Islamic ethics

A number of related terms refer to the right way to behave in Islam: Akhlaq, Adab, Ihsan.

Akhlaq ({{langx|ar|أخلاق}}, {{IPAc-en|æ|x|ˈ|l|aː|k}}, plural of ({{langx|ar| خلق}} khulq which means disposition), is the practice of virtue, morality and manners in Islamic theology and falsafah (philosophy). Akhlaq is the most commonly used Islamic term for morality.Campo, Encyclopedia of Islam, "Ethics and morality" 2009: p.216

The science of ethics (`Ilm al-Akhlaq) teaches that through practice and conscious effort man can surpass their natural dispositions and natural uncorrupted state (Fitrah) to become more ethical and well mannered. Akhlaq is a kind of normative ethical system known as "virtue ethics", which is based on "virtues, or moral character", rather than "conceptions of the right (as in Kantian ethics) or the good (as in utilitarianism)".

Akhlaq is not found in the Quran, but its root – kh-l-q – is shared by khaliq (Creator) and makhluq (creature), which are found throughout the Quran. It is most commonly translated in English-Arabic dictionaries as: disposition, nature, temper, ethics, morals or manners or in general a person who has good manners, and behaves well.J. Cowan p. 299{{cite book|author=Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi|authorlink=Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi|title=The Laws of Islam|date=26 March 2016|publisher=Enlight Press|isbn=978-0994240989|url=http://almodarresi.com/en/books/pdf/TheLawsofIslam.pdf|accessdate=22 December 2017|ref=Modarresi|language=English|archive-date=2 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802163247/http://almodarresi.com/en/books/pdf/TheLawsofIslam.pdf|url-status=dead}}{{rp|470}}

Adab ({{langx|ar|أدب}}) in the context of behavior, refers to prescribed Islamic etiquette: "refinement, good manners, morals, decorum, decency, humaneness" (according to the book Religion and Law).Firmage, Edwin Brown and Weiss, Bernard G. and Welch, John W. Religion and Law. 1990, page 202-3 While interpretation of the scope and particulars of Adab may vary among different cultures, common among these interpretations is regard for personal standing through the observation of certain codes of behavior.Ensel, Remco. Saints and Servants in Southern Morocco. 1999, page 180 To exhibit Adab would be to show "proper discrimination of correct order, behavior, and taste."

A description of the difference between Akhlaq and Adab is:

• Aklaq is ethics, the 'moral philosophy'; Ethics/ morality. Islamic behaviour, disposition, good conduct, nature, temper, ethics, morals or character of a person.
• Adab is "the actual practices of moral philosophy"; Manner, attitude, behaviour and the etiquette of putting things in their proper place{{Cite web|url=https://coggle.it/diagram/V_ustCETeJNGNxh0/t/chapter-4-akhlaq|title=CHAPTER 4 AKHLAQ (FEATURES OF ISLAMIC ETHICS (ISLAM OFFERS "AN OPEN SYSTEM…|website=coggle.it}} "a culture of refined behavior [that] shaped the ethical outlook of urban Muslims" There were writings setting forth "the virtues for different classes and groups to honor, including the ulama, rulers, bureaucrats, merchants and craftsmen".

Furthermore, according to one source (Abdulmajeed Hassan Bello), sharia (usually defined as Islamic law) is not just concerned with concerned "with legal rules and regulations indicating "what man is entitled or bound to do, ... but also what he ought, in conscience, to do or refrain from doing. Thus, shari’ah ... embraces both private and public activities."{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}

Iḥsān (also Ihsaan, {{langx|ar|إحسان}}), is an Arabic term meaning "beautification", "perfection" or "excellence", but is also defined in Islam (by Malcolm Clark) as ethics/morality "literally virtue, including right living", and (according to Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood) is a matter of taking one's inner faith and showing it in both deed and action.{{cite book | last = Maqsood | first = Ruqaiyyah Waris | title = Teach Yourself Islam | author-link = Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood | series = Teach Yourself World Faiths | date = September 15, 1994 | publisher = Teach Yourself | isbn = 978-0-340-60901-9 | page = [https://archive.org/details/islam0000maqs/page/41 41] | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/islam0000maqs/page/41 }}

Other terms found in the Quran that "denote the concept of moral or religious goodness"Fakhry, Ethical Theories in Islam, 1994: p.12

are:

• al-khayr (goodness),
• al-birr (righteousness),
• al-qisr,
• al-iqsat (equity),
• al-adl (justice),
• al-haqq (truth and right),
• al-ma’ruf (known and approved), and
• al-taqwa (piety).
• "Pious actions" are "normally referred to" as salihat; "impious or sinful actions" as sayyi’at.Fakhry, Ethical Theories in Islam, 1994: p.11

{{see|Morality in Islam}}

Juan E. Campo describes the difference between Akhlaq/ethics and morality in Islam as :

Ethics means philosophical reflection upon moral conduct, while morality pertains to specific norms or codes of behavior. Questions of ethics, therefore, involve such subjects as human nature and the capacity to do good, the nature of good and evil, motivations for moral action, the underlying principles governing moral and immoral acts, deciding who is obliged to adhere to the moral code and who is exempted from it, and the implications of either adhering to the moral code or violating it. Morality encompasses the values and rules that govern human conduct ...

