Jupiter#Magnetosphere

In both the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, Jupiter was named after the chief god of the divine pantheon: Zeus to the Greeks and Jupiter to the Romans.{{cite book |last=Alexander |first=Rachel |title=Myths, Symbols and Legends of Solar System Bodies |publisher=Springer |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4614-7066-3 |series=The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series |volume=177 |location=New York, NY |pages=141–159 |bibcode=2015msls.book.....A |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-7067-0}} The International Astronomical Union formally adopted the name Jupiter for the planet in 1976 and has since named its newly discovered satellites for the god's lovers, favourites, and descendants.{{cite web |title=Naming of Astronomical Objects | publisher=International Astronomical Union | url=https://www.iau.org/public/themes/naming/ | access-date=March 23, 2022 | archive-date=October 31, 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031154417/https://www.iau.org/public/themes/naming/ | url-status=live }} The planetary symbol for Jupiter, File:Jupiter symbol (fixed width).svg, descends from a Greek zeta with a horizontal stroke, {{angbr|Ƶ}}, as an abbreviation for Zeus.{{cite book| title = Astronomical papyri from Oxyrhynchus| last = Jones| first = Alexander| date = 1999| pages = 62–63| publisher = American Philosophical Society| isbn = 978-0-87169-233-7| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8MokzymQ43IC| quote = It is now possible to trace the medieval symbols for at least four of the five planets to forms that occur in some of the latest papyrus horoscopes ([ P.Oxy. ] 4272, 4274, 4275 [...]). That for Jupiter is an obvious monogram derived from the initial letter of the Greek name.}}{{cite journal| title=The origin of the symbols of the planets| last=Maunder | first=A. S. D. | author-link=Annie S. D. Maunder| journal=The Observatory| volume=57 | pages=238–247| date=August 1934 | bibcode=1934Obs....57..238M }}

In Latin, Iovis is the genitive case of Iuppiter, i.e. Jupiter. It is associated with the etymology of Zeus ('sky father'). The English equivalent, Jove, is known to have come into use as a poetic name for the planet around the 14th century.{{cite web | title=Jove | first=Douglas | last=Harper | work=Online Etymology Dictionary | url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/jove | access-date=March 22, 2022 | archive-date=March 23, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323021235/https://www.etymonline.com/word/jove | url-status=live }}

Jovian is the adjectival form of Jupiter. The older adjectival form jovial, employed by astrologers in the Middle Ages, has come to mean 'happy' or 'merry', moods ascribed to Jupiter's influence in astrology.{{cite web |title=Jovial |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/jovial |access-date=July 29, 2007 |work=Dictionary.com |archive-date=February 16, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216090837/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/jovial |url-status=live }}

The original Greek deity Zeus supplies the root zeno-, which is used to form some Jupiter-related words, such as zenography.{{refn |group=lower-alpha |See for example: {{cite news |title=IAUC 2844: Jupiter; 1975h |publisher=International Astronomical Union |date=October 1, 1975 |url=http://cbat.eps.harvard.edu/iauc/02800/02844.html |access-date=October 24, 2010}} That particular word has been in use since at least 1966. See: {{cite web |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-abs_connect?db_key=AST&text=zenographic%20since%20at%20least%201966 |title=Query Results from the Astronomy Database |publisher=Smithsonian/NASA |access-date=July 29, 2007}}}}

{{Main|Grand tack hypothesis}}

{{See also|Formation and evolution of the Solar System}}

Jupiter is believed to be the oldest planet in the Solar System, having formed just one million years after the Sun and roughly 50 million years before Earth. Current models of Solar System formation suggest that Jupiter formed at or beyond the snow line: a distance from the early Sun where the temperature was sufficiently cold for volatiles such as water to condense into solids. First forming a solid core, the planet then accumulated its gaseous atmosphere. Therefore, the planet must have formed before the solar nebula was fully dispersed. During its formation, Jupiter's mass gradually increased until it had 20 times the mass of the Earth, approximately half of which was made up of silicates, ices and other heavy-element constituents. When the proto-Jupiter grew larger than 50 Earth masses it created a gap in the solar nebula. Thereafter, the growing planet reached its final mass in 3–4{{Nbsp}}million years.{{cite journal | title=Age of Jupiter inferred from the distinct genetics and formation times of meteorites | last1=Kruijer | first1=Thomas S. | last2=Burkhardt | first2=Christoph | last3=Budde | first3=Gerrit | last4=Kleine | first4=Thorsten | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=114 | issue=26 | pages=6712–6716 | date=June 2017 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1704461114 | pmid=28607079 | pmc=5495263 | bibcode=2017PNAS..114.6712K | doi-access=free }} Since Jupiter is made of the same elements as the Sun (hydrogen and helium) it has been suggested that the Solar System might have been a system of multiple protostars early in its formation, with Jupiter being the second but failed protostar. But the Solar System never developed into a system of multiple stars and Jupiter does not qualify as a protostar or brown dwarf since it does not have enough mass to fuse hydrogen.{{Cite journal |last1=Bodenheimer |first1=Peter |last2=D'Angelo |first2=Gennaro |last3=Lissauer |first3=Jack J. |last4=Fortney |first4=Jonathan J. |last5=Saumon |first5=Didier |date=June 3, 2013 |title=Deuterium Burning In Massive Giant Planets And Low-mass Brown Dwarfs Formed By Core-nucleated Accretion |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0004-637X/770/2/120 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=770 |issue=2 |pages=120 |doi=10.1088/0004-637X/770/2/120 |arxiv=1305.0980 |bibcode=2013ApJ...770..120B |issn=0004-637X}}{{cite journal | last=Drobyshevski | first=E. M. | title=Was Jupiter the protosun's core? | journal=Nature | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=250 | issue=5461 | year=1974 | issn=0028-0836 | doi=10.1038/250035a0 | pages=35–36| bibcode=1974Natur.250...35D | s2cid=4290185 }}

According to the "grand tack hypothesis", Jupiter began to form at a distance of roughly {{Convert|3.5|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=on|abbr=unit}} from the Sun. As the young planet accreted mass, its interaction with the gas disk orbiting the Sun and the orbital resonances from Saturn caused it to migrate inwards.{{cite journal| title=Jupiter formed as a pebble pile around the N2 ice line| last1=Bosman | first1=A. D. | last2=Cridland | first2=A. J. | last3=Miguel | first3=Y.| journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics| volume=632 | id=L11 | pages=5 | date=December 2019| arxiv=1911.11154 | bibcode=2019A&A...632L..11B | doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201936827 | s2cid=208291392}}{{cite journal | last1=Walsh| first1=K. J.| last2=Morbidelli| first2=A.| last3=Raymond| first3=S. N.| last4=O'Brien| first4=D. P.| last5=Mandell| first5=A. M.| year=2011| title=A low mass for Mars from Jupiter's early gas-driven migration| journal=Nature| volume=475| issue=7355| pages=206–209| doi=10.1038/nature10201| bibcode=2011Natur.475..206W| arxiv=1201.5177| pmid=21642961| s2cid=4431823}} This upset the orbits of several super-Earths orbiting closer to the Sun, causing them to collide destructively. Saturn would later have begun to migrate inwards at a faster rate than Jupiter until the two planets became captured in a 3:2 mean motion resonance at approximately {{Convert|1.5|AU|e6km e6mi|abbr=unit}} from the Sun.{{cite journal |last1=Chametla |first1=Raúl O |last2=D'Angelo |first2=Gennaro |last3=Reyes-Ruiz |first3=Mauricio |last4=Sánchez-Salcedo |first4=F Javier |date=March 2020 |title=Capture and migration of Jupiter and Saturn in mean motion resonance in a gaseous protoplanetary disc |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=492 |issue=4 |pages=6007–6018 |arxiv=2001.09235 |doi=10.1093/mnras/staa260 |doi-access=free}} This changed the direction of migration, causing them to migrate away from the Sun and out of the inner system to their current locations.{{cite journal |title=Jupiter's decisive role in the inner Solar System's early evolution |first=Konstantin |last=Batygin |doi=10.1073/pnas.1423252112 |pmid=25831540 |pmc=4394287 |volume=112 |issue=14 |pages=4214–4217 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |arxiv=1503.06945 |bibcode=2015PNAS..112.4214B|year=2015 |author-link=Konstantin Batygin |doi-access=free }} All of this happened over a period of 3–6{{Nbsp}}million years, with the final migration of Jupiter occurring over several hundred thousand years.{{cite journal

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}} Jupiter's migration from the inner solar system eventually allowed the inner planets—including Earth—to form from the rubble.{{cite web

|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/150324-jupiter-super-earth-collisions-planets-astronomy-sky-watching

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|title=Observe: Jupiter, Wrecking Ball of Early Solar System

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There are several unresolved issues with the grand tack hypothesis. The resulting formation timescales of terrestrial planets appear to be inconsistent with the measured elemental composition.{{cite journal | last1=Zube | first1=N. | last2=Nimmo | first2=F. | last3=Fischer | first3=R.| last4=Jacobson | first4=S.|title=Constraints on terrestrial planet formation timescales and equilibration processes in the Grand Tack scenario from Hf-W isotopic evolution|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|year=2019|volume=522|issue=1|pages=210–218|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2019.07.001 |pmid=32636530|pmc=7339907|arxiv = 1910.00645 |bibcode = 2019E&PSL.522..210Z |s2cid=199100280}} Jupiter would likely have settled into an orbit much closer to the Sun if it had migrated through the solar nebula.{{cite journal | last1=D'Angelo | first1=G. | last2=Marzari | first2=F. |title=Outward Migration of Jupiter and Saturn in Evolved Gaseous Disks|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|year=2012|volume=757|issue=1|page=50 (23 pp.)|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/757/1/50 |arxiv = 1207.2737 |bibcode = 2012ApJ...757...50D |s2cid=118587166}} Some competing models of Solar System formation predict the formation of Jupiter with orbital properties that are close to those of the present-day planet.{{cite journal | last1=D'Angelo | first1=G. | last2=Weidenschilling | first2=S. J. | last3=Lissauer | first3=J. J. | last4=Bodenheimer | first4=P. | title=Growth of Jupiter: Formation in disks of gas and solids and evolution to the present epoch | journal=Icarus |year=2021 | volume=355 | page=114087 | arxiv=2009.05575 | doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2020.114087 | bibcode=2021Icar..35514087D | s2cid=221654962 }} Other models predict Jupiter forming at distances much further out, such as {{Convert|18|AU|e9km e9mi|abbr=unit}}.{{cite journal | title=Consequences of planetary migration on the minor bodies of the early solar system | last1=Pirani | first1=S. | last2=Johansen | first2=A. | last3=Bitsch | first3=B. | last4=Mustill | first4=A.J. | last5=Turrini | first5=D. | journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics | volume=623 | date=March 2019 | pages=A169 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201833713| arxiv=1902.04591 | bibcode=2019A&A...623A.169P | doi-access=free }}{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/03/190322105706.htm |title=Jupiter's Unknown Journey Revealed |work=ScienceDaily |publisher=Lund University |date=March 22, 2019 |access-date=March 25, 2019 |archive-date=March 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322165523/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/03/190322105706.htm |url-status=live }}

According to the Nice model, the infall of proto-Kuiper belt objects over the first 600 million years of Solar System history caused Jupiter and Saturn to migrate from their initial positions into a 1:2 resonance, which caused Saturn to shift into a higher orbit, disrupting the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, depleting the Kuiper belt, and triggering the Late Heavy Bombardment.{{cite journal |last1=Levison |first1=Harold F. |last2=Morbidelli |first2=Alessandro |last3=Van Laerhoven |first3=Christa |last4=Gomes |first4=R. |date=2008 |title=Origin of the structure of the Kuiper belt during a dynamical instability in the orbits of Uranus and Neptune |journal=Icarus |volume=196 |issue=1 |pages=258–273 |arxiv=0712.0553 |bibcode=2008Icar..196..258L |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2007.11.035|s2cid=7035885 }}

According to the Jumping-Jupiter scenario, Jupiter's migration through the early solar system could have led to the ejection of a fifth gas giant. This hypothesis suggests that during its orbital migration, Jupiter's gravitational influence disrupted the orbits of other gas giants, potentially casting one planet out of the solar system entirely. The dynamics of such an event would have dramatically altered the formation and configuration of the solar system, leaving behind only the four gas giants humans observe today.{{Cite journal |title=Evidence for a Distant Giant Planet in the Solar System |doi=10.3847/0004-6256/151/2/22 |doi-access=free |date=2016 |last1=Batygin |first1=Konstantin |last2=Brown |first2=Michael E. |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=151 |issue=2 |page=22 |arxiv=1601.05438 |bibcode=2016AJ....151...22B }}

Based on Jupiter's composition, researchers have made the case for an initial formation outside the molecular nitrogen (N₂) snow line, which is estimated at {{Convert|20|-|30|AU|e9km e9mi|abbr=unit}} from the Sun, and possibly even outside the argon snow line, which may be as far as {{Convert|40|AU|e9km e9mi|abbr=unit}}.{{cite journal | last1=Öberg | first1=K.I. | last2=Wordsworth | first2=R. | title=Jupiter's Composition Suggests its Core Assembled Exterior to the N_{2} Snowline | journal=The Astronomical Journal | year=2019 | volume=158 | issue=5 | doi=10.3847/1538-3881/ab46a8 | arxiv=1909.11246 | s2cid=202749962 | doi-access=free }}{{cite journal | last1=Öberg | first1=K.I. | last2=Wordsworth | first2=R. | title=Erratum: "Jupiter's Composition Suggests Its Core Assembled Exterior to the N2 Snowline" | journal=The Astronomical Journal | year=2020| volume=159 | issue=2 | page=78 | doi=10.3847/1538-3881/ab6172 | s2cid=214576608 | doi-access=free }} Having formed at one of these extreme distances, Jupiter would then have, over a roughly 700,000-year period, migrated inwards to its current location, during an epoch approximately 2–3 million years after the planet began to form. In this model, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune would have formed even further out than Jupiter, and Saturn would also have migrated inwards.

