport-bbhandel.de/en/blog/detail/sCategory/199/blogArticle/21|archive-date=8 June 2013}}

The International Convention for Safe Containers (CSC) is a 1972 regulation by the Inter-governmental Maritime Consultative Organization on the safe handling and transport of containers. It decrees that every container traveling internationally be fitted with a CSC safety-approval plate.{{cite web |url=http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-Safe-Containers-(CSC).aspx |title=International Convention for Safe Containers (CSC) – Adoption: 2 December 1972; Entry into force: 6 September 1977 |publisher=International Maritime Organisation |access-date=1 February 2013 |archive-date=10 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130710214258/http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-Safe-Containers-(CSC).aspx |url-status=dead }}[http://www.admiraltylawguide.com/conven/containers1972.html International Convention for Safe Containers] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305131303/http://www.admiraltylawguide.com/conven/containers1972.html |date=5 March 2016 }} (Geneva, 2 December 1972) This holds essential information about the container, including age, registration number, dimensions and weights, as well as its strength and maximum stacking capability.

Longshoremen and related unions around the world struggled with this revolution in shipping goods.{{cite web|title=NLRB v. Longshoremen, 447 U.S. 490|url=http://www.admiraltylawguide.com/supct/NLRB1980.htm|via= Admiralty and Maritime Law Guide}}{{cite web|title=NLRB v. Longshoremen, 447 U.S. 490|url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/447/490/|via=Justia: U.S. Supreme Court}} For example, by 1971 a clause in the International Longshoremen's Association (ILA) contract stipulated that the work of "stuffing" (filling) or "stripping" (emptying) a container within {{convert|50|mi}} of a port must be done by ILA workers, or if not done by ILA, that the shipper needed to pay royalties and penalties to the ILA. Unions for truckers and consolidators argued that the ILA rules were not valid work preservation clauses, because the work of stuffing and stripping containers away from the pier had not traditionally been done by ILA members. In 1980 the Supreme Court of the United States heard this case and ruled against the ILA.

Some experts have said that the centralized, continuous shipping process made possible by containers has created dangerous liabilities: one bottleneck, delay, or other breakdown at any point in the process can easily cause major delays everywhere up and down the supply chain.

The reliance on containers exacerbated some of the economic and societal damage from the 2021 global supply chain crisis of 2020 and 2021, and the resulting shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic. In January 2021, for example, a shortage of shipping containers at ports caused shipping to be backlogged.{{Cite web|last=Partners|first=McAlinden Research|date=2020-11-16|title=Shipping Container Shortage Could Last Until Next Year, Boosting Container Leasing Stocks|url=https://mcalindenresearchpartners.com/2020/11/16/shipping-container-shortage-could-last-until-next-year-boosting-container-leasing-stocks/|access-date=2021-02-03|website=McAlinden Research Partners|language=en-US}}{{Cite web|last=cameronc86|date=2020-12-31|title=Container Shortage – The Reasons Behind It|url=https://www.clearfreight.com/post/container-shortage-the-reasons-behind-it|access-date=2021-02-03|website=ClearFreight|language=en}}{{Cite web|date=2020-11-09|title=Shipping companies box clever to overcome container shortages|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/business/economy/shipping-companies-box-clever-to-overcome-container-shortages-1.1108049|access-date=2021-02-03|website=The National|language=en}}

Marc Levinson, author of Outside the Box: How Globalization Changed from Moving Stuff to Spreading Ideas and The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger, said in an interview:

Because of delays in the process, it's taking a container longer to go from its origin to its final destination where it's unloaded, so the container is in use longer for each trip. You've just lost a big hunk of the total capacity because the containers can't be used as intensively.

We've had in the United States an additional problem, which is that the ship lines typically charge much higher rates on services from Asia to North America than from North America to Asia. This has resulted in complaints, for example, from farmers and agricultural companies, that it's hard to get containers in some parts of the country because the ship lines want to ship them empty back to Asia, rather than letting them go to South Dakota and load over the course of several days. So we've had exporters in the United States complaining that they have a hard time finding a container that they can use to send their own goods abroad.

File:Container Augsburg.jpg]]

File:Container twistlock connector.agr.jpgs fit through the larger oval hole on the bottom castings. Top casting ovals hold twistlock fittings used to secure another container on top.]]

Ninety percent of the global container fleet consists of "dry freight" or "general purpose" containers – both of standard and special sizes.{{cite web |url=https://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/containerproduction.html |title=World Container Production, 2007 |author=Jean-Paul Rodrigue |website=The Geography of Transport Systems |publisher=Hofstra University |access-date=19 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130704071409/http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/containerproduction.html |archive-date=4 July 2013}}{{cite web |url=http://www.worldshipping.org/about-the-industry/containers/global-container-fleet |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150511184228/http://www.worldshipping.org/about-the-industry/containers/global-container-fleet |url-status = dead|archive-date=2015-05-11 |title=Global Container Fleet |date=2013 |website=worldshipping.org |publisher=World Shipping Council |access-date=19 July 2015 }}

And although lengths of containers vary from {{convert|8|to|56|ft|m|1}}, according to two 2012 container census reports{{#tag:ref|The Containerisation International Market Analysis Report: World Container Census 2012, and the Drewry Maritime Research report: Container Census 2012{{Cite web |url=https://www.csiu.co/resources-and-links/world-container-fleet |title=World Container Fleet – CSI Container Services International |access-date=22 August 2021 |archive-date=8 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308125348/http://www.csiu.co/resources-and-links/world-container-fleet |url-status=dead }} |group="nb"}} about 80% of the world's containers are either 20- or 40-foot standard-length boxes of the dry freight design. These typical containers are rectangular, closed box models, with doors fitted at one end, and made of corrugated weathering steel (commonly known as CorTen){{#tag:ref|Originally "COR-TEN", a trademark of U.S. Steel Corporation|group="nb"}} with a plywood floor.{{cite web|url=http://www.containerhomes-info.com/|title=Shipping Container Homes Globally|access-date=24 May 2009|archive-date=29 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090529033006/http://containerhomes-info.com/|url-status=dead}} Although corrugating the sheet metal used for the sides and roof contributes significantly to the container's rigidity and stacking strength, just like in corrugated iron or in cardboard boxes, the corrugated sides cause aerodynamic drag, and up to 10% fuel economy loss in road or rail transport, compared to smooth-sided vans.{{cite web|url=http://fleetowner.com/running-green/miles-go|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150726054227/http://fleetowner.com/running-green/miles-go|url-status = dead|archive-date=26 July 2015|title=Miles to Go – Running Green content from Fleet Owner|date=26 July 2015}}

Standard containers are {{convert|8|ft|m|1|adj=off}} wide by {{convert|8|ft|6|in|m|1|abbr=on}} high,{{#tag:ref|Using "standard" to mean "standard height", as intended within the ISO 668 standard, as opposed to meaning "dry van" or "general purpose" container.|group="nb"}} although the taller "High Cube" or "hi-cube" units measuring {{convert|9|ft|6|in|m|1}} have become very common in recent years{{when?|date=September 2024}}. By the end of 2013, high-cube 40 ft containers represented almost 50% of the world's maritime container fleet, according to Drewry's Container Census report.{{cite web |url=http://www.drewry.co.uk/news.php?id=277 |title=40ft High Cubes set to Dominate the Container Equipment Market |author= |date=18 June 2014 |publisher=Drewry Shipping Consultants |access-date=18 July 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140829070535/http://www.drewry.co.uk/news.php?id=277 |archive-date=29 August 2014}}

About 90% of the world's containers are either nominal {{convert|20|ft|m|1|adj=on}} or {{convert|40|ft|m|1|adj=on}} long,{{cite web |url=https://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/containerfleet.html |title=Composition of the Global Fleet of Containers, 2008 |author= |website=The Geography of Transport Systems |publisher=Hofstra University |access-date=18 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141121102626/http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/containerfleet.html |archive-date=21 November 2014}} although the United States and Canada also use longer units of {{cvt|45|ft|m|1}}, {{cvt|48|ft|m|1}} and {{cvt|53|ft|m|1}}. ISO containers have castings with openings for twistlock fasteners at each of the eight corners, to allow gripping the box from above, below, or the side, and they can be stacked up to ten units high.{{cite web|url=http://www.containerhandbuch.de/chb_e/stra/stra_03_01_00.html |title=Section 3.1 Container design|work=Container Handbook|publisher=GDV|access-date=2020-05-01}}