The Quran, which Muslims believe to be the verbatim word of God, serves as the primary source of moral teachings in Islam.Clark (2011), p. 283 Verse {{qref|2|177}} declares:

• "Righteousness is not in turning your faces towards the east or the west. Rather, the righteous are those who believe in Allah, the Last Day, the angels, the Books, and the prophets; who give charity out of their cherished wealth to relatives, orphans, the poor, ˹needy˺ travellers, beggars, and for freeing captives; who establish prayer, pay alms-tax, and keep the pledges they make; and who are patient in times of suffering, adversity, and in ˹the heat of˺ battle. It is they who are true ˹in faith˺, and it is they who are mindful ˹of Allah˺."

Another verse states:

• "Believers are those … who avoid vain talk; who are active in deeds of charity; who abstain from sex except with their wives, or whom their right hands possess. Thus they’re free from blame, but those whose desires exceed those limits are transgressors. Believers faithfully observe their trusts and covenants and keep their prayers. They will be the heirs, who will inherit Paradise, where they will dwell." (Q.{{qref|23|3–11}})Clark, Islam For Dummies, 2011: p.248

However, the Quran offers "more in the way of general principles"—justice, goodness, kindness, forgiveness, honesty, and piety – "than specific rules".

Quran provides the Ten Commandments which is believed to be as originally revealed to Moses: [http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=953&Itemid=61 Tafsir ibn Kathir] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404143941/http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=953&Itemid=61 |date=4 April 2013 }}, see Chapter heading for the Commentary of Verse 6:151"In the Quran, the Ten Commandments are discussed in Surah Al-An'am, 6:151–153": {{cite book|author1=Hillary Thompson|author2=Edward F. Duffy|author3=Erin Dawson|title=The Infographic Guide to the Bible: The Old Testament: A Visual Reference for Everything You Need to Know|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IUo8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA43|date=7 November 2017|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-5072-0487-0|pages=43–}}{{cite book|author=Hussein Naguib|title=The Quranic Ten Commandments: This Is My Straight Path Al An'am (6:153)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gCnooQEACAAJ|year=2014|publisher=Hussein M. Naguib|isbn=978-0-615-99559-5}}The numbering of the verses is given in bold while the numbering of the Commandments is in superscript.

{{blockquote|151. Say, "Come, I will recite what your Lord has prohibited to you. [He commands] that you not associate anything with Him, and to parents, good treatment, and do not kill your children out of poverty; We will provide for you and them. And do not approach immoralities - what is apparent of them and what is concealed. And do not kill the soul which Allāh has forbidden [to be killed] except by [legal] right. This has He instructed you that you may use reason."

152. And do not approach the orphan's property except in a way that is best [i.e., intending improvement] until he reaches maturity. And give full measure and weight in justice. We do not charge any soul except [with that within] its capacity. And when you speak [i.e., testify], be just, even if [it concerns] a near relative. And the covenant of Allāh fulfill. This has He instructed you that you may remember.

153. And, [moreover], this is My path, which is straight, so follow it; and do not follow [other] ways, for you will be separated from His way. This has He instructed you that you may become righteous.The Quran, trans. Sahih International. Verses 6:151–153}}

Evidence for these verses having some relation to Moses and the Ten Commandments is from the verse which immediately follows them:

{{blockquote|Then, We gave Musa (Moses) the Book, to complete (Our Favour) upon those who would do right, and explaining all things in detail and a guidance and a mercy that they might believe in the meeting with their Lord.The Noble Quran, trans. Muhsin Khan; Taqi-ud-Din Hilali. Verse 6:154}}

According to a narration in Mustadrak Hakim, Ibn Abbas, a prominent narrator of Israiliyat traditions said, "In Surah Al-An`am, there are clear Ayat, and they are the Mother of the Book (the Qur'an)." He then recited the above verses.[http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=953&Itemid=61 Tafsir ibn Kathir] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404143941/http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=953&Itemid=61 |date=4 April 2013 }}, Commentary of verse 6:151. Al-Hakim said, "Its chain is Sahih, and they (Sihah Sitta) did not record it."

Also in Mustadrak Hakim is the narration of Ubada ibn as-Samit:

{{blockquote|The Messenger of Allah said, "Who among you will give me his pledge to do three things?"

He then recited the (above) Ayah (6:151–153).