Jupiter is a gas giant, meaning its chemical composition is primarily hydrogen and helium. These materials are classified as gasses in planetary geology, a term that does not denote the state of matter. It is the largest planet in the Solar System, with a diameter of {{cvt|142984|km|0}} at its equator, giving it a volume 1,321 times that of the Earth.{{cite book|page=419|title=Regents Exams and Answers: Earth Science—Physical Setting 2020|last1=Denecke|first1=Edward J.|date=January 7, 2020|publisher=Barrons Educational Series|isbn=978-1-5062-5399-2}} Its average density, 1.326 g/cm³,{{refn |group=lower-alpha |About the same as sugar syrup (syrup USP),{{cite book | title=Encyclopedia of Pharmaceutical Technology | first=James | last=Swarbrick | date=2013 | page=3601 | volume=6 | isbn=978-1-4398-0823-8 | publisher=CRC Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2C1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3601 | quote="Syrup USP (1.31 g/cm³)" | access-date=March 19, 2023 | archive-date=March 26, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164802/https://books.google.com/books?id=w2C1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3601 | url-status=live }}}} is lower than those of the four terrestrial planets.{{cite book | title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities | last1=Allen | first1=Clabon Walter | author-link1=Clabon Allen | last2=Cox | first2=Arthur N. | publisher=Springer | date=2000 | pages=295–296 | isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&pg=PA296 | access-date=March 18, 2022 | archive-date=February 21, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221195213/https://books.google.com/books?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&pg=PA296 | url-status=live }}{{cite book | page=1041 | title=A Concise Handbook of Mathematics, Physics, and Engineering Sciences | last1=Polyanin | first1=Andrei D. | last2=Chernoutsan | first2=Alexei | date=October 18, 2010 | publisher=CRC Press | isbn=978-1-4398-0640-1 }}

The atmosphere of Jupiter is approximately 76% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass. By volume, the upper atmosphere is about 90% hydrogen and 10% helium, with the lower proportion owing to the individual helium atoms being more massive than the molecules of hydrogen formed in this part of the atmosphere.{{cite journal| title=NOTE: New Constraints on the Composition of Jupiter from Galileo Measurements and Interior Models | last1=Guillot | first1=Tristan | last2=Gautier | first2=Daniel | last3=Hubbard | first3=William B. |journal=Icarus | volume=130 | issue=2 | pages=534–539 | date=December 1997 | doi=10.1006/icar.1997.5812 | arxiv=astro-ph/9707210 | bibcode=1997Icar..130..534G

| s2cid=5466469 }} The atmosphere contains trace amounts of elemental carbon, oxygen, sulfur, and neon,{{cite book|title=Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere |editor-first=Fran |editor-last=Bagenal |editor-first2=Timothy E. |editor-last2=Dowling |editor-first3=William B. |editor-last3=McKinnon |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=0521035457 |pages=59–75}} as well as ammonia, water vapour, phosphine, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrocarbons like methane, ethane and benzene.{{cite journal |journal=Icarus |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=233–248 |year=1985 |title=Infrared Polar Brightening on Jupiter III. Spectrometry from the Voyager 1 IRIS Experiment |bibcode=1985Icar...64..233K | last1=Kim | first1=S. J. | last2=Caldwell | first2=J. | last3=Rivolo | first3=A. R. | last4=Wagner | first4=R. |doi=10.1016/0019-1035(85)90201-5}} Its outermost layer contains crystals of frozen ammonia.{{cite journal|title=Zonal Features in the Behavior of Weak Molecular Absorption Bands on Jupiter|first1=V. D. |last1=Vdovichenko |first2=A. M. |last2=Karimov |first3=G. A. |last3=Kirienko |first4=P. G. |last4=Lysenko |first5=V. G. |last5=Tejfel’ |first6=V. A. |last6=Filippov |first7=G. A. |last7=Kharitonova |first8=A. P. |last8=Khozhenets |journal=Solar System Research |volume=55 |pages=35–46 |year=2021 |issue=1 |doi=10.1134/S003809462101010X |bibcode=2021SoSyR..55...35V |s2cid=255069821 }} The planet's interior is denser, with a composition of roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium, and 5% other elements by mass.{{cite journal | last1=Gautier | first1=D. | last2=Conrath | first2=B. | last3=Flasar | first3=M. | last4=Hanel | first4=R. | last5=Kunde | first5=V. | last6=Chedin | first6=A. | last7=Scott | first7=N. |title=The helium abundance of Jupiter from Voyager |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=86 |issue=A10 |pages=8713–8720 |year=1981 |bibcode=1981JGR....86.8713G |doi=10.1029/JA086iA10p08713|hdl=2060/19810016480 |s2cid=122314894 |hdl-access=free }}{{cite journal | last1=Kunde | first1=V. G. | last2=Flasar | first2=F. M. | last3=Jennings | first3=D. E. | last4=Bézard | first4=B. | last5=Strobel | first5=D. F. | last6=Conrath | first6=B. J. | last7=Nixon | first7=C. A. | last8=Bjoraker | first8=G. L. | last9=Romani | first9=P. N. | last10=Achterberg | first10=R. K. | last11=Simon-Miller | first11=A. A. | last12=Irwin | first12=P. | last13=Brasunas | first13=J. C. | last14=Pearl | first14=J. C. | last15=Smith | first15=M. D. | last16=Orton | first16=G. S. | last17=Gierasch | first17=P. J. | last18=Spilker | first18=L. J. | last19=Carlson | first19=R. C. | last20=Mamoutkine | first20=A. A. | last21=Calcutt | first21=S. B. | last22=Read | first22=P. L. | last23=Taylor | first23=F. W. | last24=Fouchet | first24=T. | last25=Parrish | first25=P. | last26=Barucci | first26=A. | last27=Courtin | first27=R. | last28=Coustenis | first28=A. | last29=Gautier | first29=D. | last30=Lellouch | first30=E. | last31=Marten | first31=A. | last32=Prangé | first32=R. | last33=Biraud | first33=Y. | last34=Ferrari | first34=C. | last35=Owen | first35=T. C. | last36=Abbas | first36=M. M. | last37=Samuelson | first37=R. E. | last38=Raulin | first38=F. | last39=Ade | first39=P. | last40=Césarsky | first40=C. J. | last41=Grossman | first41=K. U. | last42=Coradini | first42=A. | display-authors=5 | title=Jupiter's Atmospheric Composition from the Cassini Thermal Infrared Spectroscopy Experiment | journal=Science | date=September 10, 2004 | volume=305 | issue=5690 | pages=1582–1586 | doi=10.1126/science.1100240 | pmid=15319491 | bibcode=2004Sci...305.1582K | s2cid=45296656 | doi-access=free }}

The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the primordial solar nebula.{{cite web|title=Solar Nebula Supermarket|publisher=nasa.gov|url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/genesismission/educate/scimodule/PlanetaryDiversity/plandiv_pdf/SupermarketST.pdf|access-date=July 10, 2023|archive-date=July 17, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717222001/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/genesismission/educate/scimodule/PlanetaryDiversity/plandiv_pdf/SupermarketST.pdf|url-status=live}} Neon in the upper atmosphere consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun.{{cite journal | last1=Niemann | first1=H. B. | last2=Atreya | first2=S. K. | last3=Carignan | first3=G. R. | last4=Donahue | first4=T. M. | last5=Haberman | first5=J. A. | last6=Harpold | first6=D. N. | last7=Hartle | first7=R. E. | last8=Hunten | first8=D. M. | last9=Kasprzak | first9=W. T. | last10=Mahaffy | first10=P. R. | last11=Owen | first11=T. C. | last12=Spencer | first12=N. W. | last13=Way | first13=S. H. | display-authors=5 | title=The Galileo Probe Mass Spectrometer: Composition of Jupiter's Atmosphere | journal=Science | year=1996 | volume=272 | issue=5263 | pages=846–849 | bibcode=1996Sci...272..846N | doi=10.1126/science.272.5263.846 | pmid=8629016| s2cid=3242002 }} Jupiter's helium abundance is about 80% that of the Sun due to the precipitation of these elements as helium-rich droplets, a process that happens deep in the planet's interior.{{cite journal |first1=U. |last1=von Zahn |first2=D. M. |last2=Hunten |first3=G. |last3=Lehmacher |title=Helium in Jupiter's atmosphere: Results from the Galileo probe Helium Interferometer Experiment |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |year=1998 |volume=103 |issue=E10 |pages=22815–22829 |doi=10.1029/98JE00695 |bibcode=1998JGR...10322815V |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |title=Jupiter's Interior as Revealed by Juno |last=Stevenson |first=David J. |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=48 |pages=465–489 |date=May 2020 |doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-081619-052855 |bibcode=2020AREPS..48..465S |s2cid=212832169 |doi-access=free }}

Based on spectroscopy, Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the other giant planets Uranus and Neptune have relatively less hydrogen and helium and relatively more of the next most common elements, including oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur.{{cite web | last1=Ingersoll | first1=A. P. | last2=Hammel | first2=H. B. | last3=Spilker | first3=T. R. | last4=Young | first4=R. E. | date=June 1, 2005 | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/opag/outer_planets.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/opag/outer_planets.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live | title=Outer Planets: The Ice Giants | publisher=Lunar & Planetary Institute | access-date=February 1, 2007 }} These planets are known as ice giants because during their formation, these elements are thought to have been incorporated into them as ice; however, they probably contain very little ice.{{citation | url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/decadal/opag/IceGiantAtmospheres_v7.pdf | last=Hofstadter | first=Mark | title=The Atmospheres of the Ice Giants, Uranus and Neptune | year=2011 | publisher=US National Research Council | access-date=January 18, 2015 | work=White Paper for the Planetary Science Decadal Survey | pages=1–2 | archive-date=July 17, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717232018/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/decadal/opag/IceGiantAtmospheres_v7.pdf | url-status=live }}

{{Main|Jupiter mass}}

File:Jupiter size.png

Jupiter is about eleven times wider than the Earth ({{val|11.209|ul=R_Earth}}); while its mass is 318 times that of Earth which is 2.5 times the mass of all the other planets in the Solar System combined. It is so massive that its barycentre with the Sun lies above the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's centre.{{cite book |last=MacDougal |first=Douglas W. |title=Newton's Gravity |url=https://archive.org/details/newtonsgravityin00macd |url-access=limited |year=2012 |publisher=Springer New York |isbn=978-1-4614-5443-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/newtonsgravityin00macd/page/n208 193]–211 |language=en |chapter=A Binary System Close to Home: How the Moon and Earth Orbit Each Other |quote=the barycentre is 743,000 km from the centre of the Sun. The Sun's radius is 696,000 km, so it is 47,000 km above the surface.|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-5444-1_10 |series=Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics }}{{cite book |first=Eric |last=Burgess |date=1982 |title=By Jupiter: Odysseys to a Giant |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-05176-7}} Jupiter's radius is about one tenth the radius of the Sun ({{val|0.10276|ul=R_Solar}}),{{cite book |first=Frank H. |last=Shu |date=1982 |title=The physical universe: an introduction to astronomy |page=[https://archive.org/details/physicaluniverse00shuf/page/426 426] |series=Series of books in astronomy |edition=12th |publisher=University Science Books |isbn=978-0-935702-05-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/physicaluniverse00shuf/page/426 }} and its mass is one thousandth the mass of the Sun, of which the densities of the two bodies are similar.{{cite book | last1=Davis | first1=Andrew M. | last2=Turekian | first2=Karl K. | title=Meteorites, comets, and planets | volume=1 | series=Treatise on geochemistry | publisher=Elsevier | date=2005 | isbn=978-0-08-044720-9 | page=624}} A "Jupiter mass" ({{Jupiter mass}} or {{Jupiter mass|Jup=y}}) is used as a unit to describe masses of other objects, particularly extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs. For example, the extrasolar planet HD 209458 b has a mass of {{Jupiter mass|0.69}}, while the brown dwarf Gliese 229 b has a mass of {{Jupiter mass|60.4}}.{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://exoplanet.eu/home/ |title=The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopedia: Interactive Catalogue |first=Jean |last=Schneider |year=2009 |access-date=August 9, 2014 |archive-date=October 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028155019/https://exoplanet.eu/home/ |encyclopedia=Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Feng |first1=Fabo |last2=Butler |first2=R. Paul |display-authors=etal |date=August 2022 |title=3D Selection of 167 Substellar Companions to Nearby Stars |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series |volume=262 |issue=21 |page=21 |doi=10.3847/1538-4365/ac7e57 |arxiv=2208.12720 |bibcode=2022ApJS..262...21F|s2cid=251864022 |doi-access=free }}

Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had over 40% more mass, the interior would be so compressed that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. For smaller changes in its mass, the radius would not change appreciably.{{cite journal | last1=Seager | first1=S. | last2=Kuchner | first2=M. | last3=Hier-Majumder | first3=C. A. | last4=Militzer | first4=B. | title=Mass-Radius Relationships for Solid Exoplanets | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | volume=669 | issue=2 | pages=1279–1297 | year=2007 | doi=10.1086/521346 | arxiv=0707.2895 | bibcode=2007ApJ...669.1279S | s2cid=8369390 }} As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve.{{cite AV media | title=How the Universe Works 3 | volume=Jupiter: Destroyer or Savior? |year=2014 | publisher=Discovery Channel}} The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved.{{cite journal

| last=Guillot | first=Tristan

| title=Interiors of Giant Planets Inside and Outside the Solar System

| journal=Science

| year=1999 | volume=286 | issue=5437 | pages=72–77

| doi=10.1126/science.286.5437.72 | pmid=10506563

| bibcode=1999Sci...286...72G | access-date=April 24, 2022

| url=http://web.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/classes/ge131/notes/guillot.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://web.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/classes/ge131/notes/guillot.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live

}} Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times more massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star,{{cite journal | title=The theory of brown dwarfs and extrasolar giant planets | last1=Burrows | first1=Adam | last2=Hubbard | first2=W. B. | last3=Lunine | first3=J. I. | last4=Liebert | first4=James | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | volume=73 | issue=3 | pages=719–765 | date=July 2001 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.719 | arxiv=astro-ph/0103383 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73..719B | s2cid=204927572 | quote=Hence the HBMM at solar metallicity and Y_α = 50.25 is 0.07 – 0.074 {{solar mass}}, ... while the HBMM at zero metallicity is 0.092 {{solar mass}} }} its diameter is sufficient as the smallest red dwarf may be slightly larger in radius than Saturn.{{cite journal

| title=The EBLM project. III. A Saturn-size low-mass star at the hydrogen-burning limit

| last1=von Boetticher | first1=Alexander | last2=Triaud | first2=Amaury H. M. J.

| last3=Queloz | first3=Didier | last4=Gill | first4=Sam

| last5=Lendl | first5=Monika | last6=Delrez | first6=Laetitia

| last7=Anderson | first7=David R. | last8=Collier Cameron | first8=Andrew

| last9=Faedi | first9=Francesca | last10=Gillon | first10=Michaël

| last11=Gómez Maqueo Chew | first11=Yilen | last12=Hebb | first12=Leslie

| last13=Hellier | first13=Coel | last14=Jehin | first14=Emmanuël

| last15=Maxted | first15=Pierre F. L. | last16=Martin | first16=David V.

| last17=Pepe | first17=Francesco | last18=Pollacco | first18=Don

| last19=Ségransan | first19=Damien | last20=Smalley | first20=Barry

| last21=Udry | first21=Stéphane | last22=West | first22=Richard

| journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics | volume=604 | id=L6 | pages=6

| date=August 2017 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201731107

| arxiv=1706.08781 | bibcode=2017A&A...604L...6V | s2cid=54610182 }}

Jupiter radiates more heat than it receives through solar radiation, due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism within its contracting interior.{{cite book

| first=Linda T. | last=Elkins-Tanton |date=2011

| title=Jupiter and Saturn | publisher=Chelsea House

| location=New York | isbn=978-0-8160-7698-7 | edition=revised

}}{{rp|30}}{{cite book

| title=Giant Planets of Our Solar System: Atmospheres, Composition, and Structure

| first=Patrick

| last=Irwin

| date=2003

| page=62

| isbn=978-3-540-00681-7

| publisher=Springer Science & Business Media

| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p8wCsJweUb0C&pg=PA62

| access-date=April 23, 2022

| archive-date=June 19, 2024

| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240619015914/https://books.google.com/books?id=p8wCsJweUb0C&pg=PA62#v=onepage&q&f=false

| url-status=live

}} This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about {{cvt|1|mm}} per year.{{cite book | title = Giant Planets of Our Solar System: Atmospheres, Composition, and Structure | first = Patrick G. J. | last = Irwin | publisher = Springer | orig-year = 2003 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=p8wCsJweUb0C&q=%22kelvin+helmholtz+mechanism%22&pg=PA63 | edition = Second | year = 2009 | page = 4 | quote = the radius of Jupiter is estimated to be currently shrinking by approximately 1 mm/yr | isbn = 978-3-642-09888-8 | access-date = March 6, 2021 | archive-date = June 19, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240619015915/https://books.google.com/books?id=p8wCsJweUb0C&q=%22kelvin+helmholtz+mechanism%22&pg=PA63#v=snippet&q=%22kelvin%20helmholtz%20mechanism%22&f=false | url-status = live }}.{{cite book | editor1-last=Bagenal | editor1-first=Fran | editor2-last=Dowling | editor2-first=Timothy E. | editor3-last=McKinnon | editor3-first=William B. | last1=Guillot | first1=Tristan | last2=Stevenson | first2=David J. | last3=Hubbard | first3=William B. | last4=Saumon | first4=Didier | date=2004 | title=Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere | chapter=Chapter 3: The Interior of Jupiter | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-81808-7 }} At the time of its formation, Jupiter was hotter and was about twice its current diameter.{{cite journal |last=Bodenheimer |first=P. |title=Calculations of the early evolution of Jupiter |series=23 |journal=Icarus |year=1974 |issue=3 |volume=23 |pages=319–325 |bibcode=1974Icar...23..319B |doi=10.1016/0019-1035(74)90050-5}}