File:Containerverriegelung.JPG on the corner of a road trailer]]

Although ISO standard 1496 of 1990 only required nine-high stacking, and only of containers rated at {{convert|24000|kg|lb|order=flip}},{{cite tech report |url=https://law.resource.org/pub/us/cfr/ibr/004/iso.1496-1.1990.pdf |title=ISO 1496-1: Series 1 Freight Containers – Specification and Testing |number=Part 1 |institution=ISO |year=1990 |pages=4–5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329114253/https://law.resource.org/pub/us/cfr/ibr/004/iso.1496-1.1990.pdf |archive-date=29 March 2014}} current Ultra Large Container Vessels of the Post New Panamax and Maersk Triple E class are stacking them ten or eleven high.{{cite web |url=https://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/containerships.html |title=Evolution of Containerships |author=Jean-Paul Rodrigue |year=2013 |website=The Geography of Transport Systems |publisher=Hofstra University |access-date=27 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322201808/http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/containerships.html |archive-date=2015-03-22}}{{cite web|url=http://www.maersk.com/en/hardware/triple-e/the-triple-e-a-larger-than-life-puzzle|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140905104422/http://www.maersk.com/en/hardware/triple-e/the-triple-e-a-larger-than-life-puzzle|url-status = dead|archive-date=5 September 2014|title=The Triple-E A larger-than-life puzzle|date=5 September 2014}} Moreover, vessels like the Marie Maersk no longer use separate stacks in their holds, and other stacks above deck – instead they maximize their capacity by stacking continuously from the bottom of the hull, to as much as 21 high.Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/l2JMaJTFSvw Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20210330225921/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l2JMaJTFSvw Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite AV media |last=Hammond |first=Richard |title=Episode 4: Mega Ship |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l2JMaJTFSvw&t=83s |website=Big |time=1:23 |access-date=10 May 2020}}{{cbignore}} This requires automated planning to keep heavy containers at the bottom of the stack and light ones on top to stabilize the ship and to prevent crushing the bottom containers.

Regional intermodal containers, such as European, Japanese and U.S. domestic units however, are mainly transported by road and rail, and can frequently only be stacked up to two or three laden units high. Although the two ends are quite rigid, containers flex somewhat during transport.{{cite web|url=http://www.physorg.com/news171564788.html|title=GTRI Develops New Technologies to Secure Cargo Containers|publisher=PhysOrg.com|date=7 September 2009|access-date=8 May 2011}}

Container capacity is often expressed in twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU, or sometimes teu). A twenty-foot equivalent unit is a measure of containerized cargo capacity equal to one standard {{convert|20|ft|m|1|adj=on}} long container. This is an approximate measure, wherein the height of the box is not considered. For example, the {{convert|9|ft|6|in|m|1|abbr=on}} tall high-cube, as well as {{convert|4|ft|3|in|m|1|adj=mid|half-height}} {{convert|20|ft|m|1|adj=on}} containers are equally counted as one TEU. Similarly, extra long {{convert|45|ft|m|1|abbr=on|adj=on}} containers are commonly counted as just two TEU, no different from standard {{convert|40|ft|m|1|adj=on}} long units. Two TEU are equivalent to one forty-foot equivalent unit (FEU).{{cite web|url=http://www.shipping-container-housing.com/20-foot-shipping-container.html|title=The 20 Foot Shipping Container|publisher=Shipping-container-housing.com|access-date=1 February 2013}}{{cite web|url=https://thanhdocontainer.vn/|title=Thanh Do Container|website= thanhdocontainer.vn }}

In 2014 the global container fleet grew to a volume of 36.6 million TEU, based on Drewry Shipping Consultants' Container Census.{{cite web |url=http://www.wcaworld.com/eng/news.asp?id=1039 |title=Price of new containers at a 10-year low, putting pressure on leasing companies |first=Mike |last=Wackett |date=7 July 2015 |website=The Loadstar |access-date=18 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150718202001/http://www.wcaworld.com/eng/news.asp?id=1039 |archive-date=18 July 2015}}{{#tag:ref|Up from an estimated 34.5 million TEU in 2013 |group="nb"}} Moreover, in 2014 for the first time in history 40-foot High-Cube containers accounted for the majority of boxes in service, measured in TEU. In 2019 it was noted by global logistics data analysis startup Upply[https://www.mongodb.com/blog/post/upply-is-using-data-to-build-a-new-logistics-market--heres-how Upply is Using Data to Build a New Logistics Market: Here's How | MongoDB News] that China's role as 'factory of the world' is further incentivizing the use of 40-foot containers, and that the computational standard 1 TEU boxes only make up 20% of units on major east–west liner routes, and demand for shipping them keeps dropping.{{cite web |last=Ricqles |first=Jerome de |title=Containerized sea freight: is it time to switch from TEU to FEU? |url=https://market-insights.upply.com/en/containerized-sea-freight-is-it-time-to-switch-from-teu-to-feu |website=Upply Transportation and Logistics Analysis |access-date=29 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128045643/https://market-insights.upply.com/en/containerized-sea-freight-is-it-time-to-switch-from-teu-to-feu |archive-date=2020-11-28 |date=6 May 2019}} In the 21st century, the market has shifted to using 40-foot high-cube dry and refrigerated containers more and more predominantly. Forty-foot units have become the standard to such an extent that the sea freight industry now charges less than 30% more for moving a 40-ft unit than for a 1 TEU box. Although 20-ft units mostly have heavy cargo, and are useful for stabilizing both ships and revenue,{{#tag:ref |Heavy 1 TEU containers are habitually stacked low in a vessel, both for the stability of a ship (keep the center of gravity low), as well as being often used under long term contracts, providing financial stability. |group=nb }} carriers financially penalize 1 TEU boxes by comparison.

For container manufacturers, 40-foot High-Cubes now dominate market demand both for dry and refrigerated units. Manufacturing prices for regular dry freight containers are typically in the range of $1750–$2000 U.S. per CEU (container equivalent unit), and about 90% of the world's containers are made in China. The average age of the global container fleet was a little over 5 years from end 1994 to end 2009, meaning containers remain in shipping use for well over 10 years.

{{multiple image | align=center|total_width=800

|header = Bottom structure features

|image1 = Downburst wind damage vaughan CN rail yard east side near Keele street 23 04 07 (cropped).jpg

|image2 = Inside of a container 1.jpg

|image3 = Schmitz S CF Gooseneck 40 LX.jpg

|image4 = Mckinney Containers.jpg

|footer = The typical gooseneck tunnel is clearly visible in the underside of a toppled-over, long container (first picture), as well as in a container's interior, where it takes the space otherwise covered by wood flooring. Gooseneck container trailer showing twistlock couplings for forty-foot boxes at its four corners.

Twenty foot containers, on the other hand, frequently have forklift pockets, accessible from the sides (last picture).{{#tag:ref| Infrequently there are two sets,[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:U.S._Army_Spc._Tashaya_Rodgers,_left,_and_Sgt._Joseph_White,_both_assigned_to_the_551st_Inland_Cargo_Transportation_Company,_secure_a_container_on_a_Palletized_Loading_System_1074_April_21,_2013,_in_Pohang_130421-N-LO372-182.jpg U.S. Army 20-ft ISO container in Pohang, South Korea, 2013] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022093706/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AU.S._Army_Spc._Tashaya_Rodgers%2C_left%2C_and_Sgt._Joseph_White%2C_both_assigned_to_the_551st_Inland_Cargo_Transportation_Company%2C_secure_a_container_on_a_Palletized_Loading_System_1074_April_21%2C_2013%2C_in_Pohang_130421-N-LO372-182.jpg |date=22 October 2016 }} an outer set which may be used for loaded handling, and an inner set only for unloaded handling, by smaller forklifts.{{cite tech report |url=https://law.resource.org/pub/us/cfr/ibr/004/iso.1496-1.1990.pdf |title=ISO 1496-1: Series 1 Freight Containers – Specification and Testing |number=Part 1 |institution=ISO |year=1990 |pages=8, 13, 20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329114253/https://law.resource.org/pub/us/cfr/ibr/004/iso.1496-1.1990.pdf |archive-date=29 March 2014}}|group="nb"}}

}}

A gooseneck tunnel, an indentation in the floor structure, that meshes with the gooseneck on dedicated container semi-trailers, is a mandatory feature in the bottom structure of 1AAA and 1EEE (40- and 45-ft high-cube) containers, and optional but typical on standard height, forty-foot and longer containers.{{sfnp |ref=ISO668_2013E |ISO:668 (E) |2013 |p=4 }}

File:Lauritzen1 k100.jpg

File:Railroad car with container loads.jpg with a 20 ft tank container and an open-top 20 ft container with canvas cover]]

File:Flat-rack-small-vessel.jpeg.]]