He then said, "Whoever fulfills (this pledge), then his reward will be with Allah, but whoever fell into shortcomings and Allah punishes him for it in this life, then that will be his recompense. Whoever Allah delays (his reckoning) until the Hereafter, then his matter is with Allah. If He wills, He will punish him, and if He wills, He will forgive him."}}

Ibn Kathir mentions a narration of Abdullah ibn Mas'ud in his Tafsir:

{{blockquote|"Whoever wishes to read the will and testament of the Messenger of Allah on which he placed his seal, let him read these Ayat (6:151–153)."[http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=953&Itemid=61 Tafsir ibn Kathir] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404143941/http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=953&Itemid=61 |date=4 April 2013 }}, Commentary of verse 6:151. Isnad: Dawud Al-Awdy narrated that, Ash-Sha`bi said that, Alqamah said that Ibn Mas`ud said (the above narration).}}

{| class="wikitable"

!Order

!Commandment in the Quran

!Surat Al-An'am

!Surat Al-Isra

!Corresponding in the Bible

|-

|First Commandment

|Do not associate others with God

| rowspan="5" |(151)

|(22)

|Do not put other gods before me

|-

|Second Commandment

|Honour your parents

|(23–24)

|Honour thy father and thy mother

|-

|Third Commandment

|Do not kill your children for fear of poverty

|(26–31)

|Do not murder

|-

|Fourth Commandment

|Do not come near indecencies, openly or secretly.

|(32)

|Do not covet thy neighbour's wife, Do not commit adultery

|-

|Fifth Commandment

|Do not take a life except justly

|(33)

|Do not murder

|-

|Sixth Commandment

|Do not come near the property of the orphan except to enhance it

| rowspan="4" |(152)

|(34)

|Do not covet his slaves, or his animals, or anything of thy neighbour

|-

|Seventh Commandment

|Give full measure and weigh with justice

|(35)

|Does not exist, instead there is Remember the sabbath day

|-

|Eighth Commandment

|Whenever you testify, maintain justice even regarding a close relative

|(36)

|Do not bear false witness against thy neighbour

|-

|Ninth Commandment

|Fulfil your covenant with God

|(34)

|Do not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain

|-

|Tenth Commandment

|Follow God's path and not any other

|(153)

|(37–39)

|Do not make unto thee any graven image or idols neither kneel before them nor worship them

|}

Hadith, which are based on reports of the teachings, deeds and sayings, silent permissions (or disapprovals) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, as well as various reports about Muhammad's companions, also serves as an important source for Islamic moral teachings. Some hadith cited expressing good conduct, deeds, morals in Islam, and the importance of these include:

• Narrated 'Aishah: the Messenger of Allah said: "Indeed among the believers with the most complete faith is the one who is the best in conduct, and the most kind to his family" ({{Href|tirmidhi|2612|b=yl}}){{cite web |last1=Hassan |first1=Monique |title=Islamic Perspective on Morality |url=https://www.islamfaith.com/islamic-perspective-on-morality/ |website=Islam Faith |date=10 December 2018 |access-date=13 February 2022}}
• "Yahya related to me from Malik that he had heard that the Messenger of Allah, ... 'I was sent to perfect the ethical conduct'." (Muwatta Malik){{cite journal |last1=Syed |first1=Jawad |last2=Metcalfe |first2=Beverly Dawn |title=In Pursuit of Islamic akhlaq of Business and Development |journal=Journal of Business Ethics |volume= 129| pages=763–767 |date=2015|doi=10.1007/s10551-014-2130-y |s2cid=144607131 |doi-access=free }}{{cite web |last1=Muwatta Malik |title=Muwatta Malik » 47. Good Character USC-MSA web (English) reference: Book 47, Hadith 8 Arabic reference: Book 47, Hadith 1643 |url=https://sunnah.com/malik/47 |website=Sunnah.com |access-date=28 November 2021}}

A "famous" hadithCampo, Encyclopedia of Islam, "Ethics and morality" 2009: p.215 "Hadith of jibril" describes the angel Jibril (Gabriel) questioning Muhammad about "what is faith?" "what is Islam?" and "What is Ihsan (perfection or virtue)?", where in reply Muhammad lists the "Five Pillars of Islam", the "Six Articles of Faith", and describes Ihsan (which Clark defines as ethics, or "virtue and including right living") thusly:

• "To worship Allah as if you see Him, and if you cannot achieve this state of devotion then you must consider that He is looking at you."{{Href|bukhari|50|b=yl}}{{cite book |last1=Murata |first1=Sachiko|last2=Chittick |first2=William |date= June 1998|title=The Vision of Islam |publisher=Paragon House |isbn=978-1557785169}}

Besides the Quran and hadith, there are a number of other sources, (not all universally followed in Islam):

• the works of Islamic scholars and philosophers;
• Arabic virtues that predate Islam, (such as "honor, courage, loyalty, hospitality, self-control", etc.;
• the moral examples set by important Islamic personalities (such as the four rightly guided caliphs for Sunni Muslims);
• works on Adab (i.e. etiquette, manners);
• "philosophical reflection" by the school of Islam known as the Mu`tazilites and others;
• "works of Greek ethicists", (which were translated into Arabic);
• the 99 names of God, which among other qualities/attributes include names based on virtues – "the gentle, the grateful, the just, the giver, the equitable, the loving", etc.;
• Ethical values from Sufism "including humility and poverty".