File:Jupiter diagram.svg

Before the early 21st century, most scientists proposed one of two scenarios for the formation of Jupiter. If the planet accreted first as a solid body, it would consist of a dense core, a surrounding layer of fluid metallic hydrogen (with some helium) extending outward to about 80% of the radius of the planet,{{cite journal | last=Smoluchowski | first=R. | year=1971 | title=Metallic interiors and magnetic fields of Jupiter and Saturn | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | volume=166 | page=435 | doi=10.1086/150971 | bibcode=1971ApJ...166..435S | doi-access=free }} and an outer atmosphere consisting primarily of molecular hydrogen. Alternatively, if the planet collapsed directly from the gaseous protoplanetary disk, it was expected to completely lack a core, consisting instead of a denser and denser fluid (predominantly molecular and metallic hydrogen) all the way to the centre. Data from the Juno mission showed that Jupiter has a diffuse core that mixes into its mantle, extending for 30–50% of the planet's radius, and comprising heavy elements with a combined mass 7–25 times the Earth.{{cite journal |last1=Wahl |first1=S. M. |last2=Hubbard |first2=William B. |last3=Militzer |first3=B. |last4=Guillot |first4=Tristan |last5=Miguel |first5=Y. |last6=Movshovitz |first6=N. |last7=Kaspi |first7=Y. |last8=Helled |first8=R. |last9=Reese |first9=D. |last10=Galanti |first10=E. |last11=Levin |first11=S. |last12=Connerney |first12=J. E. |last13=Bolton |first13=S. J. |title=Comparing Jupiter interior structure models to Juno gravity measurements and the role of a dilute core |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=4649–4659 |year=2017 |doi=10.1002/2017GL073160 |doi-access=free |arxiv=1707.01997 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.4649W }}{{cite journal|title=The Formation of Jupiter's Diluted Core by a Giant Impact|journal=Nature|date=August 15, 2019|author=Shang-Fei Liu|display-authors=et al.|doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1470-2|volume=572|issue=7769 |pages=355–357|pmid=31413376 |arxiv=2007.08338|bibcode=2019Natur.572..355L |s2cid=199576704 }}{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |date=July 5, 2016 |title=NASA's Juno Spacecraft Enters Jupiter's Orbit |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/05/science/juno-enters-jupiters-orbit-capping-5-year-voyage.html |access-date=July 5, 2016 |archive-date=May 2, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502211501/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/05/science/juno-enters-jupiters-orbit-capping-5-year-voyage.html |url-status=live }} This mixing process could have arisen during formation, while the planet accreted solids and gases from the surrounding nebula.{{cite journal| last1=Stevenson| first1=D. J.| last2=Bodenheimer| first2=P.| last3=Lissauer| first3=J. J.| last4=D'Angelo| first4=G.| title= Mixing of Condensable Constituents with H-He during the Formation and Evolution of Jupiter|year=2022| journal=The Planetary Science Journal| volume=3| pages=id.74| issue=4| doi=10.3847/PSJ/ac5c44| arxiv=2202.09476| bibcode=2022PSJ.....3...74S| s2cid=247011195| doi-access=free}} Alternatively, it could have been caused by an impact from a planet of about ten Earth masses a few million years after Jupiter's formation, which would have disrupted an originally compact Jovian core.{{cite journal| last=Guillot| first=T.|year=2019| journal=Nature| pages=315–317| issue=7769| title=Signs that Jupiter was mixed by a giant impact| volume=572| doi=10.1038/d41586-019-02401-1| pmid=31413374| bibcode=2019Natur.572..315G| doi-access=free}}

Outside the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth, the pressure and temperature are above molecular hydrogen's critical pressure of 1.3 MPa and critical temperature of {{cvt|33|K|C F|lk=on}}.{{cite journal | title=Dynamic transition of supercritical hydrogen: Defining the boundary between interior and atmosphere in gas giants | last1=Trachenko | first1=K. | last2=Brazhkin | first2=V. V. | last3=Bolmatov | first3=D. | journal=Physical Review E | volume=89 | issue=3 | id=032126 | date=March 2014 | page=032126 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevE.89.032126 | pmid=24730809 | arxiv=1309.6500 | bibcode=2014PhRvE..89c2126T | s2cid=42559818 }} In this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases—hydrogen is said to be in a supercritical fluid state. The hydrogen and helium gas extending downward from the cloud layer gradually transitions to a liquid in deeper layers, possibly resembling something akin to an ocean of liquid hydrogen and other supercritical fluids.{{rp|22}}{{cite web | first=Dauna | last=Coulter | title=A Freaky Fluid inside Jupiter? | url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/09aug_juno3 | website=NASA | access-date=December 8, 2021 | archive-date=December 9, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209022840/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/09aug_juno3 | url-status=dead }}{{cite web|title= NASA System Exploration Jupiter|url= https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/jupiter/in-depth.amp|website= NASA|access-date= December 8, 2021|archive-date= November 4, 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211104172628/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/jupiter/in-depth.amp|url-status= live}} Physically, the gas gradually becomes hotter and denser as depth increases.{{cite journal |last=Guillot |first=T. |title=A comparison of the interiors of Jupiter and Saturn |journal=Planetary and Space Science |year=1999 |volume=47 |issue=10–11 |pages=1183–1200 |bibcode=1999P&SS...47.1183G |arxiv=astro-ph/9907402 |doi=10.1016/S0032-0633(99)00043-4 |s2cid=19024073 |url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/394768 |access-date=June 21, 2023 |archive-date=May 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519002044/http://cds.cern.ch/record/394768 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |last=Lang |first=Kenneth R. |year=2003 |url=http://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/view_chapter.asp?id=9&page=3 |title=Jupiter: a giant primitive planet |publisher=NASA |access-date=January 10, 2007 |archive-date=May 14, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514093512/http://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/view_chapter.asp?id=9&page=3 |url-status=dead }}

Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower atmosphere, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere.{{cite journal |last=Lodders |first=Katharina|author-link=Katharina Lodders |title=Jupiter Formed with More Tar than Ice |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |year=2004 |volume=611 |issue=1 |pages=587–597 |doi=10.1086/421970 |bibcode=2004ApJ...611..587L|s2cid=59361587 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/afa4/68519084fe3a3076b614442803056943e202.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412141533/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/afa4/68519084fe3a3076b614442803056943e202.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 12, 2020 }} Calculations suggest that helium drops separate from metallic hydrogen at a radius of {{Convert|60000|km|mi|abbr=unit}} ({{Convert|11000|km|mi|abbr=unit|disp=sqbr}} below the cloud tops) and merge again at {{Convert|50000|km|mi|abbr=unit}} ({{Convert|22000|km|mi|abbr=unit|disp=sqbr}} beneath the clouds).{{cite journal

| title=Evidence of hydrogen−helium immiscibility at Jupiter-interior conditions

| last1=Brygoo | first1=S. | last2=Loubeyre | first2=P.

| last3=Millot | first3=M. | last4=Rygg | first4=J. R.

| last5=Celliers | first5=P. M. | last6=Eggert | first6=J. H.

| last7=Jeanloz | first7=R. | last8=Collins | first8=G. W.

| journal=Nature | volume=593 | issue=7860 | pages=517–521

| year=2021 | doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03516-0 | pmid=34040210 | bibcode=2021Natur.593..517B

| osti=1820549 | s2cid=235217898 }} Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur, as well as on Saturn{{cite news |last=Kramer |first=Miriam |title=Diamond Rain May Fill Skies of Jupiter and Saturn |url=https://www.space.com/23135-diamond-rain-jupiter-saturn.html |date=October 9, 2013 |work=Space.com |access-date=August 27, 2017 |archive-date=August 27, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827171415/https://www.space.com/23135-diamond-rain-jupiter-saturn.html |url-status=live }} and the ice giants Uranus and Neptune.{{cite news |last=Kaplan |first=Sarah |title=It rains solid diamonds on Uranus and Neptune |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/08/25/it-rains-solid-diamonds-on-uranus-and-neptune/ |date=August 25, 2017 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=August 27, 2017 |archive-date=August 27, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827011901/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/08/25/it-rains-solid-diamonds-on-uranus-and-neptune/ |url-status=live }}

The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily inward as the heat of planetary formation can only escape by convection. At a surface depth where the atmospheric pressure level is {{cvt|1|bar|MPa|lk=on}}, the temperature is around {{cvt|165|K|C F}}. The region where supercritical hydrogen changes gradually from a molecular fluid to a metallic fluid spans pressure ranges of {{cvt|500000|-|4000000|bar|GPa|disp=out}} with temperatures of {{cvt|5000|-|8400|K|C F}}, respectively. The temperature of Jupiter's diluted core is estimated to be {{cvt|20000|K|C F}} with a pressure of around {{convert|40|e6bar|GPa|disp=out|abbr=unit}}.{{cite book | chapter=The interior of Jupiter | bibcode=2004jpsm.book...35G | last1=Guillot | first1=Tristan | last2=Stevenson | first2=David J. | last3=Hubbard | first3=William B. | last4=Saumon | first4=Didier | title=Jupiter. The planet, satellites and magnetosphere | editor1-first=Fran | editor1-last=Bagenal | editor2-first=Timothy E. | editor2-last=Dowling | editor3-first=William B. | editor3-last=McKinnon | series=Cambridge planetary science | volume=1 | publication-place=Cambridge, UK | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-521-81808-7 | date=2004 | page=45 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aMERHqj9ivcC&pg=PA45 | access-date=March 19, 2023 | archive-date=March 26, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=aMERHqj9ivcC&pg=PA45 | url-status=live }}

{{Main|Atmosphere of Jupiter}}

The atmosphere of Jupiter is primarily composed of molecular hydrogen and helium, with a smaller amount of other compounds such as water, methane, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia. Jupiter's atmosphere extends to a depth of approximately {{convert|3000|km|-3}} below the cloud layers.

File:790106-0203 Voyager 58M to 31M reduced.gif flyby in 1979)]]

Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds of ammonia crystals, which may contain ammonium hydrosulfide as well.{{cite journal | title=Coloring Jupiter's clouds: Radiolysis of ammonium hydrosulfide (NH4SH) | last1=Loeffler | first1=Mark J. | last2=Hudson | first2=Reggie L. | journal=Icarus | volume=302 | pages=418–425 | date=March 2018 | doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2017.10.041 | bibcode=2018Icar..302..418L | url=https://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/691/cosmicice/reprints/NH4SH_Icarus_Loeffler_Hudson_2018.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/691/cosmicice/reprints/NH4SH_Icarus_Loeffler_Hudson_2018.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live | access-date=April 25, 2022 }} The clouds are located in the tropopause layer of the atmosphere, forming bands at different latitudes, known as tropical regions. These are subdivided into lighter-hued zones and darker belts. The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. Wind speeds of {{convert|100|m/s|km/h mph}} are common in zonal jet streams.{{cite book

| title=Dynamics of Jupiter's Atmosphere

| last1=Ingersoll | first1=Andrew P. | author-link1=Andrew Ingersoll

| last2=Dowling | first2=Timothy E. | last3=Gierasch | first3=Peter J.

| last4=Orton | first4=Glenn S. | last5=Read | first5=Peter L.

| last6=Sánchez-Lavega | first6=Agustin | last7=Showman | first7=Adam P.

| last8=Simon-Miller | first8=Amy A. | last9=Vasavada | first9=Ashwin R.

| journal=Jupiter. The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere

| editor1-first=Fran | editor1-last=Bagenal

| editor2-first=Timothy E. | editor2-last=Dowling

| editor3-first=William B. | editor3-last=McKinnon

| series=Cambridge planetary science | volume=1

| publication-place=Cambridge, UK

| publisher=Cambridge University Press

| isbn=0-521-81808-7 | date=2004 | pages=105–128

| bibcode=2004jpsm.book..105I | url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/36015/1/Ingersoll_p105.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/36015/1/Ingersoll_p105.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live

| access-date=March 8, 2022 }} The zones have been observed to vary in width, colour and intensity from year to year, but they have remained stable enough for scientists to name them.{{rp|6}}

The cloud layer is about {{cvt|50|km|0}} deep and consists of at least two decks of ammonia clouds: a thin, clearer region on top and a thicker, lower deck. There may be a thin layer of water clouds underlying the ammonia clouds, as suggested by flashes of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter.{{cite journal | title=Lightning Generation in Moist Convective Clouds and Constraints on the Water Abundance in Jupiter | last1=Aglyamov | first1=Yury S. | last2=Lunine | first2=Jonathan | last3=Becker | first3=Heidi N. |author3-link=Heidi N. Becker| last4=Guillot | first4=Tristan | last5=Gibbard | first5=Seran G. | last6=Atreya | first6=Sushil | last7=Bolton | first7=Scott J. | last8=Levin | first8=Steven | last9=Brown | first9=Shannon T. | last10=Wong | first10=Michael H. | journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets | volume=126 | issue=2 | id=e06504 | date=February 2021 | doi=10.1029/2020JE006504 | arxiv=2101.12361 | bibcode=2021JGRE..12606504A | s2cid=231728590 }} These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth.{{cite web |editor1-last=Watanabe |editor1-first=Susan |date=February 25, 2006 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/galileo_end.html |title=Surprising Jupiter: Busy Galileo spacecraft showed jovian system is full of surprises |publisher=NASA |access-date=February 20, 2007 |archive-date=October 8, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008010724/http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/galileo_end.html |url-status=dead }} The water clouds are assumed to generate thunderstorms in the same way as terrestrial thunderstorms, driven by the heat rising from the interior.{{cite journal |last=Kerr |first=Richard A. |author-link=Richard Kerr (science journalist) |title=Deep, Moist Heat Drives Jovian Weather |journal=Science |year=2000 |volume=287 |issue=5455 |pages=946–947 |doi=10.1126/science.287.5455.946b |s2cid=129284864 |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/d4cfc37399ab62ac9e0668fd231cb072/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1256 |access-date=April 26, 2022 |archive-date=February 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203043417/https://www.proquest.com/openview/d4cfc37399ab62ac9e0668fd231cb072/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1256 |url-status=live }} The Juno mission revealed the presence of "shallow lightning" which originates from ammonia-water clouds relatively high in the atmosphere.{{cite journal | title=Small lightning flashes from shallow electrical storms on Jupiter | last1=Becker | first1=Heidi N. | author1-link=Heidi N. Becker | last2=Alexander | first2=James W. | last3=Atreya | first3=Sushil K. | last4=Bolton | first4=Scott J. | last5=Brennan | first5=Martin J. | last6=Brown | first6=Shannon T. | last7=Guillaume | first7=Alexandre | last8=Guillot | first8=Tristan | last9=Ingersoll | first9=Andrew P. | last10=Levin | first10=Steven M. | last11=Lunine | first11=Jonathan I. | last12=Aglyamov | first12=Yury S. | last13=Steffes | first13=Paul G. | journal=Nature | volume=584 | issue=7819 | pages=55–58 | year=2020 | doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2532-1 | pmid=32760043 | bibcode=2020Natur.584...55B | s2cid=220980694 | issn=0028-0836 | url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03058480 | access-date=March 6, 2021 | archive-date=September 29, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929074856/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03058480 | url-status=live }} These discharges carry "mushballs" of water-ammonia slushes covered in ice, which fall deep into the atmosphere.{{cite journal

| title=Storms and the Depletion of Ammonia in Jupiter: I. Microphysics of "Mushballs"

| last1=Guillot | first1=Tristan | last2=Stevenson | first2=David J. | last3=Atreya | first3=Sushil K. | last4=Bolton | first4=Scott J. | last5=Becker | first5=Heidi N.|author5-link=Heidi N. Becker

| journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets

| year=2020 | volume=125 | issue=8 | page=e2020JE006403 | doi=10.1029/2020JE006404

| arxiv=2012.14316 | bibcode=2020JGRE..12506403G | s2cid=226194362 }} Upper-atmospheric lightning has been observed in Jupiter's upper atmosphere, bright flashes of light that last around 1.4{{Nbsp}}milliseconds. These are known as "elves" or "sprites" and appear blue or pink due to the hydrogen.{{cite journal

| title=Possible Transient Luminous Events Observed in Jupiter's Upper Atmosphere

| last1=Giles | first1=Rohini S. | last2=Greathouse | first2=Thomas K. | last3=Bonfond | first3=Bertrand | last4=Gladstone | first4=G. Randall | last5=Kammer | first5=Joshua A. | last6=Hue | first6=Vincent | last7=Grodent | first7=Denis C. | last8=Gérard | first8=Jean-Claude | last9=Versteeg | first9=Maarten H. | last10=Wong | first10=Michael H. | last11=Bolton | first11=Scott J. | last12=Connerney | first12=John E. P. | last13=Levin | first13=Steven M.

| journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets

| year=2020 | volume=125 | issue=11 | pages=e06659 | id=e06659

| doi=10.1029/2020JE006659 | arxiv=2010.13740

| bibcode=2020JGRE..12506659G | s2cid=225075904 }}{{cite web | title=Juno Data Indicates 'Sprites' or 'Elves' Frolic in Jupiter's Atmosphere | date=October 27, 2020 | editor-first=Tony | editor-last=Greicius | website=NASA | url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/juno-data-indicates-sprites-or-elves-frolic-in-jupiters-atmosphere | access-date=December 30, 2020 | archive-date=January 27, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127211238/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/juno-data-indicates-sprites-or-elves-frolic-in-jupiters-atmosphere/ | url-status=live }}

The orange and brown colours in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change colour when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are thought to be made up of phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons.{{rp|39}}{{cite conference | last1=Strycker | first1=P. D. | last2=Chanover | first2=N. | last3=Sussman | first3=M. | last4=Simon-Miller | first4=A. |title=A Spectroscopic Search for Jupiter's Chromophores |work=DPS meeting No. 38, #11.15 |publisher=American Astronomical Society |year=2006 |bibcode=2006DPS....38.1115S}} These colourful compounds, known as chromophores, mix with the warmer clouds of the lower deck. The light-coloured zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallising ammonia that hides the chromophores from view.{{cite web | last1=Gierasch | first1=Peter J. | last2=Nicholson | first2=Philip D. |author-link2=Phil Nicholson|year=2004 | url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/jupiter_worldbook.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050105155019/http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/jupiter_worldbook.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=January 5, 2005 | title=Jupiter | publisher=World Book @ NASA | access-date=August 10, 2006 }}

Jupiter has a low axial tilt, thus ensuring that the poles always receive less solar radiation than the planet's equatorial region. Convection within the interior of the planet transports energy to the poles, balancing out temperatures at the cloud layer.{{rp|54}}

File:PIA21775.jpg in true colour. Due to the way Juno takes photographs, the stitched image has extreme barrel distortion.]]