Other than the standard, general purpose container, many variations exist for use with different cargoes. The most prominent of these are refrigerated containers (also called reefers) for perishable goods, that make up 6% of the world's shipping boxes. Tanks in a frame, for bulk liquids, account for another 0.75% of the global container fleet.

Although these variations are not of the standard type, they mostly are ISO standard containers – in fact the ISO 6346 standard classifies a broad spectrum of container types in great detail. Aside from different size options, the most important container types are:{{cite web| title =Selecting a Container | publisher =CMA CGM Group| year =2006 | url =http://www.cma-cgm.com/Images/ContentManagement/AboutUs/PressRoom/Brochures/Documents/Containers.pdf | access-date =14 February 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111234650/http://www.cma-cgm.com/Images/ContentManagement/AboutUs/PressRoom/Brochures/Documents/Containers.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2007}}{{#tag:ref|Frequently used abbreviations for the most common ISO 6346 types are: GP (General Purpose), HC / HQ (High Cube), OT (Open Top), RF (Refrigerated), RK (Rack) and TK (Tank).[http://portal2.kuantanport.com.my/docs/ISOContainerTypeGroup.pdf ISO Container Type Group.pdf]{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}|group="nb"}}

• General-purpose dry vans, for boxes, cartons, cases, sacks, bales, pallets, drums, etc., Special interior layouts are known, such as:
• Rolling-floor containers, for difficult-to-handle cargo
• Garmentainers, for shipping garments on hangers{{cite web |url=http://www.oocl.com/eng/ourservices/containers/containerspecifications/garmentainers.htm |title=Garmentainers |author= |website=OOCL.com |publisher=Orient Overseas Container Line |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305075008/http://www.oocl.com/eng/ourservices/containers/containerspecifications/garmentainers.htm |archive-date=5 March 2010 |url-status = dead }}{{cite web |url=http://www.3plnews.com/3pl/db-schenker-logistics-offers-new-solution-for-garments-on-hangers.html |title=DB Schenker Logistics offers new solution for garments on hangers {{pipe}} 3PL |publisher=3plnews.com |date=7 July 2010 |access-date=1 February 2013 |archive-date=23 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223122520/http://www.3plnews.com/3pl/db-schenker-logistics-offers-new-solution-for-garments-on-hangers.html |url-status=dead }}
• Ventilated containers. Essentially dry vans, but either passively or actively ventilated. For instance for organic products requiring ventilation.
• Temperature controlled – either insulated, refrigerated, or heated containers, for perishable goods
• Tank containers, for liquids, gases, or powders. Frequently these are dangerous goods, and in the case of gases one shipping unit may contain multiple gas bottles
• Bulk containers (sometimes bulktainers), either closed models with roof-lids, or hard or soft open-top units for top loading, for instance for bulk minerals. Containerized coal carriers and "bin-liners" (containers designed for the efficient road and rail transportation of rubbish from cities to recycling and dump sites) are used in Europe.
• Open-top and open-side containers, for instance for easy loading of heavy machinery or oversize pallets. Crane systems can be used to load and unload crates without having to disassemble the container itself.{{Cite web|url=http://barrettlimited.com/general/open-top/|title=Why Open-Top Containers Dominate the Glass Industry and How to Use Them To Streamline Your Shipping|last=Jacob|first=Munden|date=14 August 2018|website=Barrett Ltd|access-date=29 August 2018|archive-date=29 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829212140/http://barrettlimited.com/general/open-top/|url-status=dead}} Open sides are also used for ventilating hardy perishables like apples or potatoes.
• Log cradles for cradling logs[https://harvesttech.events/new-cradle-containers-revolutionise-log-transport/ Log cradle]
• Platform based containers such as:

File:Car container carrier.webp has developed a car container carrier{{cite web | url=https://splash247.com/cosco-develops-tech-to-transform-pulp-ship-into-a-car-carrier/ | title=COSCO develops tech to transform pulp ship into a car carrier | date=22 August 2022 }}]]

• flat-rack and bolster containers, for barrels, drums, crates, and any heavy or bulky out-of-gauge cargo, like machinery, semi-finished goods or processed timber. Empty flat-racks can either be stacked or shipped sideways in another ISO container
• collapsible containers, ranging from flushfolding flat-racks to fully closed ISO and CSC certified units with roof and walls when erected.[http://www.carucontainers.com/int/containers/4fold-foldable-container 4FOLD – Foldable Container] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026185412/http://www.carucontainers.com/int/containers/4fold-foldable-container |date=26 October 2016 }}
• trash containers, for carrying trash bags and cans to and from Recycling factories and landfills.

Containers for offshore use have a few different features, like pad eyes, and must meet additional strength and design requirements, standards and certification, such as the DNV2.7-1 by Det Norske Veritas, LRCCS by Lloyd's Register, Guide for Certification of Offshore Containers by American Bureau of Shipping and the International standard ISO10855: Offshore containers and associated lifting sets, in support of IMO MSC/Circ. 860[https://exchange.dnv.com/publishing/stdcert/2008-11/Standard2-7-1.pdf Standard for Certification No.2.7-1 – Offshore Containers_April 2006] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722231813/https://exchange.dnv.com/publishing/stdcert/2008-11/Standard2-7-1.pdf |date=22 July 2015 }}

A multitude of equipment, such as generators, has been installed in containers of different types to simplify logistics – see {{format link|#Containerized equipment}} for more details.

Swap body units usually have the same bottom corner fixtures as intermodal containers, and often have folding legs under their frame so that they can be moved between trucks without using a crane. However they frequently do not have the upper corner fittings of ISO containers, and are not stackable, nor can they be lifted and handled by the usual equipment like reach-stackers or straddle-carriers. They are generally more expensive to procure.{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/transport/intermodality/legislation/doc/economic_study_ilu.pdf |title=Economic Analysis of Proposed Standardisation And Harmonisation Requirements |author= |date=13 October 2003 |publisher=ICF Consulting, Ltd. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101011185432/http://ec.europa.eu/transport/intermodality/legislation/doc/economic_study_ilu.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2010 |url-status = dead}}

File:Textainer container.jpeg

Basic terminology of globally standardized intermodal shipping containers is set out in standard:

• ISO 830:(1999) Freight containers – Vocabulary, 2nd edition; last reviewed and confirmed in 2016.

From its inception, ISO standards on international shipping containers, consistently speak of them sofar as 'Series 1' containers – deliberately so conceived, to leave room for another such series of interrelated container standards in the future.{{#tag:ref| The term "Series 1" in the standards' names expresses the interrelated nature of the standards, leaving room for another such series in the future. In 2012, Michel Hennemand, president of the International Container Bureau (BIC), and chair of ISO Technical committee 104, subcommittee SC 1: General purpose containers, asked whether the time has come to develop a new series of standards on containers (Series 2), to accommodate new sizes like American 53-foot and European Pallet-wide containers. A new series which, given the significant investments required by the industry, would replace the current series of standards (series 1) in the next 20 or 25 years.{{cite journal |last=Hennemand |first=Michel |date=April 2012 |title=Containers – Talk about a revolution ! |url=http://www.iso.org/iso/livelinkgetfile-isocs?nodeId=16113860 |journal=ISO Focus+ |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=21–22 |access-date=13 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150718213325/http://www.iso.org/iso/livelinkgetfile-isocs?nodeId=16113860 |archive-date=18 July 2015}} |group="nb"}}

Basic dimensions and permissible gross weights of intermodal containers are largely determined by two ISO standards:

• ISO 668:2013–2020 Series 1 freight containers—Classification, dimensions and ratings
• ISO 1496-1:2013 Series 1 freight containers—Specification and testing—Part 1: General cargo containers for general purposes

Weights and dimensions of the most common (standardized) types of containers are given below.{{#tag:ref|Forty-five-foot containers were not standardized by the ISO until the 2005 Amendment No. 2 to the ISO 668:1995 standard.{{cite tech report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/221785902/ISO-668-Freight-Containers#scribd|title=ISO 668:1995 Series 1 freight containers – Classification, dimensions and ratings – AMENDMENT 2: 45' containers|institution=ISO|year=2005|access-date=9 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306145701/https://www.scribd.com/doc/221785902/ISO-668-Freight-Containers#scribd|archive-date=6 March 2016|url-status = dead}} |group="nb"}} Forty-eight foot and fifty-three foot containers have not yet been incorporated in the latest, 2020 edition of the ISO 668.[standard.https://cdn.standards.iteh.ai/samples/81611/5d7c564c8da2423e80fb95fbbdfeb70f/ISO-668-2020-DAmd-1.pdf ISO 668:2020 Preview (pdf)] ISO standard maximum gross mass for all standard sizes except 10-ft boxes was raised to {{cvt|36,000|kg|lb|order=flip}} per Amendment 1 on ISO 668:2013, in 2016.{{cite book |author1=Sub-committee on Carriage of Cargoes and Containers |title=Discrepancy in container stacking strength requirements between the pertinent ISO Standard and the Convention for Safe Containers (CSC) |date=5 July 2019 |publisher=International Maritime Organization |pages=1–2 |edition=6th session; Agenda item 13 |url=https://www.ics-shipping.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/CCC-6-13-2-Discrepancy-in-container-stacking-strength-requirementsbetween-the-pertinent-ISO-Standard...-France-Italy-ICS-BIMCO....pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210916221307/https://www.ics-shipping.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/CCC-6-13-2-Discrepancy-in-container-stacking-strength-requirementsbetween-the-pertinent-ISO-Standard...-France-Italy-ICS-BIMCO....pdf |archive-date=2021-09-16 |url-status=live |access-date=16 September 2021 }} Draft Amendment 1 of ISO 668: 2020 – for the eighth edition – maintains this.[https://cdn.standards.iteh.ai/samples/81611/5d7c564c8da2423e80fb95fbbdfeb70f/ISO-668-2020-DAmd-1.pdf Draft Amendment ISO 668:2020/DAM 1] Given the average container lifespan, the majority of the global container fleet have not caught up with this change yet.

Values vary slightly from manufacturer to manufacturer, but must stay within the tolerances dictated by the standards. Empty weight (tare weight) is not determined by the standards, but by the container's construction, and is therefore indicative, but necessary to calculate a net load figure, by subtracting it from the maximum permitted gross weight.

The bottom row in the table gives the legal maximum cargo weights for U.S. highway transport, and those based on use of an industry common tri-axle chassis. Cargo must also be loaded evenly inside the container, to avoid axle weight violations. The maximum gross weights that U.S. railroads accept or deliver are {{cvt|52,900|lb|kg}} for 20-foot containers, and {{cvt|67,200|lb|kg}} for 40-foot containers, in contrast to the global ISO-standard gross weight for 20-footers having been raised to the same as 40-footers in the year 2005.{{cite tech report |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/221785902/ISO-668-Freight-Containers |title=ISO 668:1995 Series 1 freight containers – Classification, dimensions and ratings – AMENDMENT 1 |institution=ISO |date=2005-09-15 |access-date=9 September 2017 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306145701/https://www.scribd.com/doc/221785902/ISO-668-Freight-Containers |url-status=dead }} In the U.S., containers loaded up to the rail cargo weight limit cannot move over the road, as they will exceed the U.S. {{cvt|80000|lb}} highway limit.

Australian RACE containers are also slightly wider to optimise them for the use of Australia Standard Pallets, or are {{cvt|41|ft|1}} long and {{cvt|2.5|m|0|order=flip}} wide to be able to fit up to 40 pallets.[https://www.scf.com.au/products-services/refrigerated-containers/41ft-refrigerated-container/ 41ft Refrigerated Container | Up to 40 temp-controlled pallets][https://www.scf.com.au/media/ynsla0df/scf-r4191-factsheets_4pp-booklet.pdf SCF: 41ft Refrigerated Container brochure.pdf]

File:Moving Cobelfret Containers at Humber Sea Terminal.jpg (RoRo) tractor. The text in the yellow arrow on the top unit indicates its extra {{cvt|2.50|m|ft|order=flip}} width.]]

European pallet wide (or PW) containers are minimally wider, and have shallow side corrugation, to offer just enough internal width, to allow common European Euro-pallets of {{convert|1.20|m|in|frac=8|abbr=on|order=flip}} long by {{convert|0.80|m|in|frac=8|abbr=on|order=flip}} wide,{{cite web|url=http://www.containercontainer.com/about_containers.aspx|title=Standard Shipping Containers|publisher=Container container|access-date=18 May 2009}} to be loaded with significantly greater efficiency and capacity. Having a typical internal width of {{convert|2.44|m|in|frac=8|abbr=on|order=flip}},[https://www.shippingandfreightresource.com/pallet-wide-containers/ Pallet wide containers – ShippingAndFreightResource.com] (a gain of about {{convert|10|cm|frac=16|order=flip}} over the ISO-usual {{convert|2.34|m|in|frac=8|abbr=on|order=flip}},[https://www.containercontainer.com/shipping-container-dimensions/ Shipping Container Dimensions – Container Container.com] gives pallet-wide containers a usable internal floor width of {{convert|2.40|m|in|frac=8|abbr=on|order=flip}}, compared to {{convert|2.00|m|in|frac=8|abbr=on|order=flip}} in standard containers, because the extra width enables their users to either load two Euro-pallets end on end across their width, or three of them side by side (providing the pallets were neatly stacked, without overspill), whereas in standard ISO containers, a strip of internal floor-width of about {{convert|33|cm|in|frac=8|order=flip}} cannot be used by Euro-pallets.

As a result, while being virtually interchangeable:

• A 20-foot PW can load 15 Euro-pallets – four more, or 36% better than the normal 11 pallets in an ISO-standard 20-foot unit
• A 40-foot PW can load 30 Euro-pallets – five more, or 20% better than the 25 pallets in a standard 40-foot unit, and
• A 45-foot PW can load 34 Euro-pallets – seven more, or 26% better than 27 in a standard 45-foot container.

File:ZIM New York (ship, 2002) 002.jpg

Some pallet-wides are simply manufactured with the same, ISO-standard floor structure, but with the side-panels welded in, such that the ribs/corrugations are embossed outwards, instead of indenting to the inside.{{cite web|url=http://www.matts-place.com/intermodal/part4/gesu4710896.jpg |title=gesu4710896.jpg |access-date=2012-04-22 |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024201005/http://www.matts-place.com/intermodal/part4/gesu4710896.jpg |archive-date=24 October 2016 }} This makes it possible for some pallet-wides to be just {{convert|2.462|m|in|frac=8|abbr=on|order=flip}} wide, but others can be {{convert|2.50|m|in|frac=8|abbr=on|order=flip}} wide.[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Moving_Cobelfret_Containers_at_Humber_Sea_Terminal.jpg Photo of 45-foot Cobelfret containers, with markings warning of their 2.5 metres width, as well as their 9'6'' height]

The {{convert|45|ft|m|2|abbr=on}} pallet-wide high-cube container has gained particularly wide acceptance, as these containers can replace the {{convert|13.6|m|ftin|frac=8|abbr=on|order=flip}} swap bodies that are common for truck transport in Europe. The EU has started a standardization for pallet wide containerization in the European Intermodal Loading Unit (EILU) initiative.{{cite web| url=http://www.silvertipdesign.com/BR(Imperial)/%5B26%5D%20slutrapport%20(Possible%20consequences%20of%20a%20new%20European%20container%20standard%20(EILU)).pdf|title=Possible consequences of a new European container standard (EILU)|author1=Frederik Hallbjörner |author2=Claes Tyrén|at=master thesis|year=2004}}

Many sea shipping providers in Europe allow these on board, as their external width overhangs over standard containers are sufficiently minor that they fit in the usual interlock spaces in ship's holds, as long as their corner-castings patterns (both in the floor and the top) still match with regular 40-foot units, for stacking and securing.