One perspective holds that Islamic ethics place less emphasis on original sin and asceticism than Christian ethics, and to a lesser extent, Jewish ethics. Unlike the doctrine of inherent sinfulness found in some Christian traditions, Islam is said to view human beings as born in a state of natural purity, capable of moral choice. Although the Qur’an contains over a hundred references to hell and judgment, it also emphasizes trust in God, gratitude, and life-affirming values such as generosity and moral stamina. Islamic ethical teachings, including the concept of vicegerency (khalifah) and obligatory acts like zakat, are often framed in terms of social responsibility and active moral conduct. This view contrasts with what has been described as the more ascetic or sin-focused tendencies in other Abrahamic traditions.Hindery, CrossCurrents, "Muslim and Christian Ethics" Winter 1973: p.389Hindery, CrossCurrents, "Muslim and Christian Ethics" Winter 1973: p.390

Some of the most important scholars who contributed to the area of moral philosophy during the Middle Ages were

• Miskawayh (932–1030), the Persian author of Refinement of Character,
• Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (c.1058–1111), author of Revival of the Religious Sciences,
• Ali ibn Hazm (994–1064) "the Andalusian man of letters".

Also influential were

• Abu Yusuf Yaacub al-Kindi (c.801–873),
• Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Razi (d. ca 925),
• Abu Nasr al-Farabi (d.950),
• Abu 'Ali al-Husayn Ibn Sina (aka Avicenna, d.1037),
• Muhammad ibn Rushd (aka Averroes, d. 1198),
• Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274).

Moral philosophy as a topic of Muslim scholarly discussion "declined after the 12th century", but underwent a revival in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Islamic ethics was codified, based on the Qur'an and practices of Muhammad, over a period of time and in context of the practices of the Muslim community (ummah). The Quran commands every human being, in all spheres of life, to "command the good and forbid evil", as spelled out by Muhammad. Another key factor in the field of Islamic ethics is the belief (as described in the Qur'an) that all mankind has been granted the faculty to discern God's will (fitrah), and thus the moral responsibility to submit to His will by following Islam, regardless of their environment.{{qref|7|172–173}}{{harvnb|Becker|Becker|1992}}

This natural inclination to obey God, is, according to the Qur'an, in conflict with another human inclination, the desire for material possessions and comforts; first for basic survival or security, then for status in society. Ultimately, this desire results in a state of jahiliyya, "heedlessness", or ignorance of mankind's responsibility to obey God.

The establishment of Islam brought a great transformation in the society, moral order of life, world view, and the hierarchy of values in the Arabian Peninsula.

1. The division of Arabs into varying tribes (based upon blood and kinship), was confronted by the ideal of a unified community, an "ummah", based upon Islamic piety.
2. The acceptance of the worship of a multitude of deities besides Allah – a view challenged by strict Islamic monotheism, which dictates that Allah has no partner in worship nor any equal;
3. The trait of muruwwa (manliness), which Islam discouraged, instead emphasizing on the traits of humility and piety;
4. The focus on achieving fame or establishing a legacy, which was replaced by the concept that mankind would be called to account before God on the day of resurrection;
5. The reverence of and compliance with ancestral traditions, was challenged by Islam's assignment of primacy to submitting to God and following revelation.

But although pre-Islamic Arabia exemplified "heedlessness", it was not entirely without merit, and certain aspects—such as the care for one's near kin, for widows, orphans, and others in need and for the establishment of justice—would be retained in Islam, re-ordered in importance and placed in the context of strict monotheism.

According to Lenn Goodman, many medieval Muslim thinkers pursued humanistic and rational approaches in discourses regarding values.{{harvnb|Goodman|2003|p=155}} On the other hand, Roderick Hindery finds it difficult to find "humanistic values that have not been later affirmed" by Muslim (and Christian) "theologians and religious ethicians", as they "reexamine and rewrite" their religion's "history to make it coincide with a humanistic history".Hindery, CrossCurrents, "Muslim and Christian Ethics" Winter 1973: p.382

{{see also|Sharia|Early reforms under Islam|Caliphate|Islamic Jurisprudence: An International Perspective|Women in Islam|Islamic feminism}}

Some scholars and activists have esteemed "the Islamic tradition as the highest manifestation of human right", while others have criticized the concept of "human rights" as a "western colonial invention used to oppress Muslims by making them conform to certain western norms".

In 1990, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) issued the Cairo Declaration of Human Rights (CDHR), in reply to the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). The CDHR is based on traditional sharia law ("shari‘a is mentioned throughout the entire document as the most authoritative source of law"), and guarantees some human rights, while denying some articles from the UDHR "dealing with gender, the family, religious freedom, and importantly, self-determination".{{cite book |last1=Dunn |first1=Shannon |editor1-first=Anver M |editor1-last=Emon |editor2-first=Rumee |editor2-last=Ahmed |title=The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law |chapter=Islamic Law and Human Rights |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199679010.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199679010-e-26 |series=Oxford Handbooks Online |year=2018 |pages=818–842 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199679010.013.26 |isbn=978-0-19-967901-0 |access-date=21 February 2022}}