A well-known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot,{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=The Great Red Spot Descends Deep into Jupiter |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/13/science/jupiter-great-red-spot-juno.html |date=December 13, 2017 |work=The New York Times |access-date=December 15, 2017 |archive-date=December 15, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215042159/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/13/science/jupiter-great-red-spot-juno.html |url-status=live }} a persistent anticyclonic storm located 22° south of the equator. It was first observed in 1831,{{cite journal |last=Denning |first=William F. |author-link=William Frederick Denning|title=Jupiter, early history of the great red spot on |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |year=1899 |volume=59 |issue=10 |pages=574–584 |bibcode=1899MNRAS..59..574D |doi=10.1093/mnras/59.10.574|doi-access=free }} and possibly as early as 1665.{{cite journal |last=Kyrala |first=A. |title=An explanation of the persistence of the Great Red Spot of Jupiter |journal=Moon and the Planets |year=1982 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=105–107 |bibcode=1982M&P....26..105K |doi=10.1007/BF00941374|s2cid=121637752 }}{{cite web | url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/28758/28758-h/28758-h.htm | title=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society | editor-first=Henry | editor-last=Oldenburg | volume=1 | date=1665–1666 | publisher=Project Gutenberg | access-date=December 22, 2011 | archive-date=March 4, 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001941/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/28758/28758-h/28758-h.htm | url-status=live }} Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown two more "red spots" adjacent to the Great Red Spot.{{cite web|title=New Red Spot Appears on Jupiter|url=http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2008/23/image/a/|last1=Wong|first1=M.|last2=de Pater|first2=I.|website=HubbleSite|publisher=NASA|date=May 22, 2008|access-date=December 12, 2013|archive-date=December 16, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216055125/http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2008/23/image/a/|url-status=live}}{{cite web|title=Three Red Spots Mix It Up on Jupiter|url=http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2008/27/image/a/|last1=Simon-Miller|first1=A.|last2=Chanover|first2=N.|last3=Orton|first3=G.|website=HubbleSite|publisher=NASA|date=July 17, 2008|access-date=April 26, 2015|archive-date=May 1, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501093610/http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2008/27/image/a/|url-status=live}} The storm is visible through Earth-based telescopes with an aperture of 12 cm or larger.{{cite book |first=Michael A. |last=Covington |date=2002 |title=Celestial Objects for Modern Telescopes |page=[https://archive.org/details/celestialobjects00covi/page/53 53] |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52419-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/celestialobjects00covi/page/53 }} The storm rotates counterclockwise, with a period of about six days.{{cite web | last1=Cardall | first1=C. Y. | last2=Daunt | first2=S. J. | url=http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/jupiter/redspot.html | title=The Great Red Spot | publisher=University of Tennessee | access-date=February 2, 2007 | archive-date=March 31, 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100331125637/http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/jupiter/redspot.html | url-status=live }} The maximum altitude of this storm is about {{convert|8|km|0}} above the surrounding cloud tops.{{cite book | title=Jupiter, the Giant of the Solar System | page=5 | publisher=NASA | date=1979 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KuBYXLt4K9MC&pg=PA5 | access-date=March 19, 2023 | archive-date=March 26, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=KuBYXLt4K9MC&pg=PA5 | url-status=live }} The Spot's composition and the source of its red colour remain uncertain, although photodissociated ammonia reacting with acetylene is a likely explanation.{{cite journal | title=A possibly universal red chromophore for modeling colour variations on Jupiter | last1=Sromovsky | first1=L. A. | last2=Baines | first2=K. H. | last3=Fry | first3=P. M. | last4=Carlson | first4=R. W. | journal=Icarus | volume=291 | pages=232–244 | date=July 2017 | doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2016.12.014 | arxiv=1706.02779 | bibcode=2017Icar..291..232S | s2cid=119036239 }}

The Great Red Spot is larger than the Earth.{{cite news |url=http://space.news/2015-11-25-is-jupiters-great-red-spot-nearing-its-twilight.html |title=Is Jupiter's Great Red Spot nearing its twilight? |work=Space.news |first=Greg |last=White |date=November 25, 2015 |access-date=April 13, 2017 |archive-date=April 14, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170414082402/http://space.news/2015-11-25-is-jupiters-great-red-spot-nearing-its-twilight.html |url-status=live }} Mathematical models suggest that the storm is stable and will be a permanent feature of the planet.{{cite journal |title=Laboratory simulation of Jupiter's Great Red Spot |first1=Jöel |last1=Sommeria |first2=Steven D. |last2=Meyers |first3=Harry L. |last3=Swinney |journal=Nature |volume=331 |issue=6158 |pages=689–693 |date=February 25, 1988 |doi=10.1038/331689a0 |bibcode=1988Natur.331..689S|s2cid=39201626 }} However, it has significantly decreased in size since its discovery. Initial observations in the late 1800s showed it to be approximately {{cvt|25500|mi|km|order=flip}} across. {{As of|2015}}, the storm was measured at approximately {{convert|10250|by|6800|mi|km|order=flip}},{{cite conference |title=Dramatic Change in Jupiter's Great Red Spot |conference=46th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. March 16–20, 2015. The Woodlands, Texas. |first1=Amy A. |last1=Simon | last2=Wong | first2=M. H. | last3=Rogers | first3=J. H. | last4=Orton | first4=G. S. | last5=de Pater | first5=I. | last6=Asay-Davis | first6=X. | last7=Carlson | first7=R. W. | last8=Marcus | first8=P. S. | date=March 2015 |bibcode=2015LPI....46.1010S}} and was decreasing in length by about {{cvt|580|mi|km|order=flip}} per year. In October 2021, a Juno flyby mission measured the depth of the Great Red Spot, putting it at around {{convert|300|-|500|km}}.{{Cite web|last=Grush|first=Loren|date=October 28, 2021|title=NASA's Juno spacecraft finds just how deep Jupiter's Great Red Spot goes|url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/10/28/22749095/nasa-juno-jupiter-great-red-spot-depth|access-date=October 28, 2021|website=The Verge|language=en|archive-date=October 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028212214/https://www.theverge.com/2021/10/28/22749095/nasa-juno-jupiter-great-red-spot-depth|url-status=live}}

Juno missions found several cyclone groups at Jupiter's poles. The northern group contains nine cyclones, with a large one in the centre and eight others around it, while its southern counterpart also consists of a centre vortex but is surrounded by five large storms and a single smaller one for a total of seven storms.{{cite journal| title=Clusters of cyclones encircling Jupiter's poles| last1=Adriani | first1=Alberto | last2=Mura | first2=A. | last3=Orton | first3=G. | last4=Hansen | first4=C. | last5=Altieri | first5=F. | last6=Moriconi | first6=M. L. | last7=Rogers | first7=J. | last8=Eichstädt | first8=G. | last9=Momary | first9=T. | last10=Ingersoll | first10=A. P. | last11=Filacchione | first11=G. | last12=Sindoni | first12=G. | last13=Tabataba-Vakili | first13=F. | last14=Dinelli | first14=B. M. | last15=Fabiano | first15=F. | last16=Bolton | first16=S. J. | last17=Connerney | first17=J. E. P. | last18=Atreya | first18=S. K. | last19=Lunine | first19=J. I. | last20=Tosi | first20=F. | last21=Migliorini | first21=A. | last22=Grassi | first22=D. | last23=Piccioni | first23=G. | last24=Noschese | first24=R. | last25=Cicchetti | first25=A. | last26=Plainaki | first26=C. | last27=Olivieri | first27=A. | last28=O'Neill | first28=M. E. | last29=Turrini | first29=D. | last30=Stefani | first30=S. | last31=Sordini | first31=R. | last32=Amoroso | first32=M. | display-authors=5 | journal=Nature |volume=555 |issue=7695 |pages=216–219|date=March 2018 |doi=10.1038/nature25491 |pmid=29516997 | bibcode=2018Natur.555..216A| s2cid=4438233 }}{{cite web| title=NASA Just Watched a Mass of Cyclones on Jupiter Evolve Into a Mesmerising Hexagon| url=https://www.sciencealert.com/june-watched-a-pentagon-of-storms-on-jupiter-evolve-into-a-hexagon| last=Starr| first=Michelle| date=December 13, 2017| website=Science Alert| access-date=May 26, 2021| archive-date=May 26, 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526205728/https://www.sciencealert.com/june-watched-a-pentagon-of-storms-on-jupiter-evolve-into-a-hexagon| url-status=live}}

In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller. This was created when smaller, white oval-shaped storms merged to form a single feature—these three smaller white ovals were formed in 1939–1940. The merged feature was named Oval BA. It has since increased in intensity and changed from white to red, earning it the nickname "Little Red Spot".{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Steigerwald |date=October 14, 2006 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2006/little_red_spot.html |title=Jupiter's Little Red Spot Growing Stronger |publisher=NASA |access-date=February 2, 2007 |archive-date=April 5, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405155701/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2006/little_red_spot.html |url-status=live }}{{cite journal | title=Vertical structure of Jupiter's Oval BA before and after it reddened: What changed? | last1=Wong | first1=Michael H. | last2=de Pater | first2=Imke | last3=Asay-Davis | first3=Xylar | last4=Marcus | first4=Philip S. | last5=Go | first5=Christopher Y. | journal=Icarus | volume=215 | issue=1 |pages=211–225 | date=September 2011 | doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2011.06.032 | bibcode=2011Icar..215..211W | url=http://cfd.me.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/wong-publlished-1.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://cfd.me.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/wong-publlished-1.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live | access-date=April 27, 2022 }}

In April 2017, a "Great Cold Spot" was discovered in Jupiter's thermosphere at its north pole. This feature is {{cvt|24000|km}} across, {{cvt|12000|km}} wide, and {{convert|200|C-change}} cooler than surrounding material. While this spot changes form and intensity over the short term, it has maintained its general position in the atmosphere for more than 15 years. It may be a giant vortex similar to the Great Red Spot, and appears to be quasi-stable like the vortices in Earth's thermosphere. This feature may be formed by interactions between charged particles generated from Io and the strong magnetic field of Jupiter, resulting in a redistribution of heat flow.{{cite journal |last1=Stallard |first1=Tom S. |last2=Melin |first2=Henrik |last3=Miller |first3=Steve |last4=Moore |first4=Luke |last5=O'Donoghue |first5=James |last6=Connerney |first6=John E. P. |last7=Satoh |first7=Takehiko |last8=West |first8=Robert A. |last9=Thayer |first9=Jeffrey P. |last10=Hsu |first10=Vicki W. |last11=Johnson |first11=Rosie E. |date=April 10, 2017 |title=The Great Cold Spot in Jupiter's upper atmosphere |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=44 |issue=7 |pages=3000–3008 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.3000S |doi=10.1002/2016GL071956 |pmc=5439487 |pmid=28603321}}

{{Main|Magnetosphere of Jupiter}}

{{multiple image

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| image1 = PIA23465-PlanetJupiter-Aurorae-20191001.gif

| caption1 = Aurorae on the north and south poles
(animation)

| image2 = Hubble Captures Vivid Auroras in Jupiter's Atmosphere.jpg

| caption2 = Aurorae on the north pole
(Hubble). False colour image composite.

| image3 = PIA21033 Juno's View of Jupiter's Southern Lights.jpg

| caption3 = Infrared view of southern lights
(Jovian IR Mapper). False colour image.

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Jupiter's magnetic field is the strongest of any planet in the Solar System, with a dipole moment of {{convert|4.170|G|mT|lk=on}} that is tilted at an angle of 10.31° to the pole of rotation. The surface magnetic field strength varies from {{convert|2|G|mT}} up to {{convert|20|G|mT}}.{{Cite journal |last1=Connerney |first1=J. E. P. |last2=Kotsiaros |first2=S. |last3=Oliversen |first3=R. J. |last4=Espley |first4=J. R. |last5=Joergensen |first5=J. L. |last6=Joergensen |first6=P. S. |last7=Merayo |first7=J. M. G. |last8=Herceg |first8=M. |last9=Bloxham |first9=J. |last10=Moore |first10=K. M. |last11=Bolton |first11=S. J. |last12=Levin |first12=S. M. |date=May 26, 2017 |title=A New Model of Jupiter's Magnetic Field From Juno's First Nine Orbits |url=http://orbit.dtu.dk/ws/files/147221632/Connerney_et_al_2018_Geophysical_Research_Letters.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |language=en |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=2590–2596 |bibcode=2018GeoRL..45.2590C |doi=10.1002/2018GL077312 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://orbit.dtu.dk/ws/files/147221632/Connerney_et_al_2018_Geophysical_Research_Letters.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |doi-access=free}} This field is thought to be generated by eddy currents—swirling movements of conducting materials—within the fluid, metallic hydrogen core. At about 75 Jupiter radii from the planet, the interaction of the magnetosphere with the solar wind generates a bow shock. Surrounding Jupiter's magnetosphere is a magnetopause, located at the inner edge of a magnetosheath—a region between it and the bow shock. The solar wind interacts with these regions, elongating the magnetosphere on Jupiter's lee side and extending it outward until it nearly reaches the orbit of Saturn. The four largest moons of Jupiter all orbit within the magnetosphere, which protects them from solar wind.{{rp|69}}

The volcanoes on the moon Io emit large amounts of sulfur dioxide, forming a gas torus along its orbit. The gas is ionized in Jupiter's magnetosphere, producing sulfur and oxygen ions. They, together with hydrogen ions originating from the atmosphere of Jupiter, form a plasma sheet in Jupiter's equatorial plane. The plasma in the sheet co-rotates with the planet, causing deformation of the dipole magnetic field into that of a magnetodisk. Electrons within the plasma sheet generate a strong radio signature, with short, superimposed bursts in the range of 0.6–30 MHz that are detectable from Earth with consumer-grade shortwave radio receivers.{{cite news |last=Brainerd |first=Jim |date=November 22, 2004 |title=Jupiter's Magnetosphere |work=The Astrophysics Spectator |url=http://www.astrophysicsspectator.com/topics/planets/JupiterMagnetosphere.html |access-date=August 10, 2008 |archive-date=January 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125004606/https://www.astrophysicsspectator.com/topics/planets/JupiterMagnetosphere.html}}{{cite web |url=https://radiojove.gsfc.nasa.gov/telescope/rj_receivers.htm |website=NASA |title=Receivers for Radio JOVE |date=March 1, 2017 |access-date=September 9, 2020 |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126034939/https://radiojove.gsfc.nasa.gov/telescope/rj_receivers.htm |url-status=dead}} As Io moves through this torus, the interaction generates Alfvén waves that carry ionized matter into the polar regions of Jupiter. As a result, radio waves are generated through a cyclotron maser mechanism, and the energy is transmitted out along a cone-shaped surface. When Earth intersects this cone, the radio emissions from Jupiter can exceed the radio output of the Sun.{{cite web |date=February 20, 2004 |url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2004/20feb_radiostorms.htm |title=Radio Storms on Jupiter |last1=Phillips |first1=Tony |last2=Horack |first2=John M. |website=NASA |access-date=February 1, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070213220639/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2004/20feb_radiostorms.htm |archive-date=February 13, 2007}}

[[File:Jupiter Showcases Auroras, Hazes (NIRCam Widefield View) (jupiter-auroras2).jpeg|thumb|alt=Image of Jupiter showing its rings, moons amalthea and Adrastea, auroras, and atmospheric features.|James Web Telescope image of Jupiter, taken in Infrared light, reveals its faint rings, along with two moons, Amalthea and Adrastea, auroras, and features of its atmosphere.