File:AML SVETRUCK Whittier 411 (cropped).jpgThe North American market has widely adopted containerization, especially for domestic shipments that need to move between road and rail transport. While they appear similar to the ISO-standard containers, there are several significant differences: they are considered High-Cubes based on their {{convert|9|ft|6|in|m|2|abbr=on|adj=on}} ISO-standard height, their {{convert|102|in|m||adj=on}} width matches the maximum width of road vehicles in the region but is {{convert|6|in|cm|0}} wider than ISO-standard containers,{{cite web |url=http://www.pnwgroup.com/container-dimensions-48-and-53 |title=Container Dimensions 48' and 53' |author= |website=PNW Equipment |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141005223615/http://www.pnwgroup.com/container-dimensions-48-and-53 |archive-date=5 October 2014}} and they are often not built strong enough to endure the rigors of ocean transport.

The first North American containers to come to market were {{convert|48|ft|m}} long. This size was introduced by container shipping company American President Lines (APL) in 1986.{{cite web |url=http://exportlogisticsguide.com/apl-introduces-53-foot-ocean-containers/ |title=APL Introduces 53 Foot Ocean Containers |last=Crowe |first=Paul |date=2 November 2007 |website=Export Logistics Guide |access-date=25 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104235508/http://exportlogisticsguide.com/apl-introduces-53-foot-ocean-containers |archive-date=4 November 2013}} The size of the containers matched new federal regulations passed in 1983 which prohibited states from outlawing the operation of single trailers shorter than {{convert|48|ft|m}} long or {{convert|102|in|cm}} wide.{{Cite web |last=Blaszak |first=Michael W. |date=1 May 2006 |title=Intermodal equipment |url=https://www.trains.com/trn/train-basics/abcs-of-railroading/intermodal-equipment/ |access-date=2023-05-25 |website=Trains Magazine |language=en-US}} This size being {{convert|8|ft|m|2}} longer and {{convert|6|in|cm|0}} wider has 29% more volume capacity than the standard 40-ft High-Cube,{{cite web |url=https://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/containerscubic.html |title=Carrying Capacity of Containers (in cubic feet) |author=Jean-Paul Rodrigue |date=2006 |website=The Geography of Transport Systems |publisher=Hofstra University |access-date=25 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903224640/http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/containerscubic.html |archive-date=3 September 2013}} yet costs of moving it by truck or rail are almost the same.

File:Swift 53ft shipping container.JPG

In the late 1980s, the federal government announced it would once again allow an increase in the length of trailers to {{convert|53|ft|m}} at the start of 1990. Anticipating this change, 53-foot containers were introduced in 1989. These large boxes have 60% more capacity than 40-foot containers, enabling shippers to consolidate more cargo into fewer containers.{{cite web |url=http://www.containertech.com/container-sales/53ft-high-cube-container-domestic/ |title=53ft High Cube Container {{pipe}} 53' High Cube Container |publisher=Container Technology, Inc. |access-date=1 February 2013 |archive-date=9 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509084449/https://containertech.com/container-sales/53ft-high-cube-container-domestic/ |url-status=dead }}{{cite web|url=http://www.freightdawg.com/2007/11/big-boxes-bring.html |title=Big Boxes bring Big Questions – |first=Eric |last=Joiner |work=Freightdawg.com |date=5 November 2007 |access-date=1 February 2013}}

In 2007, APL introduced the first 53-foot ocean-capable containers designed to withstand voyages on its South China-to-Los Angeles service. In 2013, APL stopped offering vessel space for 53-foot containers on its trans-Pacific ships.{{cite news |author=JOC staff |date=15 March 2013 |title=APL Abandons 53-Foot Ocean Containers |url=http://www.joc.com/maritime-news/container-lines/apl/apl-abandons-53-foot-ocean-containers_20130315.html |newspaper=The Journal of Commerce |location=Newark, New Jersey |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515023348/http://www.joc.com/maritime-news/container-lines/apl/apl-abandons-53-foot-ocean-containers_20130315.html |archive-date=15 May 2013 }} In 2015 both Crowley and TOTE Maritime each announced the construction of their respective second combined container and roll-on/roll-off ships for Puerto Rico trade, with the specific design to maximize cubic cargo capacity by carrying 53-foot, {{convert|102|in|0|adj=mid|wide}} containers.{{cite news |author= |title=Construction Begins on Crowley's Second Commitment Class ConRo Ship for Use in the Puerto Rico Trade |url=http://www.hellenicshippingnews.com/construction-begins-on-crowleys-second-commitment-class-lng-powered-conro-ship-for-use-in-the-puerto-rico-trade/ |newspaper=Hellenic Shipping News Worldwide |location=Piraeus, Greece |date=28 May 2015 |access-date=24 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724174029/http://www.hellenicshippingnews.com/construction-begins-on-crowleys-second-commitment-class-lng-powered-conro-ship-for-use-in-the-puerto-rico-trade/ |archive-date=24 July 2015}}{{cite news |author= |title=Containers for world's first LNG-powered container ships arrive at Jaxport |url=http://www.jaxport.com/newsroom/news/containers-for-world%E2%80%99s-first-lng-powered-container-ships-arrive-at-jaxport |publisher=Jacksonville Port Authority |location=Jacksonville, Florida |date=16 June 2015 |access-date=24 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724192046/http://www.jaxport.com/newsroom/news/containers-for-world%E2%80%99s-first-lng-powered-container-ships-arrive-at-jaxport |archive-date=24 July 2015}} Within Canada, Oceanex offers 53-foot-container ocean service to and from Newfoundland.{{cite news|title=Oceanex Invests $8 Million to Expand its Refrigerated Services |url=http://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/oceanex-invests-8-million-to-expand-its-refrigerated-services-517964831.html | access-date=26 December 2015}} 53-foot containers are also being used on some Asia Pacific international shipping routes.

In April 2017, Canadian Tire and Canadian Pacific Railway announced deployment of what they claimed to be the first 60-foot intermodal containers in North America.{{citation|title=Canadian Pacific and Canadian Tire Corporation Deploy North America's First 60-foot Intermodal Container |url=http://www.cpr.ca/en/media/cp-and-canadian-tire-corporation-deploy-north-americas-first-60-foot-intermodal-container |date=27 April 2017 | access-date=3 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511052334/http://www.cpr.ca/en/media/cp-and-canadian-tire-corporation-deploy-north-americas-first-60-foot-intermodal-container|archive-date=2017-05-11|url-status=dead}} The containers are transportable on the road using specially configured trucks and telescoping trailers (where vehicle size limits permit it), and on the railway using the top positions of double-stack container cars.{{citation|author1-last=Menzies|author1-first=James|title=Canadian Tire's push for 60|url=https://www.trucknews.com/transportation/canadian-tires-push-60/1003076548/|date=2016-12-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226075417/https://www.trucknews.com/transportation/canadian-tires-push-60/1003076548/|archive-date=2016-12-26|url-status=live|website=TruckNews.com|access-date=2024-11-07|quote=McKenna has been pursuing the use of 60-ft. containers for several years now. It began as an idea to transition to 57-ft. containers, capable of accommodating two additional pallets, but he upped the ante when he saw another retailer was pulling a 60-ft. trailer on Ontario roads.}} According to initial projections, Canadian Tire believed it would allow them to increase the volume of goods shipped per container by 13%. Five years after the deployment of the containers, analyst Larry Gross observed that United States truck size regulations are more constraining than those in Canada, and predicted that for the foreseeable future, these larger containers would remain exclusive to Canada.{{citation|author1-last=Gunnoe|author1-first=Chase|title=Analysis: Canada's 60-foot container will likely stay north of the border|url=https://www.trains.com/trn/news-reviews/news-wire/analysis-canadas-60-foot-container-will-likely-stay-north-of-the-border/|date=2022-11-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226015009/https://www.trains.com/trn/news-reviews/news-wire/analysis-canadas-60-foot-container-will-likely-stay-north-of-the-border/|archive-date=2024-02-26|url-status=live|website=Trains website|access-date=2024-11-07|quote=It's been five years since Canadian Pacific and retail giant Canadian Tire Corp. unveiled North America's first 60-foot intermodal container, and intermodal analyst Larry Gross says the larger container type is probably going to remain exclusive to Canada for the foreseeable future.}}

The ISO 668 standard has so far never standardized {{cvt|10|ft|m|0|adj=on}} containers to be the same height as so-called "Standard-height", {{cvt|8|ft|6|in|2}}, 20- and 40-foot containers. By the ISO standard, 10-foot (and previously included 5-ft and 6{{1/2}}-ft boxes) are only of unnamed, 8-foot (2.44 m) height. But industry makes 10-foot units more frequently of {{cvt|8|ft|6|in|2}} height, to mix, match (and stack) better in a fleet of longer, 8 ft 6 in tall containers. Smaller units, on the other hand, are no longer standardized, leading to deviating lengths, like {{cvt|8|ft|2}} or {{cvt|6+1/2|ft|2}}, with non-standard widths of {{cvt|2.20|m|ftin|order=flip}} and {{cvt|1.95|m|ftin|order=flip}} in respectively, and non-standard heights of {{cvt|2.26|m|ftin|order=flip}} and {{cvt|1.91|m|ftin|order=flip}} respectively, for storage or off-shore use.