Ash'arism, one of three orthodox theological schools of Sunni Islam generally denies that there are universal moral truths. Ethics are based solely on God's command, which might align with human rights by coincidence, but this is not necessary. Therefore, many conservative Muslims doubt that human rights are beyond cultural ties or universal.Zhussipbek, G. (2021). Liberalism and Islam in Central Asia. In Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Central Asia (pp. 437–450). Routledge. p. 439

Maturidism, another orthodox theological school of Sunni Islam, however, overshadowed by Ash'arism in the last centuries, yet still prominent in Central Asia, adheres to the belief of objective morality, which can be deducted through reason.Rico Isaacs, Alessandro Frigerio Theorizing Central Asian Politics: The State, Ideology and Power Springer, 2018 ISBN 9783319973555 p. 108 Thus, Muslims adhering to Maturidi theology, might possibly agree on human rights.Zhussipbek, G. (2021). Liberalism and Islam in Central Asia. In Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Central Asia (pp. 437–450). Routledge. p. 445

While religious minorities were not granted equality with Islam, classical Sharia, allowed the functioning of the religious laws and courts of Christians, Jews and Hindus in lands ruled by Islam. These were usually accommodated within the Islamic legal framework, as seen in the early Caliphate, Al-Andalus, the Indian subcontinent, and the Ottoman Millet system.{{harvnb|Weeramantry|1997|p=138}}{{harvnb|Sachedina|2001}} Non-Muslims were allowed to engage in religious practices that were forbidden to Muslims by Islamic law. In a notable example, Zoroastrian practice of incestuous "self-marriage" where a man could marry his mother, sister or daughter, was to be tolerated according to Ibn Qayyim (1292–1350). He based his opinion on the precedent that Muhammad had knowledge of their practices, coming in contact with them, but did not forbid such self-marriages.{{harvnb|Jackson|2005|p=144}} Religious minorities were also free to do whatever they wished in their own homes, provided they did not publicly engage in illicit sexual activity in ways that could threaten public morals.{{harvnb|Jackson|2005|p=145}}

In classical Islamic law, public expression was subject to legal and ethical limits shaped by principles of justice (ʿadl), public interest (maṣlaḥa), and the prevention of harm (darʾ al-mafāsid).{{cite journal |last=Szombathy |date=2007 |title=Freedom of Expression and Censorship in Medieval Arabic Literature |journal=Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies |volume=7 |pages=1–24 |doi=10.5617/jais.4580 |doi-access=free}} Among the most serious offenses that could involve public expression were blasphemy (insulting Islam or its sacred symbols) and apostasy (renouncing the religion after professing it), though jurists differed on definitions and legal procedures. In some historical periods, apostasy laws were applied in ways that did not fully follow the procedures outlined in classical Islamic legal texts. While enforcing religious orthodoxy and protecting public order were recognized roles of Islamic authorities, some applications of these laws were influenced by political motives or lacked proper legal process. This pattern was not unique to Islam and can be found in other major religious traditions as well.{{cite book|last=Campo|first=Juan Eduardo|title=Encyclopedia of Islam|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|pages=48, 174|isbn=978-0816054541}}

In the medieval Arab Muslim world, literary expression was shaped by a range of informal controls. Zoltan Szombathy notes that there was no formal censorship system in the pre-modern Islamic world like those found in modern states. Instead, expression was shaped by social expectations, courtly manners, and personal discretion. Offensive speech could prompt responses ranging from social disapproval to imprisonment or, in rare cases, execution. These responses were driven more by political and social circumstances than by consistent legal rules. Controversial or irreverent poetry often circulated widely, with authors relying on rhetorical skill and indirect language to avoid backlash. The boundaries of acceptable speech were not fixed, but shaped by the ethical values and power dynamics of the time.

During the Abbasid period, Caliph al-Mahdi (r. 775–785 CE) led a campaign against individuals labeled as Zindiqs—a term applied to Manicheans, dualists, and some freethinkers—which involved arrests, executions, and the commissioning of refutations. such campaigns were more common in the early period of Islamic history, whereas later practice generally tolerated heterodox beliefs so long as they remained private.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=focLrox-frUC&pg=PA492|title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam|author1=Cyril Glassé|author2-link=Huston Smith|author2=Huston Smith|publisher=Rowman Altamira|page=492|isbn=9780759101906|year=2003}}

On the other hand, Amira Nowaira writes that

Islamic thinkers of the early medieval period expressed ideas and engaged in debates that would appear strangely enlightened in comparison with the attitudes and views adopted by modern Islamic scholarship.{{cite news|title=When Islamic atheism thrived |last= Nowaira |first=Amira|agency=The Guardian |date=10 May 2010 |url= https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2010/may/10/islam-freedom-expression |access-date=24 February 2022}}

Because Islam views itself as a total system governing all areas, Islamic medical ethics view the patient as a whole. Classical texts speak more about "health", than "illness", showing an emphasis on prevention rather than cure.{{harvnb|Paladin|1998}}

The first documented description of a peer review process is found in the Ethics of the Physician by Ishaq ibn 'Ali al-Ruhawi (854–931) of al-Raha, Syria, where the notes of a practising Islamic physician were reviewed by peers and the physician could face a lawsuit from a maltreated patient if the reviews were negative.

