Kingdom of Mrauk U

The kingdom's official name was {{lang|rki|မြောက်ဦး ဘုရင့်နိုင်ငံတော်}} (English: Mrauk U Kingdom or Kingdom of Mrauk U). The Kingdom was commonly also known as Arakan during its existence.

File:Entry to Temple in Mrauk U.png

{{main|Launggyet Dynasty}}

Although Arakan kings paid tribute to the Pagan dynasty, the South was mostly free of Pagan suzerainty and largely cut off from the rest of Burma. Separated from Pagan by the Arakan Mountains, Arakan developed more independently to other Burmese regions. its capital moved from Thaibeiktaung to Dhanyawadi to Vesali before the 11th century, and then to Pyinsa, Parein, and Hkrit in the 12th century, with the capital moving to Pyinsa again in 1180, and then Launggyet in 1237.Harvey 1925: 76

{{See also|Restoration of Min Saw Mon}}

Arakan had close contact with Bengal, coming into full contact with it as it was expanding eastwards. During the reign of King Min Hti of Arakan (1279–1374), Bengal invaded parts of Arakan sea, raiding the Hinya river at Chittagong.Akhtaruzzaman, Md. "POLITICAL RELATIONS BETWEEN MEDIEVAL BENGAL AND ARAKAN." Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 61, 2000, pp. 1081–1092., www.jstor.org/stable/44144423. Accessed 5 Feb. 2020. Following the collapse of Pagan power and the death of Min Hti, Arakan fell into an interregnum, and constant raids were conducted by both the Burmese and the Talaing. The new king who took power in 1404, Narameikhla, who was a great-grandson of Min Hti, was immediately ousted by the forces of the Burmese Crown Prince Minye Kyawswa, who captured Launggyet and forced Narameikhla to flee to the court of the Sultanate of Bengal at Gour.Harvey 1925: 77Phayer 1883: 77 During Narameikhla's 24-year exile, Arakan became an extensive battleground for the Ava Kingdom and the Pegu Kingdom. The King of Ava installed his son-in-law on the throne of Arakan, bestowing him the title of Anoarahtâ. Pegu forces later captured and executed him. The power struggle ended with Razadarit coming out on top, capturing Taunggyet and installing his own governor, who was in power until 1423.

After 24 years of exile, Narameikhla regained control of the Arakanese throne in 1430 with military assistance from Bengali commanders Wali Khan and Sindhi Khan. The Bengalis who came with him formed their own settlements in the region.{{cite book|last=Yegar|first=Moshe|title=Between integration and secession: The Muslim communities of the Southern Philippines, Southern Thailand and Western Burma / Myanmar|year=2002|publisher=Lexington Books|location=Lanham, MD|isbn=0739103563|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5q7qxi5LBgC&pg=PA23|access-date=8 July 2012|page=23}} Narameikhla ceded some territory to the Sultan of Bengal and recognised his sovereignty over the areas. In recognition of his kingdom's vassal status, the kings of Arakan received Islamic titles, despite being Buddhists, and legalised the use of Islamic gold dinar coins from Bengal within the kingdom. The kings compared themselves to Sultans and fashioned themselves after Mughal rulers. They also employed Bengali Muslims in prestigious positions within the royal administration.{{Sfn|Yegar|2002|p=24}} Narameikhla minted his own, with Burmese characters on one side and Persian characters on the other. Despite ruling parts of Bengal, it continued to remain a protectorate of the Sultan of Bengal up until 1531.{{Sfn|Yegar|2002|p=23-24}}