]]

{{Main|Rings of Jupiter}}

Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed of three main segments: an inner torus of particles known as the halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring.{{cite journal |last1=Showalter |first1=M. A. |last2=Burns |first2=J. A. |last3=Cuzzi |first3=J. N. |last4=Pollack |first4=J. B. |year=1987 |title=Jupiter's ring system: New results on structure and particle properties |journal=Icarus |volume=69 |issue=3 |pages=458–498 |bibcode=1987Icar...69..458S |doi=10.1016/0019-1035(87)90018-2}} These rings appear to be made of dust, whereas Saturn's rings are made of ice.{{rp|65}} The main ring is most likely made out of material ejected from the satellites Adrastea and Metis, which is drawn into Jupiter because of the planet's strong gravitational influence. New material is added by additional impacts.{{cite journal |last1=Burns |first1=J. A. |last2=Showalter |first2=M. R. |last3=Hamilton |first3=D. P. |last4=Nicholson |first4=P. D. |last5=de Pater |first5=I. |last6=Ockert-Bell |first6=M. E. |last7=Thomas |first7=P. C. |year=1999 |title=The Formation of Jupiter's Faint Rings |journal=Science |volume=284 |issue=5417 |pages=1146–1150 |bibcode=1999Sci...284.1146B |doi=10.1126/science.284.5417.1146 |pmid=10325220 |s2cid=21272762}} In a similar way, the moons Thebe and Amalthea are believed to produce the two distinct components of the dusty gossamer ring. There is evidence of a fourth ring that may consist of collisional debris from Amalthea that is strung along the same moon's orbit.{{cite journal |last1=Fieseler |first1=P. D. |last2=Adams |first2=O. W. |last3=Vandermey |first3=N. |last4=Theilig |first4=E. E. |last5=Schimmels |first5=K. A. |last6=Lewis |first6=G. D. |last7=Ardalan |first7=S. M. |last8=Alexander |first8=C. J. |year=2004 |title=The Galileo Star Scanner Observations at Amalthea |journal=Icarus |volume=169 |issue=2 |pages=390–401 |bibcode=2004Icar..169..390F |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2004.01.012}}

File:Jupiter rotation over 3 hours with 11 inch telescope.gif

Jupiter is the only planet whose barycentre with the Sun lies outside the volume of the Sun, though by 7% of the Sun's radius.{{cite book | last1=Herbst | first1=T. M. | last2=Rix | first2=H.-W. | date=1999 | editor1-last=Guenther | editor1-first=Eike | editor2-last=Stecklum | editor2-first=Bringfried | editor3-last=Klose | editor3-first=Sylvio | chapter=Star Formation and Extrasolar Planet Studies with Near-Infrared Interferometry on the LBT | title=Optical and Infrared Spectroscopy of Circumstellar Matter | series=ASP Conference Series | volume=188 | isbn=978-1-58381-014-9 | pages=341–350 | bibcode=1999ASPC..188..341H | publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific | publication-place=San Francisco, Calif. }} – See section 3.4.{{cite book |page=199|title=Newton's Gravity: An Introductory Guide to the Mechanics of the Universe|last1=MacDougal|first1=Douglas W.|date=December 16, 2012|isbn=978-1-4614-5444-1|publisher=Springer New York}} The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is {{convert|778|e6km|AU|abbr=unit}} and it completes an orbit every 11.86 years. This is approximately two-fifths the orbital period of Saturn, forming a near orbital resonance.{{cite journal | last1=Michtchenko | first1=T. A. | last2=Ferraz-Mello | first2=S. | title=Modeling the 5:2 Mean-Motion Resonance in the Jupiter–Saturn Planetary System | journal=Icarus | date=February 2001 | volume=149 | issue=2 | pages=77–115 | doi=10.1006/icar.2000.6539 | bibcode=2001Icar..149..357M }} The orbital plane of Jupiter is inclined 1.30° compared to Earth. Because the eccentricity of its orbit is 0.049, Jupiter is slightly over 75 million km nearer the Sun at perihelion than aphelion, which means that its orbit is nearly circular. This low eccentricity is at odds with exoplanet discoveries, which have revealed Jupiter-sized planets with very high eccentricities. Models suggest this may be due to there being two giant planets in our Solar System, as the presence of a third or more giant planets tends to induce larger eccentricities.{{cite web|title=Simulations explain giant exoplanets with eccentric, close-in orbits|date=October 30, 2019|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/10/191030132730.htm|publisher=ScienceDaily|access-date=July 17, 2023|archive-date=July 17, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717181409/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/10/191030132730.htm#:~:text=Surprisingly%2C%20the%20planets%20with%20the,budge%20from%20its%20initial%20orbit.|url-status=live}}

The axial tilt of Jupiter is 3.13°, which is relatively small, so its seasons are insignificant compared to those of Earth and Mars.{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/interplanetaryseasons.html |title=Interplanetary Seasons |publisher=Science@NASA |access-date=February 20, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016161443/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/interplanetaryseasons.html |archive-date=October 16, 2007 }}

Jupiter's rotation is the fastest of all the Solar System's planets, completing a rotation on its axis in slightly less than ten hours; this creates an equatorial bulge easily seen through an amateur telescope. Because Jupiter is not a solid body, its upper atmosphere undergoes differential rotation. The rotation of Jupiter's polar atmosphere is about five minutes longer than that of the equatorial atmosphere.{{cite book |last=Ridpath |first=Ian |author-link=Ian Ridpath |title=Norton's Star Atlas |date=1998 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-582-35655-9 |edition=19th}}{{page needed|date=May 2015}} The planet is an oblate spheroid, meaning that the diameter across its equator is longer than the diameter measured between its poles. On Jupiter, the equatorial diameter is {{cvt|9276|km|0}} longer than the polar diameter.

Three systems are used as frames of reference for tracking planetary rotation, particularly when graphing the motion of atmospheric features. System I applies to latitudes from 7° N to 7° S; its period is the planet's shortest, at 9h 50 m 30.0s. System II applies at latitudes north and south of these; its period is 9h 55 m 40.6s.{{cite journal | title=On the rotation of Jupiter | last=Hide | first=R. | journal=Geophysical Journal | volume=64 | pages=283–289 | date=January 1981 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-246X.1981.tb02668.x | bibcode=1981GeoJ...64..283H | doi-access=free }} System III was defined by radio astronomers and corresponds to the rotation of the planet's magnetosphere; its period is Jupiter's official rotation.{{cite journal | title=The rotation period of Jupiter | last1=Russell | first1=C. T. | last2=Yu | first2=Z. J. | last3=Kivelson | first3=M. G. | journal=Geophysical Research Letters | volume=28 | issue=10 | pages=1911–1912 | date=2001 | doi=10.1029/2001GL012917 | bibcode=2001GeoRL..28.1911R | s2cid=119706637 | url=http://www.igpp.ucla.edu/public/mkivelso/Publications/245-2001GL012917.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.igpp.ucla.edu/public/mkivelso/Publications/245-2001GL012917.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live | access-date=April 28, 2022 }}

File:Jupiter-and-its-moons-amateur.jpg

Jupiter is usually the fourth-brightest object in the sky (after the Sun, the Moon, and Venus), although at opposition Mars can appear brighter than Jupiter. Depending on Jupiter's position with respect to the Earth, it can vary in visual magnitude from as bright as −2.94 at opposition down to −1.66 during conjunction with the Sun. The mean apparent magnitude is −2.20 with a standard deviation of 0.33. The angular diameter of Jupiter likewise varies from 50.1 to 30.5 arc seconds. Favourable oppositions occur when Jupiter is passing through the perihelion of its orbit, bringing it closer to Earth.{{cite book|chapter=Appendix 3|title=The giant planet Jupiter|last1=Rogers|first1=John H.|date=July 20, 1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-41008-3}} Near opposition, Jupiter will appear to go into retrograde motion for a period of about 121 days, moving backward through an angle of 9.9° before returning to prograde movement.{{cite book

| title=The Planet Observer's Handbook

| first=Fred W.

| last=Price

| date=October 26, 2000

| page=140

| isbn=978-0-521-78981-3

| publisher=Cambridge University Press

| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GnrAVhVZ3wMC&pg=PA140

| access-date=March 19, 2023

| archive-date=March 26, 2023

| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164802/https://books.google.com/books?id=GnrAVhVZ3wMC&pg=PA140

| url-status=live

}}

Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth, the phase angle of Jupiter as viewed from Earth is always less than 11.5°; thus, Jupiter always appears nearly fully illuminated when viewed through Earth-based telescopes. It was during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that crescent views of the planet were obtained.{{cite book

| title=Pioneer Odyssey

| url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/sp349.htm

| first1=Richard O.

| last1=Fimmel

| first2=William

| last2=Swindell

| first3=Eric

| last3=Burgess

| year=1974

| edition=Revised

| chapter-url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.htm

| chapter=8. Encounter with the Giant

| publisher=NASA History Office

| access-date=February 17, 2007

| archive-date=December 25, 2017

| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225230634/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/sp349.htm

| url-status=live

}} A small telescope will usually show Jupiter's four Galilean moons and the cloud belts across Jupiter's atmosphere. A larger telescope with an aperture of {{convert|4|-|6|in|cm|0|abbr=out}} will show Jupiter's Great Red Spot when it faces Earth.{{cite book | title=Outer Planets | page=47 | first=Glenn F. | last=Chaple | date=2009 | isbn=978-0-313-36571-3 | publisher=ABC-CLIO | series=Greenwood Guides to the Universe | editor1-first=Lauren V. | editor1-last=Jones | editor2-first=Timothy F. | editor2-last=Slater | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6KXACQAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 | access-date=March 19, 2023 | archive-date=March 26, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=6KXACQAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 | url-status=live }}{{cite book

| title=The Sky at Night: How to Read the Solar System

| last1=North | first1=Chris | last2=Abel | first2=Paul

| date=October 31, 2013 | page=183

| publisher=Ebury Publishing | isbn=978-1-4481-4130-2

}}

File:Almagest-planets.svg of the longitudinal motion of Jupiter (☉) relative to Earth (🜨)|upright=1.2]]

Observations of Jupiter are attested with the Babylonian astronomers during the 7th–8th centuries BC.{{Cite journal |title=Babylonian Observational Astronomy |last=Sachs |first=A. |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |volume=276 |issue=1257 |date=May 2, 1974 |pages=43–50 (see p. 44) |jstor=74273 |doi=10.1098/rsta.1974.0008 |bibcode=1974RSPTA.276...43S|s2cid=121539390 }} The ancient Chinese knew Jupiter as the '{{tlit|zh|sui}} star' ({{transliteration|zh|Suìxīng}} {{lang|zh|歲星}}) and established their cycle of twelve earthly branches based on the approximate number of years it takes Jupiter to revolve around the Sun; the Chinese language still uses its name ({{lang|zh|歲}}; simplified as {{lang|zh|岁}}) when referring to years of age. By the 4th century BC, these observations had developed into the Chinese zodiac,{{cite journal |first=Homer H. |last=Dubs |author-link=Homer H. Dubs |title=The Beginnings of Chinese Astronomy |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=78 |number=4 |year=1958 |pages=295–300 |doi=10.2307/595793 |jstor=595793 }} and each year became associated with a Tai Sui star and god controlling the region of the heavens opposite Jupiter's position in the night sky. These beliefs survive in some Taoist and folk religious practices and in the East Asian zodiac's twelve animals. The Chinese historian Xi Zezong has claimed that Gan De, an ancient Chinese astronomer,{{cite book | title=A Guide to Hubble Space Telescope Objects: Their Selection, Location, and Significance | first1=James L. | last1=Chen | first2=Adam | last2=Chen | date=2015 | page=195 | isbn=978-3-319-18872-0 | publisher=Springer International Publishing | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qj0wCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA195 | access-date=March 19, 2023 | archive-date=March 26, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164802/https://books.google.com/books?id=qj0wCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA195 | url-status=live }} reported a small star "in alliance" with the planet,{{cite book | chapter=Facts, Fallacies, Unusual Observations, and Other Miscellaneous Gleanings | title=Weird Astronomy: Tales of Unusual, Bizarre, and Other Hard to Explain Observations | first=David A. J. | last=Seargent | pages=221–282 | isbn=978-1-4419-6424-3 | series=Astronomers' Universe | date=September 24, 2010 }} which may indicate a sighting of one of Jupiter's moons with the unaided eye. If true, this would predate Galileo's discovery by nearly two millennia.{{cite journal |last=Xi |first=Z. Z. |title=The Discovery of Jupiter's Satellite Made by Gan-De 2000 Years Before Galileo |journal=Acta Astrophysica Sinica |year=1981 |volume=1 |issue=2 |page=87 |bibcode=1981AcApS...1...85X}}{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Dong |date=2002 |title=China's Major Mysteries: Paranormal Phenomena and the Unexplained in the People's Republic |publisher=China Books |isbn=978-0-8351-2676-2}}

A 2016 paper reports that trapezoidal rule was used by Babylonians before 50 BC for integrating the velocity of Jupiter along the ecliptic.{{cite journal |last=Ossendrijver |first=Mathieu |date=January 29, 2016 |title=Ancient Babylonian astronomers calculated Jupiter's position from the area under a time-velocity graph |journal=Science |doi=10.1126/science.aad8085 |pmid=26823423 |volume=351 |issue=6272 |pages=482–484 |bibcode=2016Sci...351..482O |s2cid=206644971 |url=https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.aad8085 |access-date=June 30, 2022 |archive-date=August 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801135608/https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.aad8085 |url-status=live }} In his 2nd century work the Almagest, the Hellenistic astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus constructed a geocentric planetary model based on deferents and epicycles to explain Jupiter's motion relative to Earth, giving its orbital period around Earth as 4332.38 days, or 11.86 years.{{cite book |last=Pedersen |first=Olaf |title=A Survey of the Almagest|date=1974 |publisher=Odense University Press |isbn=9788774920878 |pages=423, 428}}

File:Medicean Stars.png|339x339px]]

In 1610, Italian polymath Galileo Galilei discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter (now known as the Galilean moons) using a telescope. This is thought to be the first telescopic observation of moons other than Earth's. Just one day after Galileo, Simon Marius independently discovered moons around Jupiter, though he did not publish his discovery in a book until 1614.{{cite journal | last=Pasachoff | first=Jay M. |title=Simon Marius's Mundus Iovialis: 400th Anniversary in Galileo's Shadow |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |year=2015 |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=218–234 |bibcode=2015AAS...22521505P |doi=10.1177/0021828615585493|s2cid=120470649 }} It was Marius's names for the major moons, however, that stuck: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The discovery was a major point in favour of the heliocentric theory of the motions of the planets by Nicolaus Copernicus; Galileo's outspoken support of the Copernican theory led to him being tried and condemned by the Inquisition.{{cite web | last=Westfall | first=Richard S. | url=http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/galilei_gal.html | title=Galilei, Galileo | work=The Galileo Project | publisher=Rice University | access-date=January 10, 2007 | archive-date=January 23, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123185902/http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/galilei_gal.html | url-status=live }}