{{harvnb|Spier|2002}}{{harvnb|Al Kawi|1997}}

{{See also|Islam and animals}}

Concern for the treatment of animals can be found in the Qur'an and in the teachings of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, which inspired debates over animal rights by later medieval Muslim scholars. The 10th-century work, "Disputes Between Animals and Man", part of the Epistles of the Brethren of Purity, has been considered a classic in this regard. Inspired by the Qur'anic verse: "All living beings roaming the earth and winged birds soaring in the sky are communities like yourselves." ({{qref|6|38}}), the Shafi'i jurist 'Izz al-Din Ibn 'Abd al-Salam al-Sulami (d. 1262) formulated the first full-fledged charter of the rights of livestock and animals in his legal treatise Rules for Judgement in the Cases of Living Beings ({{transliteration|ar|Qawa'id al-ahkam fi masalih al-anam}}) which was based on the stories and sayings of Muhammad.{{harvnb|Sardar|2011|p=270}}{{harvnb|Coward|1995|p=131}}{{harvnb|Bekoff|2010|p=464}}

{{see also|Muslim Agricultural Revolution}}

A number of sources assert the benevolent attitude of Muhammad and Islam towards natural resources, conservation and wildlife.

Tom Verde writes in Aramco World that in early Islam, after Muslims established themselves in Medina, Muhammad surveyed the natural resources in the region—the wadis (riverbeds); the rich, black volcanic soil; the high rangelands—and decreed that they be preserved and set aside as a hima ("protected place").{{harvnb|Verde|2008}}

Ibrahim Ozdemir writes that{{#tag:ref|"of 'Islamic environmentalism' based on Islamic tradition – rather than imported 'white saviour' environmentalism", |group=Note}} "approximately 200 verses" in the Quran are concerned with the environment—such as one stating "greater indeed than the creation of man is the creation of the heavens and the earth".{{cite news |last1=Ozdemir |first1=Ibrahim |title=What does Islam say about climate change and climate action? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/8/12/what-does-islam-say-about-climate-change-and-climate-action |access-date=25 February 2022 |agency=Al Jazeera |date=12 Aug 2020}}{{#tag:ref|Among the 28 hadiths on agriculture compiled in the "Book of Agriculture" of the Sahih Bukhari on the proper way to determine ownership, rents, cultivation of crops and sharing of harvest, are hadith on sowing seeds and planting trees.{{harvnb|Haq|2001|pp=111–129}}{{cite web |last1=al-Bukhari |title=Sahih al-Bukhari. Book #41, Agriculture |url=https://sunnah.com/bukhari/41 |website=Sunnah.com |access-date=25 February 2022}}|group=Note}}

Akhlaq is described as a system of "Virtue ethics" that emphasize the virtues, or moral character of the human actor involved. Virtue ethics are one of "three major approaches in normative ethics" in human societies—the other two being "deontology", which emphasizes duties or rules, and "consequentialism", which emphasizes the consequences of actions of the human actor.{{cite book |title=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=July 18, 2003 |edition=Revised December 8, 2016 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/ |access-date=30 November 2021}}

Another source, (Technical University Darmstadt), describes "virtue theory" ethics as emphasizing moral education to "develop good habits of character based" on "rules like 'do not steal'," etc.{{cite web |title=ETHICS AND MORALITY, Basic Ethical Concepts |url=https://www.philosophie.tu-darmstadt.de/media/philosophie_nanobuero/pdf_2/ethicsportfolio/ethics_moralitybwnewfont.pdf |website=Technical University Darmstadt |access-date=23 February 2022 |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223174813/https://www.philosophie.tu-darmstadt.de/media/philosophie_nanobuero/pdf_2/ethicsportfolio/ethics_moralitybwnewfont.pdf |url-status=dead }}

Moral Character primarily refers to the assemblage of moral qualities (virtues and vices) in an individual.

Promotion of good/virtuous character is found in the canonical texts of Islam. The Quran describes Muhammad as being 'on exalted quality of character' (Q {{qref|68|4}}), and refers to him as 'an excellent example' ({{qref|Q33|21}}) which ultimately means that the religious and moral examples, set by Muhammad, are to be followed and cultivated by the Muslims in order to construct a morally good character.Leaman, The Qur'an, (2006), p. 139-143 In addition, numerous sayings of Muhammad highlighted the importance of good character:

• Anas ibn Malik reported that the Prophet said: The one with good morals and character already owns the best of this world and the Hereafter (Tabarani and Abu Dawud).
• Abu Hurayrah reported that the Prophet said: I have been sent for the perfection of character (Imam Ahmad and Bayhaqi).
• Anas ibn Malik reported that the Messenger of Allah said: A person reaches the best and most honored levels in the Hereafter as a result of good character.... And bad character condemns a person to the lowest depths of Hell (Tabarani).
• One can repent for any sin but bad character – because with bad character, before a person can attempt to ask forgiveness for one sin, he commits a worse (Tabarani, Isfahani).