File:Retrograde Operations, Afghanistan 130922-F-YL744-210.jpg in Afghanistan]]

File:A U.S. Army CH-47 Chinook helicopter carries a sling-loaded shipping container during retrograde operations and base closures in the Wardak province of Afghanistan 131026-A-SM524-737.jpg Chinook helicopter carries a sling-loaded {{convert|20|ft|m|adj=on}} shipping container during retrograde operations and base closures in the Wardak province of Afghanistan]]

The United States military continues to use small containers, strongly reminiscent of their Transporter and Conex boxes of the 1950s and 1960s. These mostly comply with (previous) ISO standard dimensions, or are a direct derivative thereof. Current terminology of the United States armed forces calls these small containers Bicon, Tricon and Quadcon, with sizes that correspond with (previous) ISO 668 standard sizes 1D, 1E and 1F respectively. These containers are of a standard {{convert|8|ft|m|2|abbr=on}} height, and with a footprint size either one half (Bicon), one third (Tricon) or one quarter (Quadcon) the size of a standard 20-foot, one TEU container.[http://www.cmci.com/Bicons.aspx Bicon Transport Storage Units – Charleston Marine Containers Inc.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908054444/http://www.cmci.com/Bicons.aspx |date=8 September 2015 }}[http://www.maloystorage.com/quadcon-tricon-1.php Tricon Dry Freight Container – Maloy Mobile Storage] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140411141111/http://www.maloystorage.com/quadcon-tricon-1.php |date=11 April 2014 }}[http://www.maloystorage.com/quadcon-96-quadcon.php Quadcon Dry Freight Container – Maloy Mobile Storage] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140411143451/http://www.maloystorage.com/quadcon-96-quadcon.php |date=11 April 2014 }} At a nominal length of {{convert|10|ft|m|2}}, two Bicons coupled together lengthwise match one 20-foot ISO container, but their height is {{convert|6|in|mm|0}} shy of the more commonly available 10-foot ISO containers of so-called 'standard' height, which are {{convert|8|ft|6|in|m|2|abbr=on}} tall. Tricons and Quadcons however have to be coupled transversely – either three or four in a row – to be stackable with twenty foot containers.[http://www.matts-place.com/intermodal/part4/usau1186720.jpg A 20-foot module of USAU containers]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024201000/http://www.matts-place.com/intermodal/part4/usau1186720.jpg |date=24 October 2016 }} Their length of {{convert|8|ft|m|2|abbr=on}} corresponds to the width of a standard 20-foot container, which is why there are forklift pockets at their ends, as well as in the sides of these boxes, and the doors only have one locking bar each. The smallest of these, the Quadcon, exists in two heights: {{convert|96|in|m|2|abbr=on}} or {{convert|82|in|m|2|abbr=on}}.[http://www.maloystorage.com/quadcon_tricon.php Quadcon and Tricon – Maloy Mobile Storage] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214151023/http://www.maloystorage.com/quadcon_tricon.php |date=14 February 2015 }} Only the first conforms to ISO-668 standard dimensions (size 1F).

ABC containers are small containers, typically 20 ft long and 5 ft high, used for hauling dense materials. The smaller size reduces the tare weight (as compared to using a half-full standard height container). They are normally shipped on specialized railroad flatcars, where 6 containers can be carried in the space of 4 standard containers.{{cite web |url=https://www.gatx.com/products/specialty-intermodal-cars/ |title=Specialty Intermodal Cars |access-date=2024-01-27 }}

In Japan's domestic freight rail transport, most of the containers are {{cvt|12|ft|m|2}} long in order to fit Japan's unique standard pallet sizes.{{cite journal|author1=Wisinee Wisetjindawat|author2=Hiroki Oiwa|author3=Motohiro Fujita|title=Rare Mode Choice in Freight Transport: Modal Shift from Road to Rail|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bd47/8943c6a8113c8835c3b205f760071efc7f34.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219105455/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bd47/8943c6a8113c8835c3b205f760071efc7f34.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2020-02-19|doi=10.11175/easts.11.774|year=2015|journal=Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies|volume=11|s2cid=112515172}}

File:JR貨物【 鉄道代行船舶輸送 】岡山新港高島埠頭--③.jpg|{{convert|12|ft|m|2|adj=on}} the 19D-type container used by JR Freight in Japan

File:US Navy 051010-M-0596N-001 A tractor moves a quadcon container at Kin Red Port in Okinawa.jpg|U.S. Navy tractor moves Quadcon containers at Kin Red Port in Okinawa (2005)

File:US Navy 060831-N-3560G-052 Members of Naval Mobile Construction Battalion Four (NMCB-4) load Tricon Containers loaded with construction equipment destine for field testing in Iraq, into a U.S. Air Force, Air Mobility Command, C.jpg|U.S. Navy load Tricon containers into a Lockheed C-5 Galaxy transport aircraft (2006)

File:US Navy 070820-F-8678B-050 Construction Mechanic 1st Class Kenneth E. Terlaan drives a extendable boom forklift through the mud to position a CONEX box containing the field armory during setup for a field exercise.jpg|U.S. Navy moving a Bicon box. Note the forklift pockets only in the sides, not at the ends.

File:Intermodal Container Locked Door - Kolkata 2011-02-03 0363.JPG container]]

Each container is allocated a standardized ISO 6346 reporting mark (ownership code), four letters long ending in either U, J or Z, followed by six digits and a check digit.{{cite web |url=http://www.transcom.mil/dtr/part-vi/dtr_part_vi_603.pdf |title=Defense Transportation Regulation –Part VI |at=Chapter 603: Intermodal Container Coding and Marking |access-date=2010-11-15 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723125534/http://www.transcom.mil/dtr/part-vi/dtr_part_vi_603.pdf |archive-date=23 July 2015 }} The ownership code for intermodal containers is issued by the {{lang|fr|italic=no|Bureau International des Containers}} (International container bureau, or BIC) in France, hence the name "BIC-Code" for the intermodal container reporting mark. So far there exist only four-letter BIC-Codes ending in "U".

The placement and registration of BIC Codes is standardized by the commissions TC104 and TC122 in the JTC1 of the ISO which are dominated by shipping companies. Shipping containers are labelled with a series of identification codes that includes the manufacturer code, the ownership code, usage classification code, UN placard for hazardous goods and reference codes for additional transport control and security.