In the autumn of 1639, the Neapolitan optician Francesco Fontana tested a 22-palm telescope of his own making and discovered the characteristic bands of the planet's atmosphere.{{cite journal | first1=Paolo | last1=Del Santo | first2=Leo S. | last2=Olschki | title=On an Unpublished Letter of Francesco Fontana to the Grand-Duke of Tuscany Ferdinand II de' Medici | journal=Galilæana: Journal of Galilean Studies | volume=VI | year=2009 | pages=1000–1017 | url=https://www.torrossa.com/en/resources/an/2242254 | access-date=November 14, 2023 | archive-date=November 15, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231115042550/https://www.torrossa.com/en/resources/an/2242254 | url-status=live }} {{URL| 1=https://bibdig.museogalileo.it/tecanew/opera?bid=917416_6&seq=246} | 2=Alternate URL }}

During the 1660s, Giovanni Cassini used a new telescope to discover spots in Jupiter's atmosphere, observe that the planet appeared oblate, and estimate its rotation period.{{cite web | last1=O'Connor | first1=J. J. | last2=Robertson | first2=E. F. | date=April 2003 | url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Cassini.html | title=Giovanni Domenico Cassini | publisher=University of St. Andrews | access-date=February 14, 2007 | archive-date=July 7, 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707025018/http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Cassini.html | url-status=live }} In 1692, Cassini noticed that the atmosphere undergoes a differential rotation.{{cite journal

| title=The Galileo probe Doppler wind experiment: Measurement of the deep zonal winds on Jupiter

| last1=Atkinson | first1=David H. | last2=Pollack | first2=James B. | last3=Seiff | first3=Alvin

| journal=Journal of Geophysical Research

| volume=103 | issue=E10 | pages=22911–22928 | date=September 1998

| doi=10.1029/98JE00060 | bibcode=1998JGR...10322911A | doi-access=free }}

The Great Red Spot may have been observed as early as 1664 by Robert Hooke and in 1665 by Cassini, although this is disputed. The pharmacist Heinrich Schwabe produced the earliest known drawing to show details of the Great Red Spot in 1831.{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Murdin |date=2000 |title=Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics |publisher=Institute of Physics Publishing |location=Bristol |isbn=978-0-12-226690-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0000unse_w5z7 }} The Red Spot was reportedly lost from sight on several occasions between 1665 and 1708 before becoming quite conspicuous in 1878.{{cite book

| title=The giant planet Jupiter

| first=John H.

| last=Rogers

| date=1995

| pages=188–189

| isbn=978-0-521-41008-3

| publisher=Cambridge University Press

| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SO48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA188

| access-date=March 19, 2023

| archive-date=March 26, 2023

| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=SO48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA188

| url-status=live

}} It was recorded as fading again in 1883 and at the start of the 20th century.{{cite book | edition=Revised | first1=Richard O. | last1=Fimmel | first2=William | last2=Swindell | first3=Eric | last3=Burgess | date=August 1974 | chapter-url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch1.htm | chapter=Jupiter, Giant of the Solar System | title=Pioneer Odyssey | publisher=NASA History Office | access-date=August 10, 2006 | archive-date=August 23, 2006 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060823034429/http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch1.htm | url-status=live }}

Both Giovanni Borelli and Cassini made careful tables of the motions of Jupiter's moons, which allowed predictions of when the moons would pass before or behind the planet. By the 1670s, Cassini observed that when Jupiter was on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth, these events would occur about 17 minutes later than expected. Ole Rømer deduced that light does not travel instantaneously (a conclusion that Cassini had earlier rejected), and this timing discrepancy was used to estimate the speed of light.{{cite web | first=Kevin | last=Brown | date=2004 | url=http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath203/kmath203.htm | title=Roemer's Hypothesis | publisher=MathPages | access-date=January 12, 2007 | archive-date=September 6, 2012 | archive-url=https://archive.today/20120906031735/http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath203/kmath203.htm | url-status=live }}{{cite journal

| title=Cassini, Rømer, and the velocity of light

| last1=Bobis | first1=Laurence | last2=Lequeux | first2=James

| journal=Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage

| volume=11 | issue=2 | pages=97–105

| date=July 2008 | doi=10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2008.02.02 | bibcode=2008JAHH...11...97B | s2cid=115455540 }}

In 1892, E. E. Barnard observed a fifth satellite of Jupiter with the {{convert|36|in|adj=on}} refractor at Lick Observatory in California. This moon was later named Amalthea.{{cite web |first=Joe |last=Tenn |date=March 10, 2006 |url=http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/BruceMedalists/Barnard/ |title=Edward Emerson Barnard |publisher=Sonoma State University |access-date=January 10, 2007 |archive-date=September 17, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917023559/http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/BruceMedalists/Barnard/ |url-status=dead }} It was the last planetary moon to be discovered directly by a visual observer through a telescope.{{cite web |date=October 1, 2001 |url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/education/teacherres-amalthea.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011124022331/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/education/teacherres-amalthea.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 24, 2001 |title=Amalthea Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA/JPL |access-date=February 21, 2007}} An additional eight satellites were discovered before the flyby of the Voyager 1 probe in 1979.{{refn |group=lower-alpha |See Moons of Jupiter for details and cites}}

In 1932, Rupert Wildt identified absorption bands of ammonia and methane in the spectra of Jupiter.{{cite journal |last=Dunham |first=Theodore Jr. |year=1933 |title=Note on the Spectra of Jupiter and Saturn |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific |volume=45 |issue=263 |pages=42–44 |bibcode=1933PASP...45...42D |doi=10.1086/124297 |doi-access=free}} Three long-lived anticyclonic features called "white ovals" were observed in 1938. For several decades, they remained as separate features in the atmosphere that approach each other but never merge. Finally, two of the ovals merged in 1998, then absorbed the third in 2000, becoming Oval BA.{{cite journal | last1=Youssef | first1=A. | last2=Marcus | first2=P. S. | title=The dynamics of jovian white ovals from formation to merger | journal=Icarus | year=2003 | volume=162 | issue=1 | pages=74–93 | bibcode=2003Icar..162...74Y | doi=10.1016/S0019-1035(02)00060-X }}

In 1955, Bernard Burke and Kenneth Franklin discovered that Jupiter emits bursts of radio waves at a frequency of 22.2 MHz.{{rp|36}} The period of these bursts matched the rotation of the planet, and they used this information to determine a more precise value for Jupiter's rotation rate. Radio bursts from Jupiter were found to come in two forms: long bursts (or L-bursts) lasting up to several seconds, and short bursts (or S-bursts) lasting less than a hundredth of a second.{{cite web |last=Weintraub |first=Rachel A. |date=September 26, 2005 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/radio_jupiter.html |title=How One Night in a Field Changed Astronomy |publisher=NASA |access-date=February 18, 2007 |archive-date=July 3, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703080812/http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/radio_jupiter.html |url-status=dead }}

Scientists have discovered three forms of radio signals transmitted from Jupiter:

• Decametric radio bursts (with a wavelength of tens of metres) vary with the rotation of Jupiter, and are influenced by the interaction of Io with Jupiter's magnetic field.{{cite web |last=Garcia |first=Leonard N |url=http://radiojove.gsfc.nasa.gov/library/sci_briefs/decametric.htm |title=The Jovian Decametric Radio Emission |publisher=NASA |access-date=February 18, 2007 |archive-date=March 2, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302222737/http://radiojove.gsfc.nasa.gov/library/sci_briefs/decametric.htm |url-status=live }}
• Decimetric radio emission (with wavelengths measured in centimetres) was first observed by Frank Drake and Hein Hvatum in 1959.{{rp|36}} The origin of this signal is a torus-shaped belt around Jupiter's equator, which generates cyclotron radiation from electrons that are accelerated in Jupiter's magnetic field.{{cite journal | last1=Klein | first1=M. J. | last2=Gulkis | first2=S. | last3=Bolton | first3=S. J. | year=1996 | url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20060036302 | title=Jupiter's Synchrotron Radiation: Observed Variations Before, During and After the Impacts of Comet SL9 | journal=Conference at University of Graz | page=217 | publisher=NASA | access-date=February 18, 2007 | bibcode=1997pre4.conf..217K | archive-date=November 17, 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117143101/http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20060036302 | url-status=live }}
• Thermal radiation is produced by heat in the atmosphere of Jupiter.{{rp|43}}

{{Main|Exploration of Jupiter}}

Jupiter has been visited by automated spacecraft since 1973, when the space probe Pioneer 10 passed close enough to Jupiter to send back revelations about its properties and phenomena.{{cite web | url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/missions/archive/pioneer.html | title=The Pioneer Missions | publisher=NASA | date=March 26, 2007 | access-date=February 26, 2021 | archive-date=December 23, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181223151213/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/missions/archive/pioneer.html | url-status=live }}{{cite web | title=NASA Glenn Pioneer Launch History | date=March 7, 2003 | url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/history/pioneer.html | publisher=NASA – Glenn Research Center | access-date=December 22, 2011 | archive-date=July 13, 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713041117/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/history/pioneer.html | url-status=dead }} Missions to Jupiter are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, or delta-v. Entering a Hohmann transfer orbit from Earth to Jupiter from low Earth orbit requires a delta-v of 6.3 km/s,{{cite book | last1=Fortescue | first1=Peter W. | last2=Stark | first2=John | last3=Swinerd | first3=Graham | title=Spacecraft systems engineering | edition=3rd | publisher=John Wiley and Sons | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-470-85102-9 | page=150 }} which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to reach low Earth orbit.{{cite web

| last=Hirata | first=Chris

| url=http://www.pma.caltech.edu/~chirata/deltav.html

| title=Delta-V in the Solar System

| publisher=California Institute of Technology |access-date=November 28, 2006

| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060715015836/http://www.pma.caltech.edu/~chirata/deltav.html

| archive-date=July 15, 2006 |url-status=dead

}} Gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy required to reach Jupiter.{{cite web |last=Wong |first=Al |date=May 28, 1998 |url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/faqnav.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970105184300/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/faqnav.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 5, 1997 |title=Galileo FAQ: Navigation |publisher=NASA |access-date=November 28, 2006}}

Beginning in 1973, several spacecraft performed planetary flyby manoeuvres that brought them within the observation range of Jupiter. The Pioneer missions obtained the first close-up images of Jupiter's atmosphere and several of its moons. They discovered that the radiation fields near the planet were much stronger than expected, but both spacecraft managed to survive in that environment. The trajectories of these spacecraft were used to refine the mass estimates of the Jovian system. Radio occultations by the planet resulted in better measurements of Jupiter's diameter and the amount of polar flattening.{{rp|47}}{{cite web |last=Lasher |first=Lawrence |date=August 1, 2006 |url=http://spaceprojects.arc.nasa.gov/Space_Projects/pioneer/PNhome.html |title=Pioneer Project Home Page |publisher=NASA Space Projects Division |access-date=November 28, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060101001205/http://spaceprojects.arc.nasa.gov/Space_Projects/pioneer/PNhome.html |archive-date=January 1, 2006 }}

Six years later, the Voyager missions vastly improved the understanding of the Galilean moons and discovered Jupiter's rings. They also confirmed that the Great Red Spot was anticyclonic. Comparison of images showed that the Spot had changed hues since the Pioneer missions, turning from orange to dark brown. A torus of ionized atoms was discovered along Io's orbital path, which were found to come from erupting volcanoes on the moon's surface. As the spacecraft passed behind the planet, it observed flashes of lightning in the night side atmosphere.{{rp|87}}{{cite web |date=January 14, 2003 |url=http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/jupiter.html |title=Jupiter |publisher=NASA/JPL |access-date=November 28, 2006 |archive-date=June 28, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120628073053/http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/jupiter.html |url-status=live }}

The next mission to encounter Jupiter was the Ulysses solar probe. In February 1992, it performed a flyby manoeuvre to attain a polar orbit around the Sun. During this pass, the spacecraft studied Jupiter's magnetosphere, although it had no cameras to photograph the planet. The spacecraft passed by Jupiter six years later, this time at a much greater distance.{{Cite book | last1=Chan | first1=K. | title=Space OPS 2004 Conference | last2=Paredes | first2=E. S. | last3=Ryne | first3=M. S. | date=2004 | publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics | doi=10.2514/6.2004-650-447 | chapter=Ulysses Attitude and Orbit Operations: 13+ Years of International Cooperation }}

In 2000, the Cassini probe flew by Jupiter on its way to Saturn, and provided higher-resolution images.{{cite journal | last1=Hansen | first1=C. J. | last2=Bolton | first2=S. J. | last3=Matson | first3=D. L. | last4=Spilker | first4=L. J. | last5=Lebreton | first5=J.-P. |title=The Cassini–Huygens flyby of Jupiter |bibcode=2004Icar..172....1H |journal=Icarus |year=2004 |volume=172 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2004.06.018}}

The New Horizons probe flew by Jupiter in 2007 for a gravity assist en route to Pluto.{{cite web | url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/newhorizons/news/nh_jupiter_oct09.html | date=October 9, 2007 | publisher=NASA | title=Pluto-Bound New Horizons Sees Changes in Jupiter System | access-date=February 26, 2021 | archive-date=November 27, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127014401/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/newhorizons/news/nh_jupiter_oct09.html | url-status=dead }} The probe's cameras measured plasma output from volcanoes on Io and studied all four Galilean moons in detail.{{cite web | url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/newhorizons/news/jupiter_system.html | title=Pluto-Bound New Horizons Provides New Look at Jupiter System | date=May 1, 2007 | publisher=NASA | access-date=July 27, 2007 | archive-date=December 12, 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101212052748/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/newhorizons/news/jupiter_system.html | url-status=dead }}

{{Main|Galileo (spacecraft)}}

File:Galileo Preparations - GPN-2000-000672.jpg

The first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter was the Galileo mission, which reached the planet on December 7, 1995. It remained in orbit for over seven years, conducting multiple flybys of all the Galilean moons and Amalthea. The spacecraft also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 when it collided with Jupiter in 1994. Some of the goals for the mission were thwarted due to a malfunction in Galileos high-gain antenna.{{cite web |last=McConnell |first=Shannon |date=April 14, 2003 |url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041103173530/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/galileo/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 3, 2004 |title=Galileo: Journey to Jupiter |publisher=NASA/JPL |access-date=November 28, 2006}}

A 340-kilogram titanium atmospheric probe was released from the spacecraft in July 1995, entering Jupiter's atmosphere on December 7. It parachuted through {{cvt|150|km|0}} of the atmosphere at a speed of about {{cvt|2575|kph}} and collected data for 57.6 minutes until the spacecraft was destroyed.{{cite web |first=Julio |last=Magalhães |date=December 10, 1996 |url=http://spaceprojects.arc.nasa.gov/Space_Projects/galileo_probe/htmls/probe_events.html |title=Galileo Probe Mission Events |publisher=NASA Space Projects Division |access-date=February 2, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070102143553/http://spaceprojects.arc.nasa.gov/Space_Projects/galileo_probe/htmls/probe_events.html |archive-date=January 2, 2007 }} The Galileo orbiter itself experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it was deliberately steered into the planet on September 21, 2003. NASA destroyed the spacecraft to avoid any possibility of the spacecraft crashing into and possibly contaminating the moon Europa, which may harbour life.

Data from this mission revealed that hydrogen composes up to 90% of Jupiter's atmosphere. The recorded temperature was more than {{Convert|300|C}}, and the wind speed measured more than 644 km/h (>400 mph) before the probes vaporized.