There was a debate among the early Islamic moralists as to whether character could be changed to promote virtue and diminish vices. They recognized the dual aspect of character – innate and acquired – and thus noted that with conscious practice it could be changed to a certain degree. "Just as a muscle grows stronger with exercise, character grows strong with practice ... the good act becomes easier to us each time we do it."

Muslim moralists have discussed the importance of having a good character as well as the ways of acquiring it. Imam Birgivi, a 16th-century Muslim scholar and moralist, says that 'To cure yourself of a bad feature of character is an obligation'.Birgivi (2005), p.110 Continuous practice of moral virtues and a conscious effort to internalize those qualities can lead to the formation of a morally good character.Birgivi (2005), p.108 Al-Isfahani says that purification of soul means the control, not the elimination, of desires. He taught that character meant not only obeying the laws of Islam but internalizing them in your soul. According to Birgivi, changing of character depends on such things as 'a person's wish' and 'the strength of one's understanding', and the preservation of a good character requires the avoidance of the company of evil-charactered people who indulge into indecent activities, drunkenness, and meaningless gossip.Birgivi (2005), p.111

Ethics or "Disposition" is a "faculty" (malakah),J. Cowen p.1082 – malaka (pl. -at) trait of character, faculty, talent "a property of the soul" (nafs), "which comes into existence through exercise and repetitive practice" is not easily destroyed. A particular malakah may appear because of one of the following reasons:

1. Fitrah (natural state): The original state in which humans are created by Allah. Muslims believe Allah determined certain aspects of their lives for which they are not accountable (e.g., their place of birth and physical appearance)J. Esposito p. 89
2. 'Āda (habit): Formed by continual repetition of certain acts and creates a certain disposition.
3. Practice and conscious effort: Which if persistent will eventually produce a disposition.

Although fitra produces certain dispositions, (it is thought) man can surpass nature through free will and effort. While dispositions caused by mental faculties (i.e., intelligence, memory, mental agility etc.) are not alterable, others dispositions can change. Man's capacity to change his dispositions need not mean destroying instincts of reproduction or self-preservation, but avoiding extremes so they (the dispositions) perform their functions properly.

• "Indeed I have been sent to complete the best of character (akhlaq)." (Hadith of Muhammad narrated by Abu Hurairah)Sahih Muslim, 6017
• "The most complete of believers in iman (faith) are those who are best in character." (Hadith narrated by Anas, the brother of Abu Dharr)Sahih al-Tirmidhi, 2003

ʿIlm al-Akhlaq is translated in English as "ethics, moral science, morals" (ʿIlm being science or study).{{cite book |last1=Wehr |first1=Hans |title=Searcheable PDF of the Hans Wehr Dictionary |page=258 |url=https://giftsofknowledge.files.wordpress.com/2016/01/hans-wehr-searchable-pdf.pdf |access-date=29 November 2021}}

Al-Ghazali defined Ilm al-Akhlaq as "the way to acquire the well being of the soul and to guard it against the vices".{{cite web |last1=Ibramsa |first1=Habeeb |last2=Abdul Rahim |first2=Adibah |title=UNDERSTANDING ISLAMIC ETHICS AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE ON THE CHARACTER BUILDING |url=https://www.academia.edu/28427699 |website=Academia |access-date=5 July 2022}}

The science also dwells on how the level of human virtue is determined by discipline and effort;{{cite web |title=ISL471 Islamic Morality (Akhlaq) and Character (8) |url=http://www.csu.edu.au/handbook/handbook15/subjects/ISL471.html |website=Charles Sturt University |access-date=6 July 2022}} the movement between the extremes of human behavior, "the lowest is below beasts and the highest surpasses even the angels;"{{cite book |last1=Mahdi Naraqi |first1=Muhammad |title=Jami' al-Sa'adat (The Collector of Felicities) |publisher=Al-Islam |chapter=The Meaning and Origin of Akhlaq}} how 'knowledge is the thickest of veils', preventing man from seeing reality (haqiqah when ethics and purification (tazkiyah) have not been mastered; and how by improving their akhlaq, the Muslims improve their Ibadah (worship).{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Tazkiyah al-nafs, "is the purification of the soul from inclination towards evils and sins, and the development of its fitrah (natural unsocialized state) towards goodness, which leads to its uprightness and its reaching ihsaan [perfection or at least excellence]", according to Anas Karzoon.Karzoon (Vol.1 p.12) Scholars (such as Mulla Muhammad Mahdi Naraqi) teach that "moral virtues bring eternal happiness, while moral corruption leads to everlasting wretchedness", so that blameworthy traits (akhlāq madhmūma) must be purged. God will help those seeking purification: "And those who strive for Us – We will surely guide them to Our ways. And indeed, Allah is with the doers of good." (Q.{{qref|29|69}})

The soul is created devoid of traits. As one progresses through life, he develops malakat related to his lifestyle. The soul becomes accustomed to repeated behavior, which then determines actions. Noble faculties manifest moral and wise behaviour, while evil faculties manifest immorality. These faculties determine the fate in the Akhira.