Following the extended usage of pallet-wide containers in Europe the EU started the Intermodal Loading Unit (ILU) initiative. This showed advantages for intermodal transport of containers and swap bodies. This led to the introduction of ILU-Codes defined by the standard EN 13044 which has the same format as the earlier BIC-Codes. The International Container Office BIC agreed to only issue ownership codes ending with U, J or Z. The new allocation office of the UIRR (International Union of Combined Road-Rail Transport Companies) agreed to only issue ownership reporting marks for swap bodies ending with A, B, C, D or K – companies having a BIC-Code ending with U can allocate an ILU-Code ending with K having the same preceding letters. Since July 2011 the new ILU codes can be registered, beginning with July 2014 all intermodal ISO containers and intermodal swap bodies must have an ownership code and by July 2019 all of them must bear a standard-conforming placard.{{cite web |url=http://www.intermodal-terminals.eu/content/e2/e368/inhalte370/ILUcode_Brochure_EN_v09_eng.pdf |title=New markings of intermodal loading units in Europe |publisher=International Union of Combined Road-Rail Transport Companies |date=10 May 2011 |access-date=8 September 2011 |archive-date=2 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402081836/http://www.intermodal-terminals.eu/content/e2/e368/inhalte370/ILUcode_Brochure_EN_v09_eng.pdf |url-status=dead }}

{{multiple image

| align = right

| total_width = 400

| image1 = CN Box Car Loader.JPG

| caption1 = A cargo container being transferred from a rail car to a flat-bed truck, lifted by a reach stacker

| image2 = Intermodal terminal loading.jpg|Rubber tyred gantry crane loading a 40 foot container

| caption2 = Rubber tyred gantry crane stacking a 40 foot container on a well car for an intermodal train

}}

Containers are transferred between rail, truck, and ship by container cranes at container terminals. Forklifts, reach stackers, straddle carriers, container jacks and cranes may be used to load and unload trucks or trains outside of container terminals. Swap bodies, sidelifters, tilt deck trucks, and hook trucks allow transfer to and from trucks with no extra equipment.

ISO-standard containers can be handled and lifted in a variety of ways by their corner fixtures, but the structure and strength of {{convert|45|ft|m|adj=on}} (type E) containers limits their tolerance of side-lifting, nor can they be forklifted, based on ISO 3874 (1997).[https://www.tandemloc.com/gen-iso-container-info.asp TandemLoc – ISO Container Information] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160830102901/https://www.tandemloc.com/gen-iso-container-info.asp |date=30 August 2016 }}

{{Main|Intermodal freight transport}}

Containers can be transported by container ship, truck and freight trains as part of a single journey without unpacking. Units can be secured in transit using "twistlock" points located at each corner of the container. Every container has a unique BIC code painted on the outside for identification and tracking, and is capable of carrying up to 20–25 tonnes. Costs for transport are calculated in twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU).

File:Intermodal train 01.jpg line through La Crosse]]

When carried by rail, containers may be carried on a spine car, flatcar, or well cars. The latter are specially designed for container transport, and can accommodate double-stacked containers. However, the loading gauge of a rail system may restrict the modes and types of container shipment. The smaller loading gauges often found in European railroads will only accommodate single-stacked containers. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, there are sections of the rail network through which high-cube containers cannot pass, or can pass through only on well cars. On the other hand, Indian Railways runs double-stacked containers on flatcars under 25 kV overhead electrical wires. The wires must be at least {{convert|7.45|m|ftin|order=flip}} above the track. China Railway also runs double-stacked containers under overhead wires, but must use well cars to do so, since the wires are only {{convert|6.6|m|ftin|order=flip}} above the track.{{cite web | last = Raghvendra | first = Rao | title = Rlys reaches higher, sets world record | work = The Indian Express | date = 26 August 2008 | url = http://www.indianexpress.com/news/rlys-reaches-higher-sets-world-record/353263/0 | access-date = 4 November 2009}}

File:2021-11-19 Damaged container ship, MV ZIM KINGSTON - IMO 9389693.jpg

About 90% of non-bulk cargo worldwide is transported by container, and the largest container ships can carry over 19,000 TEU. Between 2011 and 2013, an average of 2,683 containers were reported lost at sea.{{cite web|url=http://www.worldshipping.org/industry-issues/safety/Containers_Lost_at_Sea_-_2014_Update_Final_for_Dist.pdf|title=World Shipping Council Containers Lost at Sea 2014 Update|date=2014|access-date=21 December 2016|archive-date=8 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108125328/https://www.worldshipping.org/industry-issues/safety/Containers_Lost_at_Sea_-_2014_Update_Final_for_Dist.pdf|url-status=dead}} Other estimates go up to 10,000; of these 10% are expected to contain chemicals toxic to marine life.{{cite web|url=http://phys.org/news/2011-03-scientists-effects-shipping-lost-sea.html|title=Scientists to study effects of shipping containers lost at sea|date=9 March 2011}} Various systems are used for securing containers on ships.{{Cite web|url=https://www.containerhandbuch.de/chb_e/stra/index.html?/chb_e/stra/stra_01_03_02.html|title = Container Handbook}}{{Cite web|url=https://americantrailerrentals.com/shipping-containers-stacked-cargo-ships/|title=How Shipping Containers are Stacked on Cargo Ships – American Trailer Rentals|date=12 August 2019}} Losses of containers at sea are low.{{Cite web|url=https://www.tis-gdv.de/tis_e/containe/sicherung/deck-htm/|title=The securing of containers on deck on a container ship – Transport Informations Service}}

Containers can also be transported in planes, as seen within intermodal freight transport. However, transporting containers in this way is typically avoided due to the cost of doing such and the lack of availability of planes which can accommodate such awkwardly sized cargo.

There are special aviation containers, smaller than intermodal containers, called unit load devices.

{{Main|Load securing}}

There are many established methods and materials for stabilizing and securing intermodal containers loaded on ships, as well as the internal cargo inside the boxes. Conventional restraint methods and materials such as steel strapping and wood blocking and bracing have been around for decades and are still widely used. Polyester strapping and lashing, and synthetic webbings are also common today. Dunnage bags (also known as "air bags") are used to keep unit loads in place.

Flexi-bags can also be directly loaded, stacked in food-grade containers. Indeed, their standard shape fills the entire ground surface of a 20 ft ISO container.

File:Container lashing bridge fitting.JPG|Containers can be horizontally connected with lashing bridge fittings

File:Dockworker team on a container ship.jpg|Dockworkers securing containers on a ship with steel lashing bars and turnbuckles

Image:Lashing application flat rack.jpg|Polyester lashing application

Image:Lashing and dunnage bag application.JPG|Polyester strapping and dunnage bag application

Image:Stabilizing capabilities Cordstrap dunnage bags.jpg|Application in container

File:Hammelmann Diesel unit - built into container.jpg[https://www.hammelmann.com/en/products/pumps-and-units/diesel-units.php Hammelmann Diesel] built into container]]

Container-sized units are also often used for moving large pieces of equipment to temporary sites. Specialised containers are particularly attractive to militaries already using containerisation to move much of their freight around. Shipment of specialized equipment in this way simplifies logistics and may prevent identification of high value equipment by enemies. Such systems may include command and control facilities, mobile operating theatres{{cite web|url=http://defensetech.org/2004/09/09/operating-room-in-a-box-unfolds/ |title="operating Room in a Box" Unfolds |access-date=2015-05-18 |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160903184700/http://www.defensetech.org/2004/09/09/operating-room-in-a-box-unfolds/ |archive-date=3 September 2016 |date=2004-09-09 }} or even missile launchers{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/7632543/A-cruise-missile-in-a-shipping-box-on-sale-to-rogue-bidders.html |title=A cruise missile in a shipping box on sale to rogue bidders |access-date=2010-04-26 |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323074421/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/7632543/A-cruise-missile-in-a-shipping-box-on-sale-to-rogue-bidders.html |archive-date=23 March 2016 |date=2010-04-25 |last1=Harding |first1=Thomas }} (such as the Russian 3M-54 Klub surface-to-surface missile).

Complete water treatment systems can be installed in containers and shipped around the world.{{cite web|url=http://www.eurowater.com/products/water_treatment_in_container.aspx |title=Water treatment in container |access-date=2015-01-31 |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019050055/http://www.eurowater.com/products/water_treatment_in_container.aspx |archive-date=19 October 2016 }}

Electric generators can be permanently installed in containers to be used for portable power.{{cite web |url=https://cumminspower.com/www/literature/brochures/powerBox-20X-FINAL-Apr09-en.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2015-01-31 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216094225/http://cumminspower.com/www/literature/brochures/powerBox-20X-FINAL-Apr09-en.pdf |archive-date=16 December 2011 }} pg3

Containers have also been used by contemporary artists, exhibitions, and galleries.{{Cite web |title=Containers - Criticism |url=https://www.e-flux.com/criticism/240485/containers |access-date=2025-04-07 |website=e-flux |language=en}} Artists may conduct residencies inside stationary or traveling containers.{{Cite news |last=Laguarda |first=Ignacio |title=Art installation 'The Seed' planted in Stamford's Mill River Park by former Norwalk artists |url=https://www.stamfordadvocate.com/news/article/stamford-mill-river-park-seed-norwalk-19879726.php |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20241117170856/https://www.stamfordadvocate.com/news/article/stamford-mill-river-park-seed-norwalk-19879726.php |archive-date=2024-11-17 |access-date=2025-04-07 |work=Stamford Advocate |language=en}} Containers may also be used to install temporary art exhibitions in one or many containers at a site such as the 2005- 2012 Containerart project.