{{Main|Juno (spacecraft)}}

File:Juno prepared for rotation test stand.jpg

NASA's Juno mission arrived at Jupiter on July 4, 2016, with the goal of studying the planet in detail from a polar orbit. The spacecraft was originally intended to orbit Jupiter thirty-seven times over a period of twenty months.{{cite web | first=Anthony | last=Goodeill | date=March 31, 2008 | url=http://newfrontiers.nasa.gov/missions_juno.html | title=New Frontiers – Missions – Juno | publisher=NASA | access-date=January 2, 2007 | url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203235637/http://newfrontiers.nasa.gov/missions_juno.html | archive-date=February 3, 2007 }}{{cite web

| title=Juno, NASA's Jupiter probe

| publisher=The Planetary Society

| url=https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/juno

| access-date=April 27, 2022

| archive-date=May 12, 2022

| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512174710/https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/juno

| url-status=live

}} During the mission, the spacecraft will be exposed to high levels of radiation from Jupiter's magnetosphere, which may cause the failure of certain instruments.{{cite web | title=NASA's Juno spacecraft to risk Jupiter's fireworks for science | author=Jet Propulsion Laboratory | date=June 17, 2016 | website=phys.org | url=https://phys.org/news/2016-06-nasa-juno-spacecraft-jupiter-fireworks.html | access-date=April 10, 2022 | archive-date=August 9, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809222951/https://phys.org/news/2016-06-nasa-juno-spacecraft-jupiter-fireworks.html | url-status=live }} On August 27, 2016, the spacecraft completed its first flyby of Jupiter and sent back the first-ever images of Jupiter's north pole.{{cite web |first=Niall |last=Firth |date=September 5, 2016 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2104558-nasas-juno-probe-snaps-first-images-of-jupiters-north-pole/ |title=NASA's Juno probe snaps first images of Jupiter's north pole |work=New Scientist |access-date=September 5, 2016 |archive-date=September 6, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160906173136/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2104558-nasas-juno-probe-snaps-first-images-of-jupiters-north-pole/ |url-status=live }}

Juno completed 12 orbits before the end of its budgeted mission plan, ending in July 2018.{{cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2017/02/21/nasas-juno-spacecraft-to-remain-in-current-orbit-around-jupiter/|title=NASA's Juno spacecraft to remain in current orbit around Jupiter|publisher=Spaceflight Now|first=Stephen|last=Clark|date=February 21, 2017|access-date=April 26, 2017|archive-date=February 26, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226211013/http://spaceflightnow.com/2017/02/21/nasas-juno-spacecraft-to-remain-in-current-orbit-around-jupiter/|url-status=live}} In June of that year, NASA extended the mission operations plan to July 2021, and in January of that year the mission was extended to September 2025 with four lunar flybys: one of Ganymede, one of Europa, and two of Io.{{cite web |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2018-130 |title=NASA Re-plans Juno's Jupiter Mission |publisher=NASA/JPL |first1=D. C. |last1=Agle |first2=JoAnna |last2=Wendel |first3=Deb |last3=Schmid |date=June 6, 2018 |access-date=January 5, 2019 |archive-date=July 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724112957/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2018-130 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web|last=Talbert|first=Tricia|date=January 8, 2021|title=NASA Extends Exploration for Two Planetary Science Missions|url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-extends-exploration-for-two-planetary-science-missions|access-date=January 11, 2021|website=NASA|archive-date=January 11, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111161636/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-extends-exploration-for-two-planetary-science-missions/|url-status=live}} When Juno reaches the end of the mission, it will perform a controlled deorbit and disintegrate into Jupiter's atmosphere to avoid the risk of colliding and contaminating Jupiter's moons.{{cite news |url=http://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-news/juno-stay-current-orbit-jupiter/ |title=Juno Will Stay in Current Orbit Around Jupiter |work=Sky & Telescope |first=David |last=Dickinson |date=February 21, 2017 |access-date=January 7, 2018 |archive-date=January 8, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108063357/http://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-news/juno-stay-current-orbit-jupiter/ |url-status=live }}

There is an interest in missions to study Jupiter's larger icy moons, which may have subsurface liquid oceans.{{Cite web |last=Sori |first=Mike |title=Jupiter's moons hide giant subsurface oceans – two missions are sending spacecraft to see if these moons could support life |url=http://theconversation.com/jupiters-moons-hide-giant-subsurface-oceans-two-missions-are-sending-spacecraft-to-see-if-these-moons-could-support-life-203207 |access-date=May 12, 2023 |website=The Conversation |date=April 10, 2023 |language=en |archive-date=May 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512042246/http://theconversation.com/jupiters-moons-hide-giant-subsurface-oceans-two-missions-are-sending-spacecraft-to-see-if-these-moons-could-support-life-203207 |url-status=live }} Funding difficulties have delayed progress, causing NASA's JIMO (Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter) to be cancelled in 2005.{{cite news |first=Brian |last=Berger |title=White House scales back space plans |publisher=MSNBC |date=February 7, 2005 |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/6928404/ |access-date=January 2, 2007 |archive-date=October 29, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029210930/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/6928404/ |url-status=dead }} A subsequent proposal was developed for a joint NASA/ESA mission called EJSM/Laplace, with a provisional launch date around 2020. EJSM/Laplace would have consisted of the NASA-led Jupiter Europa Orbiter and the ESA-led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter.{{cite web |url=http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/area/index.cfm?fareaid=107 |title=Laplace: A mission to Europa & Jupiter system |publisher=European Space Agency |access-date=January 23, 2009 |archive-date=July 14, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120714200604/http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/area/index.cfm?fareaid=107 |url-status=live }} However, the ESA formally ended the partnership in April 2011, citing budget issues at NASA and the consequences on the mission timetable. Instead, ESA planned to go ahead with a European-only mission to compete in its L1 Cosmic Vision selection.{{cite web|url=http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=48661|title=New approach for L-class mission candidates|publisher=European Space Agency|date=April 19, 2011|last1=Favata|first1=Fabio|access-date=May 2, 2012|archive-date=April 2, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402143829/http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=48661|url-status=live}} These plans have been realized as the European Space Agency's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE), launched on April 14, 2023,{{Cite news|date=April 14, 2023|title=European Space Agency: Blast off for Jupiter icy moons mission|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-65273857|access-date=April 14, 2023|archive-date=April 14, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414114037/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-65273857|url-status=live}} followed by NASA's Europa Clipper mission, launched on October 14, 2024.{{cite web|last=Foust|first=Jeff|url=https://spacenews.com/cost-growth-prompts-changes-to-europa-clipper-instruments/|title=Cost growth prompts changes to Europa Clipper instruments|work=Space News|date=July 10, 2020|access-date=July 10, 2020|archive-date=September 29, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929074855/https://spacenews.com/cost-growth-prompts-changes-to-europa-clipper-instruments/|url-status=live}}

Other proposed missions include the Chinese National Space Administration's Tianwen-4 mission which aims to launch an orbiter to the Jovian system and possibly Callisto around 2035,{{cite news

| title=Jupiter Mission by China Could Include Callisto Landing

| first=Andrew

| last=Jones

| date=January 12, 2021

| publisher=The Planetary Society

| url=https://www.planetary.org/articles/jupiter-mission-callisto-landing

| access-date=April 27, 2020

| archive-date=April 27, 2021

| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427053454/https://www.planetary.org/articles/jupiter-mission-callisto-landing

| url-status=live

}} and CNSA's Interstellar Express{{cite news

| title=China to launch a pair of spacecraft towards the edge of the solar system

| first=Andrew

| last=Jones

| date=April 16, 2021

| work=Space News

| url=https://spacenews.com/china-to-launch-a-pair-of-spacecraft-towards-the-edge-of-the-solar-system/

| access-date=April 27, 2020

| archive-date=May 15, 2021

| archive-url=https://archive.today/20210515103459/https://spacenews.com/china-to-launch-a-pair-of-spacecraft-towards-the-edge-of-the-solar-system/

| url-status=live

}} and NASA's Interstellar Probe,{{cite web

| first=Lee

| last=Billings

| date=November 12, 2019

| website=Scientific American

| title=Proposed Interstellar Mission Reaches for the Stars, One Generation at a Time

| url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/proposed-interstellar-mission-reaches-for-the-stars-one-generation-at-a-time1/

| access-date=April 27, 2020

| archive-date=July 25, 2021

| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725054502/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/proposed-interstellar-mission-reaches-for-the-stars-one-generation-at-a-time1/

| url-status=live

}} which would both use Jupiter's gravity to help them reach the edges of the heliosphere.

{{Main|Moons of Jupiter}}

{{See also|Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moons|Satellite system (astronomy)}}

Jupiter has 95 known natural satellites,{{cite news |title = Astronomers Find a Dozen More Moons for Jupiter |url = https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/astronomers-find-a-dozen-more-moons-for-jupiter/ |first = Jeff |last = Hecht |work = Sky & Telescope |date = January 31, 2023 |access-date = February 1, 2023 |archive-date = January 31, 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230131223232/https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/astronomers-find-a-dozen-more-moons-for-jupiter/ |url-status = live}} and it is likely that this number would go up due to improved instrumentation.{{Cite web |last=Greenfieldboyce |first=Nell |date=February 9, 2023 |title=Here's why Jupiter's tally of moons keeps going up and up |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/02/09/1155425572/heres-why-jupiters-tally-of-moons-keeps-going-up-and-up |website=NPR |access-date=March 29, 2023 |archive-date=March 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305203115/https://www.npr.org/2023/02/09/1155425572/heres-why-jupiters-tally-of-moons-keeps-going-up-and-up |url-status=live }} Of these, 79 are less than 10 km in diameter. The four largest moons, known as the Galilean moons, are Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa (in order of decreasing size), and are visible from Earth with binoculars on a clear night.{{cite book|title=A Stargazing Program for Beginners|page=104|year=2015|last1=Carter|first1=Jamie|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-319-22072-7}}

{{Main|Galilean moons}}

The moons discovered by Galileo—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—are among the largest in the Solar System. The orbits of Io, Europa, and Ganymede form a pattern known as a Laplace resonance; for every four orbits that Io makes around Jupiter, Europa makes exactly two orbits and Ganymede makes exactly one. This resonance causes the gravitational effects of the three large moons to distort their orbits into elliptical shapes, because each moon receives an extra tug from its neighbours at the same point in every orbit it makes. The tidal force from Jupiter, on the other hand, works to circularize their orbits.{{cite journal | last1=Musotto | first1=S. | last2=Varadi | first2=F. | last3=Moore | first3=W. B. | last4=Schubert | first4=G. |title=Numerical simulations of the orbits of the Galilean satellites |url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=13969974 |journal=Icarus |year=2002 |volume=159 |issue=2 |pages=500–504 |doi=10.1006/icar.2002.6939 |bibcode=2002Icar..159..500M |access-date=February 19, 2007 |archive-date=August 10, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810071532/http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=13969974 |url-status=dead }}

The eccentricity of their orbits causes regular flexing of the three moons' shapes, with Jupiter's gravity stretching them out as they approach it and allowing them to spring back to more spherical shapes as they swing away. The friction created by this tidal flexing generates heat in the interior of the moons.{{cite book|page=304|title=The Cambridge Guide to the Solar System|date=March 3, 2011|last1=Lang|first1=Kenneth R.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-49417-5}} This is seen most dramatically in the volcanic activity of Io (which is subject to the strongest tidal forces), and to a lesser degree in the geological youth of Europa's surface, which indicates recent resurfacing of the moon's exterior.{{cite book|page=446|title=Encyclopedia of the Solar System|year=2006|last1=McFadden|first1=Lucy-Ann|last2=Weissmann|first2=Paul|last3=Johnson|first3=Torrence|publisher=Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-08-047498-4}}

|-

| File:The Galilean satellites (the four largest moons of Jupiter).tif, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto.]]

|-

| style="font-size:0.9em; text-align:center;" | The Galilean satellites Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto (in order of increasing distance from Jupiter) in false colour

|}

Jupiter's moons were classified into four groups of four, based on their similar orbital elements.{{cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0019103581901512|title=Derivation of the collision probability between orbiting objects: the lifetimes of jupiter's outer moons|date=October 1981|volume=48|issue=1|last1=Kessler|first1=Donald J.|journal=Icarus|pages=39–48|doi=10.1016/0019-1035(81)90151-2|bibcode=1981Icar...48...39K|s2cid=122395249 |access-date=December 30, 2020|archive-date=September 29, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929074926/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0019103581901512|url-status=live}} This picture has been complicated by the discovery of numerous small outer moons since 1999. Jupiter's moons are divided into several different groups, although there are two known moons which are not part of any group (Themisto and Valetudo).{{cite book|page=14|title=Moons of the Solar System|year=2013|last1=Hamilton|first1=Thomas W. M.|publisher=SPBRA|isbn=978-1-62516-175-8}}

The eight innermost regular moons, which have nearly circular orbits near the plane of Jupiter's equator, are thought to have formed alongside Jupiter, while the remainder are irregular moons and are thought to be captured asteroids or fragments of captured asteroids. The irregular moons within each group may have a common origin, perhaps as a larger moon or captured body that broke up.{{cite book | last1=Jewitt | first1=D. C. | last2=Sheppard | first2=S. | last3=Porco | first3=C. | editor1-last=Bagenal | editor1-first=F. | editor2-last=Dowling | editor2-first=T. | editor3-last=McKinnon | editor3-first=W. | date=2004 | title=Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-81808-7 | url=http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/~jewitt/papers/JUPITER/JSP.2003.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326065151/http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/~jewitt/papers/JUPITER/JSP.2003.pdf | archive-date=March 26, 2009 }}{{cite journal | last1=Nesvorný | first1=D. | last2=Alvarellos | first2=J. L. A. | last3=Dones | first3=L. | last4=Levison | first4=H. F. | title=Orbital and Collisional Evolution of the Irregular Satellites | journal=The Astronomical Journal | year=2003 | volume=126 | issue=1 | pages=398–429 | bibcode=2003AJ....126..398N | doi=10.1086/375461 | s2cid=8502734 | url=http://www.boulder.swri.edu/%7Edavidn/papers/irrbig.pdf | access-date=August 25, 2019 | archive-date=August 1, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801203200/https://www.boulder.swri.edu/~davidn/papers/irrbig.pdf | url-status=live }}

As the most massive of the eight planets, the gravitational influence of Jupiter has helped shape the Solar System. With the exception of Mercury, the orbits of the system's planets lie closer to Jupiter's orbital plane than the Sun's equatorial plane. The Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt are mostly caused by Jupiter,{{cite conference | title=Kirkwood Gaps and Resonant Groups | last=Ferraz-Mello | first=S. | conference=Asteroids, Comets, Meteors 1993: Proceedings of the 160th Symposium of the International Astronomical Union, held in Belgirate, Italy, June 14–18, 1993, International Astronomical Union. Symposium no. 160 | editor1-first=Andrea | editor1-last=Milani | editor2-first=Michel | editor2-last=Di Martino | editor3-first=A. | editor3-last=Cellino | publication-place=Dordrecht | publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers | page=175 | date=1994 | bibcode=1994IAUS..160..175F }} and the planet may have been responsible for the Late Heavy Bombardment in the inner Solar System's history.{{cite journal | last=Kerr | first=Richard A. | title=Did Jupiter and Saturn Team Up to Pummel the Inner Solar System? | journal=Science | year=2004 | volume=306 | issue=5702 | page=1676 | doi=10.1126/science.306.5702.1676a | pmid=15576586| s2cid=129180312 }}

In addition to its moons, Jupiter's gravitational field controls numerous asteroids that have settled around the Lagrangian points that precede and follow the planet in its orbit around the Sun. These are known as the Trojan asteroids, and are divided into Greek and Trojan "camps" to honour the Iliad. The first of these, 588 Achilles, was discovered by Max Wolf in 1906; since then more than two thousand have been discovered.{{cite web |url=http://www.minorplanetcenter.org/iau/lists/JupiterTrojans.html |title=List Of Jupiter Trojans |access-date=October 24, 2010 |work=IAU Minor Planet Center |archive-date=July 25, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725080850/http://www.minorplanetcenter.org/iau/lists/JupiterTrojans.html |url-status=live }} The largest is 624 Hektor.{{cite journal | bibcode=2000DPS....32.1901C | title=Trojan Asteroid 624 Hektor: Constraints on Surface Composition | last1=Cruikshank | first1=D. P. | last2=Dalle Ore | first2=C. M. |author2-link=Cristina Dalle Ore| last3=Geballe | first3=T. R. | last4=Roush | first4=T. L. | last5=Owen | first5=T. C. | last6=Cash | first6=Michele | last7=de Bergh | first7=C. | last8=Hartmann | first8=W. K. | date=October 2000 | journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society | volume=32 | page=1027 }}

The Jupiter family is defined as comets that have a semi-major axis smaller than Jupiter's; most short-period comets belong to this group. Members of the Jupiter family are thought to form in the Kuiper belt outside the orbit of Neptune. During close encounters with Jupiter, they are perturbed into orbits with a smaller period, which then becomes circularized by regular gravitational interactions with the Sun and Jupiter.{{cite journal | last1=Quinn | first1=T. | last2=Tremaine | first2=S. | last3=Duncan | first3=M. | title=Planetary perturbations and the origins of short-period comets | journal=Astrophysical Journal, Part 1 | year=1990 | volume=355 | pages=667–679 | bibcode=1990ApJ...355..667Q | doi=10.1086/168800 | doi-access=free }}