The Quran says:

• We have bound every human’s destiny to their neck. And on the Day of Judgment We will bring forth to each ˹person˺ a record which they will find laid open. ˹And it will be said,˺ "Read your record. You ˹alone˺ are sufficient this Day to take account of yourself."{{Qref|17|13–14|b=y}}
• And the record ˹of deeds˺ will be laid ˹open˺, and you will see the wicked in fear of what is ˹written˺ in it. They will cry, "Woe to us! What kind of record is this that does not leave any sin, small or large, unlisted?" They will find whatever they did present ˹before them˺. And your Lord will never wrong anyone.{{Qref|18|49|b=y}}
• ˹Watch for˺ the Day when every soul will be presented with whatever good it has done. And it will wish that its misdeeds were far off. And Allah warns you about Himself. And Allah is Ever Gracious to ˹His˺ servants.{{Qref|3|30|b=y}}

The aim of tazkiyah and moral development is to attain felicity and happiness. Tazkiyah causes self-knowledge and knowledge of God.{{Cite book|title=Quran,At-Tawbah:108}} Man's most consummate felicity is reflecting divine attributes. According to Qatada ibn al-Nu'man, the content soul (an-nafs al-mutma'inna) is, "the soul of the believer, made calm by what Allah has promised. Its owner is at complete rest and content with his knowledge of Allah's Names and Attributes..."The Purification of the Soul p.71

{{main|Morality in Islam}}

"Practical guidelines"Clark, Islam For Dummies, 2011: p.246 or "specific norms or codes of behavior" for good doingCampo, Encyclopedia of Islam, "Ethics and morality", 2009: p.214{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&dq=juan+campo%2C+Ethics+means+philosophical+reflection+upon+moral+conduct%2C+while+morality+pertains+to+specific+norms+or+codes+of+behavior%22&pg=PA214 |title=Encyclopedia of Islam |page=214 |chapter=Ethics and morality |last1=Campo |first1=Juan E.|year=2009 |publisher=Infobase |isbn=9781438126968 | access-date=21 February 2022}} based primarily on the Quran and the Hadith

are primarily "commonly known moral virtues" whose major points "most religions largely agree on".

They include kindness (to people and animals), charity,Leaman, The Qur'an, "MORALITY", (2006), p. 415 forgiveness, honesty, patience, justice, respecting parents and elders, keeping promises, and controlling one's anger.{{cite web |title=Sahih al-Bukhari » Wills and Testaments (Wasaayaa) – كتاب الوصايا |url=https://sunnah.com/search?q=hypocrit+lie+promise+cheat |website=Sunnah.com |access-date=28 November 2021}}

Drawing on a cross-sectional study of Muslim youths in southern Thailand and other sources, academic Kasetchai Laeheem found that the "common behavioral problem" of a lack of Islamic ethics within Muslim societies, often leads to Muslim youths committing "sin openly" and "as a habit without shame". However, high levels of Islamic ethical behavior among Muslim youth, are often correlated with "the Islamic way of upbringing, knowledge of the religion, participation in Islamic activities, and practicing Islamic principles".{{cite journal |last1=Laeheem |first1=Kasetchai |title=Relationships between Islamic ethical behavior and Islamic factors among Muslim youths in the three southern border provinces of Thailand |journal=Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences |date=May–August 2018 |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=305–311 |doi=10.1016/j.kjss.2018.03.005|s2cid=158340165 |doi-access=free }}

{{columns-list|colwidth=25em|

• Akhlaq
• Early Islamic philosophy
• Ethics in religion
• Christian ethics
• Jewish ethics
• Islam and humanity
• Islam and domestic violence
• Islamic bioethics
• Islamic democracy
• Islamic Golden Age
• Islamic sexual jurisprudence
• Islamic views on slavery
• Morality
• Peace in Islamic philosophy
• Women in Islam

}}

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• {{citation |last1=Youssef |first1=Hanafy A. |last2=Youssef |first2=Fatma A. |last3=Dening |first3=T. R. |date=1996 |title=Evidence for the existence of schizophrenia in medieval Islamic society |journal=History of Psychiatry |volume=7 |issue=25 |pages=55–62 |pmid=11609215 |doi=10.1177/0957154X9600702503|s2cid=44459712 }}

• Islamic Ethics - [http://www.learndeen.org/cms/english-blog/tazkiya-an-nafs/pillars-of-islam-ethics-1 Relationship between Pillars of Islam & Development of Excellent Moral & Character]{{Dead link|date=February 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
• Islamic Human Resource Management – [https://www.scribd.com/doc/4958488/Islamic-Human-Resource-Management Islamic view of human resource management]
• [http://al-islam.org/al-tawhid/felicities/2.htm The meaning and origin of Akhlaq]
• [https://www.abuaminaelias.com/forty-hadith-on-good-character/ Forty Ahadith on Akhlaq]
• [http://www.islamtimes.org/vdci.qawct1aqvli2t.html The Path of the Wayfarer]

{{Islam topics|state=collapsed}}{{Ethics}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Islamic Ethics}}

Category:Islamic jurisprudence

Category:Islamic terminology