File:Cholula container city.jpg, Mexico uses fifty old sea containers for {{convert|4500|m2|-3|abbr=on}} of workshops, restaurants, galleries, etc., as well as some homes.]]

Half the containers that enter the United States leave empty.{{cite web|url=http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi2879.htm|title=No. 2879: Empty Shipping Containers|website=uh.edu}} Their value in the US is lower than in China, so they are sometimes used for other purposes. This is typically but not always at the end of their voyaging lives. The US military often used its Conex containers as on-site storage, or easily transportable housing for command staff and medical clinics.{{cite web |url=http://www.swampfox.info/miltermsgloss/complete_glossary.html |title=Glossary of Military Terminology |author= |access-date=21 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150223214145/http://swampfox.info/miltermsgloss/complete_glossary.html |archive-date=23 February 2015}} Nearly all of the more than 150,000 Conex containers shipped to Vietnam remained in the country, primarily as storage or other mobile facilities.{{sfnp|Monograph 7: Containerization|1970|pp=9–11}} Permanent or semi-permanent placement of containers for storage is common. A regular forty-foot container has about {{convert|4000|kg|lb|order=flip|sigfig=1}} of steel, which takes {{convert|8000|kWh|0|abbr=on|lk=on}} of energy to melt down. Repurposing used shipping containers is increasingly a practical solution to both social and ecological problems.

Shipping container architecture employs used shipping containers as the main framing of modular home designs, where the steel may be an integrated part of the design, or be camouflaged into a traditional looking home. They have also been used to make temporary shops, cafes, and computer datacenters, e.g. the Sun Modular Datacenter.

Intermodal containers are not strong enough for conversion to underground bunkers without additional bracing, as the walls cannot sustain much lateral pressure and will collapse.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}} Also, the wooden floor of many used containers could contain some fumigation residues, rendering them unsuitable as confined spaces, such as for prison cells or bunkers. Cleaning or replacing the wood floor can make these used containers habitable, with proper attention to such essential issues as ventilation and insulation.

The City of Göttingen has deployed containers for the disablement of unexploded ordnance: either FIBCs filled with sand or IBCs filled with water.

When the bomb squad performs controlled detonations, such prepared containers absorb shock and fragments.{{cite news

| title = Göttingen: 4 World War II bombs prompt evacuation

| date = 2021-01-31

| url = https://www.DW.com/en/germany-4-world-war-ii-bombs-prompt-evacuation-in-g%C3%B6ttingen/a-56393748

| work = Deutsche Welle

| quote = Bomb disposal experts set up protective barricades around the site, including stacked shipping containers filled with special water balloons to absorb the explosion.

| access-date = 2023-09-23

}}

This use requires level, load-bearing ground. The deformed containers are unsuitable for further circulation.

File:ISO Container Seal.JPG

{{Refbegin}}

• ASTM D5728-00 Standard Practices for Securement of Cargo in Intermodal and Unimodal Surface Transport
• ISO 668:2013 Series 1 freight containers – Classification, dimensions and ratings
• ISO 830:1999 Freight containers – Vocabulary
• ISO 1161:1984 Series 1 freight containers – Corner fittings – Specification
• ISO 1496 – Series 1 freight containers – Specification and testing
• ISO 1496-1:2013 – Part 1: General cargo containers for general purposes
• ISO 1496-2:2008 – Part 2: Thermal containers
• ISO 1496-3:1995 – Part 3: Tank containers for liquids, gases, and pressurized dry bulk
• ISO 1496-4:1991 – Part 4: Non-pressurized container for dry bulk
• ISO 1496-5:1991 – Part 5: Platform and platform based containers
• ISO 2308:1972 Hooks for lifting freight containers of up to 30 tonnes capacity – Basic requirements
• ISO 3874:1997 Series 1 freight containers – Handling and securing
• ISO 6346:1995 Freight containers – Coding, identification and marking
• ISO 9897:1997 Freight containers – Container equipment data exchange (CEDEX) – General communication codes
• ISO/TS 10891:2009 Freight containers – Radio frequency identification (RFID) – Licence plate tag
• ISO 14829:2002 Freight containers – Straddle carriers for freight container handling – Calculation of stability
• ISO 17363:2007 Supply chain applications of RFID – Freight containers
• ISO/PAS 17712:2006 Freight containers – Mechanical seals
• ISO 18185-2:2007 Freight containers – Electronic seals

{{Refend}}

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• {{annotated link|BBC Box}}
• {{annotated link|Boxpark}} Mall
• Conflat
• Container chassis
• {{annotated link|Container ship}}
• {{annotated link|Containerization#Other container system standards|Containerization}}
• {{annotated link|Container port design process}}
• {{annotated link|Customs Convention on Containers}}
• Double-stack rail transport
• {{annotated link|GWR Container}}
• Inter-box connector
• {{annotated link|Intermediate bulk container}}
• {{annotated link|Logistics Vehicle System}}
• {{annotated link|MIL-STD-129}}
• {{annotated link|NYC container|New York Central container}}
• {{annotated link|RACE (container)|RACE}}
• {{annotated link|Re:START}} Mall
• {{annotated link|Shipping container#Re-use|Re-use}}
• {{annotated link|Roller container}}
• {{annotated link|Roll trailer}}
• {{annotated link|SECU (container)|SECU}}
• {{annotated link|Shipping container}}
• {{annotated link|Stowage plan for container ships}}
• {{annotated link|Unit load}}

{{div col end}}

{{reflist|33em|group=nb}}

{{Reflist}}

• {{cite book |last1=van Ham |first1=Hans |last2=van Ham |first2=J.C. |last3=Rijsenbrij |first3=Joan |date=2012 |title=Development of Containerization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CgQmkTczzPwC |location=Amsterdam |publisher=IOS Press |isbn=978-1-6149-9146-5 |access-date=2020-05-01}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=CgQmkTczzPwC&pg=PA8 page 8], [https://books.google.com/books?id=CgQmkTczzPwC&pg=PA14 page 14], [https://books.google.com/books?id=CgQmkTczzPwC&pg=PA18 page 18], [https://books.google.com/books?id=CgQmkTczzPwC&pg=PA20 page 20], [https://books.google.com/books?id=CgQmkTczzPwC&pg=PA26 page 26].
• {{Cite report|ref={{harvid|Monograph 7: Containerization|1970}} |date=15 December 1970 |title=Monograph 7: Containerization |series=Logistic Support in the Vietnam Era |publisher=US DoD Joint Logistics Review Board |url=http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/877965.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721230641/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/877965.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 July 2015 |access-date=22 July 2015}}

• Donovan, Arthur & Bonney, Joseph. The Box That Changed the World, East Windsor, New Jersey, Commonwealth Business Media, 2006 {{ISBN|978-1-891131-95-0}}
• George, Rose. Ninety Percent of Everything: Inside Shipping, the Invisible Industry That Puts Clothes on Your Back, Gas in Your Car, and Food on Your Plate (2013), describes typical sea voyage [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0805092633/ excerpt and text search]
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Freight containers, Volume 34 of ISO standards handbook, International Organization for Standardization, 4th edition, 2006. {{ISBN|92-67-10426-8}}
• Levinson, Marc. The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger, Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 2006. {{ISBN|0-691-12324-1}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=WDN5omS5LO0C excerpt and text search]

{{Commons category|Intermodal containers}}

• [https://www.bic-code.org/ Bureau International des Containers et du Transport Intermodal]
• [http://www.admiraltylawguide.com/conven/containers1972.html International Convention for Safe Containers (Geneva, 2 December 1972)]

{{Containers}}

{{Shipping containers}}

{{Freight cars}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Intermodal Container}}

Category:Modularity

Category:Port infrastructure