{{Main|Impact events on Jupiter}}

File:Jupiter showing SL9 impact sites.jpg's impact sites on Jupiter]]

Jupiter has been called the Solar System's vacuum cleaner{{cite news | title=Caught in the act: Fireballs light up Jupiter | work=ScienceDaily | date=September 10, 2010 | url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/09/100909212309.htm | access-date=April 26, 2022 | archive-date=April 27, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427013242/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/09/100909212309.htm | url-status=live }} because of its immense gravity well and location near the inner Solar System. There are more impacts on Jupiter, such as comets, than on any other planet in the Solar System.{{cite journal | last1=Nakamura | first1=T. | last2=Kurahashi | first2=H. | title=Collisional Probability of Periodic Comets with the Terrestrial Planets: An Invalid Case of Analytic Formulation | journal=Astronomical Journal | year=1998 | volume=115 | issue=2 | pages=848–854 | doi=10.1086/300206 | bibcode=1998AJ....115..848N | doi-access=free }} For example, Jupiter experiences about 200 times more asteroid and comet impacts than Earth. Scientists used to believe that Jupiter partially shielded the inner system from cometary bombardment. However, computer simulations in 2008 suggest that Jupiter does not cause a net decrease in the number of comets that pass through the inner Solar System, as its gravity perturbs their orbits inward roughly as often as it accretes or ejects them.{{cite journal | last1=Horner | first1=J. | last2=Jones | first2=B. W. | year=2008 | title=Jupiter – friend or foe? I: the asteroids. | journal=International Journal of Astrobiology | volume=7 | issue=3–4 | pages=251–261 | doi=10.1017/S1473550408004187 | arxiv=0806.2795 | bibcode=2008IJAsB...7..251H| s2cid=8870726 }} This topic remains controversial among scientists, as some think it draws comets towards Earth from the Kuiper belt, while others believe that Jupiter protects Earth from the Oort cloud.{{cite news |first=Dennis |last=Overbye |author-link=Dennis Overbye |date=July 25, 2009 |title=Jupiter: Our Cosmic Protector? |work=The New York Times |access-date=July 27, 2009 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/26/weekinreview/26overbye.html |archive-date=April 24, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424054444/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/26/weekinreview/26overbye.html |url-status=live }}

In July 1994, the Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 comet collided with Jupiter.{{Cite web|title=In Depth {{!}} P/Shoemaker-Levy 9|url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/comets/p-shoemaker-levy-9/in-depth|access-date=December 3, 2021|website=NASA Solar System Exploration|date=December 9, 2017 |archive-date=February 2, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202124627/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/comets/p-shoemaker-levy-9/in-depth/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|last=Howell|first=Elizabeth|date=January 24, 2018|title=Shoemaker-Levy 9: Comet's Impact Left Its Mark on Jupiter|url=https://www.space.com/19855-shoemaker-levy-9.html|access-date=December 3, 2021|website=Space.com|language=en|archive-date=December 6, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206063559/https://www.space.com/19855-shoemaker-levy-9.html|url-status=live}} The impacts were closely observed by observatories around the world, including the Hubble Space Telescope and Galileo spacecraft.{{Cite web|last=information@eso.org|title=The Big Comet Crash of 1994 – Intensive Observational Campaign at ESO|url=https://www.eso.org/public/news/eso9402/|access-date=December 3, 2021|website=eso.org|language=en|archive-date=December 3, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203094812/https://www.eso.org/public/news/eso9402/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=Top 20 Comet Shoemaker-Levy Images|url=https://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/sl9/top20.html|access-date=December 3, 2021|website=www2.jpl.nasa.gov|archive-date=November 27, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127142402/https://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/sl9/top20.html|url-status=live}}{{Cite web | title=Hubble Observations Shed New Light on Jupiter Collision | first1=Donald | last1=Savage | first2=Jim | last2=Elliott | first3=Ray | last3=Villard | url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/hst_obs.html | access-date=December 3, 2021 | date=December 30, 2004 | website=nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov | archive-date=November 12, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112014938/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/hst_obs.html | url-status=live }} The event was widely covered by the media.{{Cite web|title=NASA TV Coverage on Comet Shoemaker-Levy|url=https://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/sl9/tv_nasa.html|access-date=December 3, 2021|website=www2.jpl.nasa.gov|archive-date=September 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908101213/https://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/sl9/tv_nasa.html|url-status=live}}

Surveys of early astronomical records and drawings produced eight examples of potential impact observations between 1664 and 1839. However, a 1997 review determined that these observations had little or no possibility of being the results of impacts. Further investigation by this team revealed a dark surface feature discovered by astronomer Giovanni Cassini in 1690 may have been an impact scar.{{Cite journal | last1=Tabe | first1=Isshi | last2=Watanabe | first2=Jun-ichi | last3=Jimbo | first3=Michiwo | date=February 1997 |title=Discovery of a Possible Impact SPOT on Jupiter Recorded in 1690 | journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan | volume=49 | pages=L1–L5 | bibcode=1997PASJ...49L...1T | doi=10.1093/pasj/49.1.l1 | doi-access=free }}

{{See also|Jupiter in fiction|Planets in astrology#Jupiter}}

File:Jupiter-bonatti.png's Liber Astronomiae|left]]

The existence of the planet Jupiter has been known since ancient times. It is visible to the naked eye in the night sky and can be seen in the daytime when the Sun is low.{{cite news |date=June 16, 2005 |title=Stargazers prepare for daylight view of Jupiter |publisher=ABC News |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200506/s1393223.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512163240/http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200506/s1393223.htm |archive-date=May 12, 2011 |access-date=February 28, 2008}} To the Babylonians, this planet represented their god Marduk, chief of their pantheon from the Hammurabi period.{{cite book | last=Waerden | first=B. L. | title=Science Awakening II | chapter=Old-Babylonian Astronomy | date=1974 | pages=46–59 | publisher=Springer | doi=10.1007/978-94-017-2952-9_3 | isbn=978-90-481-8247-3 | publication-place=Dordrecht | chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-94-017-2952-9_3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321164438/https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-94-017-2952-9_3.pdf |archive-date=March 21, 2022 |url-status=live | access-date=March 21, 2022 }} They used Jupiter's roughly 12-year orbit along the ecliptic to define the constellations of their zodiac.{{cite journal | last=Rogers | first=J. H. | title=Origins of the ancient constellations: I. The Mesopotamian traditions | journal=Journal of the British Astronomical Association | year=1998 | volume=108 | pages=9–28 | bibcode=1998JBAA..108....9R }}

The mythical Greek name for this planet is Zeus (Ζεύς), also referred to as Dias (Δίας), the planetary name of which is retained in modern Greek.{{cite web |url=http://www.greek-names.info/greek-names-of-the-planets/ |title=Greek Names of the Planets |access-date=July 14, 2012 |quote=In Greek the name of the planet Jupiter is Dias, the Greek name of god Zeus. |date=April 25, 2010 |archive-date=May 9, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100509164917/http://www.greek-names.info/greek-names-of-the-planets/ |url-status=live }} See also the Greek article about the planet. The ancient Greeks knew the planet as Phaethon ({{langx|grc|Φαέθων|label=none}}), meaning "shining one" or "blazing star".{{Cite book |year=1888 |title=Cicero's Tusculan Disputations; also, Treatises on The Nature of the Gods, and on The Commonwealth |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius |language=en |translator-last=Yonge |translator-first=Charles Duke |url=https://archive.org/details/cicerostusculand00ciceuoft |publisher=Harper & Brothers |location=New York, NY |page=[https://archive.org/details/cicerostusculand00ciceuoft/page/274 274] |via=Internet Archive}}{{cite book |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullus |author-link=Cicero |editor-last=Warmington |editor-first=E. H. |translator-last=Rackham |translator-first=H. |year=1967 |orig-year=1933 |title=De Natura Deorum |trans-title=On The Nature of the Gods |url=https://archive.org/details/denaturadeorumac00ciceuoft |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, MA |series=Cicero |volume=19 |page=[https://archive.org/details/denaturadeorumac00ciceuoft/page/175 175] |via=Internet Archive}} The Greek myths of Zeus from the Homeric period showed particular similarities to certain Near-Eastern gods, including the Semitic El and Baal, the Sumerian Enlil, and the Babylonian god Marduk.{{cite journal | last=Zolotnikova | first=O. | date=2019 | title=Mythologies in contact: Syro-Phoenician traits in Homeric Zeus | journal=The Scientific Heritage | volume=41 | issue=5 | pages=16–24 | url=https://www.academia.edu/41482655 | access-date=April 26, 2022 | archive-date=August 9, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809222951/https://www.academia.edu/41482655 | url-status=live }} The association between the planet and the Greek deity Zeus was drawn from Near Eastern influences and was fully established by the fourth century BC, as documented in the Epinomis of Plato and his contemporaries.{{cite journal | last=Tarnas | first=R. | date=2009 | title=The planets | journal=Archai: The Journal of Archetypal Cosmology | volume=1 | issue=1 | pages=36–49 | citeseerx=10.1.1.456.5030 }}

The god Jupiter is the Roman counterpart of Zeus, and he is the principal god of Roman mythology. The Romans originally called Jupiter the "star of Jupiter" (Iuppiter Stella), as they believed it to be sacred to its namesake god. This name comes from the Proto-Indo-European vocative compound *Dyēu-pəter (nominative: *Dyēus-pətēr, meaning "Father Sky-God", or "Father Day-God").{{cite web |last=Harper |first=Douglas |date=November 2001 |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Jupiter |title=Jupiter |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=February 23, 2007 |archive-date=September 28, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928101056/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Jupiter |url-status=live }} As the supreme god of the Roman pantheon, Jupiter was the god of thunder, lightning, and storms, and was called the god of light and sky.{{cite journal|title=The Common Attributes Between The Baltic Thunder God Perkunas And His Antique Equivalents Jupiter And Zeus|author=Vytautas Tumėnas|journal=Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry|volume=16|number=4|year=2016|pages=359–367|url=http://tautosmenta.lt/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Tumenas_Vytautas/Tumenas_MAA_16_4_2016.pdf|access-date=July 19, 2023|archive-date=July 19, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719002118/http://tautosmenta.lt/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Tumenas_Vytautas/Tumenas_MAA_16_4_2016.pdf|url-status=live}}

In Vedic astrology, Hindu astrologers named the planet after Brihaspati, the religious teacher of the gods, and called it "Guru", which means the "Teacher".{{cite web |url=http://www.webonautics.com/mythology/guru_jupiter.html |title=Guru |publisher=Indian Divinity.com |access-date=February 14, 2007 |archive-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916192305/http://www.webonautics.com/mythology/guru_jupiter.html |url-status=live }}{{cite journal | title=Astrolatry in the Brahmaputra Valley: Reflecting upon the Navagraha Sculptural Depiction | last1=Sanathana | first1=Y. S. | last2=Manjil | first2=Hazarika | journal=Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology | date=November 27, 2020 | volume=8 | issue=2 | pages=157–174 | url=https://www.academia.edu/download/83171079/Astrolatry_in_the_Brahmaputra_Valley_Reflecting_upon_the_Navagraha_Sculptural_Depiction.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.academia.edu/download/83171079/Astrolatry_in_the_Brahmaputra_Valley_Reflecting_upon_the_Navagraha_Sculptural_Depiction.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live | access-date=July 4, 2022 }}{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} In Central Asian Turkic myths, Jupiter is called Erendiz or Erentüz, from eren (of uncertain meaning) and yultuz ("star"). The Turks calculated the period of the orbit of Jupiter as 11 years and 300 days. They believed that some social and natural events connected to Erentüz's movements in the sky.{{cite news |url=http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25085903/ |title=Türk Astrolojisi-2 |publisher=NTV |language=tr |access-date=April 23, 2010 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130104145343/http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25085903/ |archive-date=January 4, 2013 |url-status=dead }} The Chinese, Vietnamese, Koreans, and Japanese called it the "wood star" ({{lang-zh|c=木星|p=mùxīng}}), based on the Chinese Five Elements.{{cite book |first=Jan Jakob Maria |last=De Groot |year=1912 |title=Religion in China: universism. a key to the study of Taoism and Confucianism |series=American lectures on the history of religions |volume=10 |page=300 |publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZAaP7dyjCrAC&pg=PA300 |access-date=January 8, 2010 |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226150305/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZAaP7dyjCrAC&pg=PA300#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}{{cite book |first=Thomas |last=Crump |year=1992 |title=The Japanese numbers game: the use and understanding of numbers in modern Japan |url=https://archive.org/details/japanesenumbersg00crum |url-access=limited |series=Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese studies series |pages=[https://archive.org/details/japanesenumbersg00crum/page/n53 39]–40 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-05609-0}}{{cite book |first=Homer Bezaleel |last=Hulbert |year=1909 |title=The passing of Korea |page=[https://archive.org/details/passingkorea01hulbgoog/page/n538 426] |publisher=Doubleday, Page & Company |url=https://archive.org/details/passingkorea01hulbgoog |access-date=January 8, 2010}} In China, it became known as the "Year-star" (Sui-sing), as Chinese astronomers noted that it jumped one zodiac constellation each year (with corrections). In some ancient Chinese writings, the years were, in principle, named in correlation with the Jovian zodiac signs.

{{div col|colwidth=20em}}

• {{annotated link|Outline of Jupiter}}
• {{annotated link|Eccentric Jupiter}}
• {{annotated link|Hot Jupiter}}
• {{annotated link|Super-Jupiter}}
• {{annotated link|Jovian–Plutonian gravitational effect}}
• {{annotated link|List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System}}

{{div col end}}

{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

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{{cite journal |title=Comprehensive wide-band magnitudes and albedos for the planets, with applications to exo-planets and Planet Nine |journal=Icarus |first1=Anthony |last1=Mallama |first2=Bruce |last2=Krobusek |first3=Hristo |last3=Pavlov |volume=282 |pages=19–33 |year=2017 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2016.09.023 |bibcode=2017Icar..282...19M |arxiv=1609.05048 |s2cid=119307693 }}

{{cite journal |title=Composition and origin of the atmosphere of Jupiter—an update, and implications for the extrasolar giant planets |journal=Planetary and Space Science |last1=Atreya |first1=Sushil K. |last2=Mahaffy |first2=P. R. |last3=Niemann |first3=H. B. |last4=Wong |first4=M. H. |last5=Owen |first5=T. C. |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=105–112 |date=February 2003 |doi=10.1016/S0032-0633(02)00144-7 |bibcode=2003P&SS...51..105A }}

}}

{{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooksby=no|viaf=73918294}}

• {{cite book|title=Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere|last1=Bagenal|first1=Fran|author-link1=Fran Bagenal|last2=Dowling|first2=Timothy E.|last3=McKinnon|first3=William B.|year=2006|isbn=978-0-52-103545-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aMERHqj9ivcC|publisher=Cambridge University Press|via=Google Books}}
• {{cite book |first=Hans |last=Lohninger |display-authors=etal |date=November 2, 2005 |chapter-url=http://www.vias.org/spacetrip/jupiter_1.html |chapter=Jupiter, As Seen By Voyager 1 |url=http://www.vias.org/spacetrip/index.html |title=A Trip into Space |publisher=Virtual Institute of Applied Science}}

{{Sister project links}}

• [https://science.nasa.gov/jupiter/ Jupiter overview] by NASA's Science Mission Directorate
• [http://orbitsimulator.com/gravity/articles/joviansystem.html Simulation of the 62 moons of Jupiter] from Tony Dunn's Gravity Simulator website.
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20150904035945/http://digitalcollections.ucsc.edu/cdm/search/collection/p265101coll10/searchterm/Jupiter%20(planet)/order/title Photographs of Jupiter circa 1920s] from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, at the University of California, Santa Cruz Library's Digital Collections.
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20200611222440/https://gravitysimulator.org/solar-system/the-jovian-system/ Interactive 3D gravity simulation of the Jovian system].
• {{YouTube|Us6EXc5Hyng|Video}} of the 2010 Jupiter impact event by an amateur astronomer.
• {{YouTube|CC7OJ7gFLvE|Animation|link=no}} of the Juno spacecraft's flyby of Ganymede and Jupiter by NASA.

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Category:Articles containing video clips

Category:Astronomical objects known since antiquity

Category:Gas giants

Category:Outer planets

Category:Solar System