Narameikhla founded the city of Mrauk U, which was declared the capital of the Arakanese kingdom in 1431. As the city grew, many Buddhist pagodas and temples were built. Several of them remain, and these are the main attraction of Mrauk-U. From the 15th to the 18th centuries, Mrauk U was the capital of the Arakan kingdom, frequently visited by foreign traders (including Portuguese and Dutch).{{cite book|last=Richard|first=Arthus|title=History of Rakhine|year=2002|publisher=Lexington Books|location=Boston, MD|isbn=0-7391-0356-3|url=http://www.phoenixhollo.com/fr/Mrauk_U_3.html=PA23|access-date=8 July 2012|page=23|archive-date=8 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408064658/http://www.phoenixhollo.com/fr/Mrauk_U_3.html=PA23|url-status=dead}} The golden city of Mrauk U became known in Europe as a city of oriental splendor after Friar Sebastian Manrique visited the area in the early 17th century. Father Manrique wrote a vivid account of the coronation of King Thiri Thudhamma in 1635.{{cite book|author=H. Hosten|title=Travels of Fray Sebastien Manrique 1629–1643: A Translation of the Itinerario de las Missiones Orientales. Volume I: Arakan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pAckDwAAQBAJ|date=15 May 2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-00639-8|pages=357}}

File:Toungoo–Mrauk-U War (1545–47).png]]

Narameikhla was succeeded by his brother, Min Khayi, who annexed Sandoway and Ramu in 1437. Min Khayi's successor, Ba Saw Phyu occupied Chittagong with the help of the Portuguese, at the beginning of his reign.Phayre 1883: 78Harvey 1925: 140–141 Although Barbek Shah, the new Sultan of Bengal, allowed Bengal to falter,Phayre 1883: 78 Arakan remained subordinate to Bengal until 1531.

In 1454, a treaty with Ava established the Rakhine Yoma mountain range's watershed as the political boundary between the two kingdoms, creating a status quo of mutual non-interference. As a result, opponents like the Changma raiders were no longer automatically pursued if they crossed into the other kingdom's territory. This agreement had facilitated the increased export of Shan ruby stones to India.{{Cite journal |title=Guidebook on Mrauk U |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369406651_Guidebook_on_Mrauk_U_-_2020 |journal=Ministry of Religious Affairs and Culture, Myanmar |pages=Page 18 of PDF}}

Ba Saw Phyu was succeeded by his son Dawlya, who launched a rebellion against him in 1482, taking his life.Phayre 1883: 79 A line of weak kings followed. However, in 1531, Minbin took the throne, strengthening the fortifications of Mrauk U and fighting back against coastal raids by pirates. Minbin was responsible for the construction of the Shwedaung pagoda as well as the Shitthaung, Dukkanthein, and Lemyethna temples in Mrauk U.Harvey 1925: 77

During Minbin's reign, Arakan came under attack both from the north, from the coast, and from the east. In 1544, the armies of King Tabinshwehti of Burma invaded and took Sandoway, beginning the Toungoo–Mrauk-U War. However, he was unable to march further, and was held there for two years. Thus, he brought in Talaing and Shan fighters and revitalized his offensive, marching north to Mrauk U. However, once he reached the city, Tabinshwehti retreated, as he realised it was too well-defended and he did not want to besiege or blockade it. From the north came the Raja of Twipra, who marched as far as Ramu.Phayre 1883: 79–80 However, he was driven back, and upon the Arakanese reclamation of Chittagong, Minbin struck from producing coins with his name that styled him as sultan. Minbin's reign ended in 1553.Harvey 1925: 77

In the historiography of Mrauk U, the kingdom's history is typically divided into early and late periods. Though historians disagree on the specific cutoffs- the 17th century is both the kingdom's golden age and the turning point towards it relative decline.{{cite book |title=The Maritime Frontier of Burma |chapter=Arakan at the Turn of the First Millennium of the Arakanese Era |author-last=van Gelen |author-first=Stephan |editor-last1=Gommans |editor-first1=Jos |editor-last2=Leider |editor-first2=Jacques |editor-link2=Jacques Leider |date=2002 |publisher=Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences |location=Amsterdam |pages=151–162}}

Down the line of kings came Min Razagyi (1593–1612). In 1597, he joined the First Toungoo Empire in its siege of Pegu and requested the aid of Portuguese captain Felipe de Brito to assist him in it.Harvey 1925: 78 Land levies and ships from Chittagong, and the city fell in 1599. de Brito was appointed governor of Syriam by Razagyi. However, he shook off Arakanese power over the region, and, supported by Goa, he pushed away the many attacks of Arakan. Razagyi took three years (1602–1605) to take Sandwip from Manuel de Mattos and Domingo Carvalho.{{cite book |author=Thibaut d'Hubert |title=Pelagic Passageways: The Northern Bay of Bengal Before Colonialism |author2=Jacques P. Leider |date=2011 |editor=Rila Mukherjee |chapter=Traders and Poets at the Mrauk U Court: Commerce and Cultural Links in Seventeenth-Century Arakan |access-date=5 February 2020 |chapter-url=https://lucian.uchicago.edu/blogs/banglaseminar/files/2016/01/dHubert-leider-2011-Traders_and_Poets_at_the_Mrauk_U_Court.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206013511/https://lucian.uchicago.edu/blogs/banglaseminar/files/2016/01/dHubert-leider-2011-Traders_and_Poets_at_the_Mrauk_U_Court.pdf |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live}}{{rp|81–82}} During this era, under Min Razagyu, Rakhine territory nearly doubled.{{Cite journal |title=Guidebook on Mrauk U |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369406651_Guidebook_on_Mrauk_U_-_2020 |journal=Ministry of Religious Affairs and Culture, Myanmar |pages=Page 22 of PDF}}

File:Carte des Royaume de Siam, de tunquin, Pegu, Ava, Aracan &c.jpg

From 1531 to 1629, Arakanese raiders and Portuguese pirates operated from havens along the coast of the kingdom and brought slaves in from Bengal to the kingdom. Following many raids into Bengal, the slave population increased in the 17th century as they were employed in a variety of industries in Arakan.{{Sfn|Yegar|2002|p=24}}{{Sfn|Aye Chan|2005|p=398}} Slaves included members of the Mughal nobility. A notable royal slave was Alaol, a renowned poet in the Arakanese court.{{cite book|author1=Francesca Orsini|author2=Katherine Butler Schofield|title=Tellings and Texts: Music, Literature and Performance in North India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P0SlCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA424|date=5 October 2015|publisher=Open Book Publishers|isbn=978-1-78374-102-1|page=424|author1-link=Francesca Orsini}}Rizvi, S.N.H. (1965). "East Pakistan District Gazetteers" (PDF). Government of East Pakistan Services and General Administration Department (1): 84. Retrieved 22 November 2016.

File:Shittaung Temple inscription.png]]

In 1628, the Laungkrakca (governor of Launggyet) rebelled during Thiri Thudhamma's reign. The rebellion was put down and many leading men executed, but this only furthered the importance of future Laungkrakca.{{sfn|van Gelen|2002|p=157}}

At the time, the Arakanese chronicle tradition had prophecised that the Mrauk U lineage of kings would end by the turn of the first millennium- roughly 1638 according to the Arakanese era. Various royal court ministers, including the Laungkrakca became more aggressive in vying for power. On 31 May 1638, Thiri Thudhamma mysteriously died. His son and crown prince Min Sanay ascended the throne, only to die 26 days later. After this, the Laugkrakca ascended the throne as Narapati. Historian Jacques Leider ascribes this chain of events as a coup d'état by the Laungkrakca, creating instability within the kingdom{{cite journal |title=La route de Am (Arakan) |trans-title=The Road to Arakan |last=Leider |first=Jacques |author-link=Jacques Leider |journal=Journal Asiatique |volume=282 |issue=2 |pages=335–370 |year=1994}}

After his ascension, the governor of Chittagong rebelled claiming the throne for himself. The rebellion was quashed, but in December 1643, the new governor of Chittagong rebelled, taking a large group of Portuguese mercenaries with him into Mughal territory. Narapati sent substantial army to quell this second rebellion, choosing to pillage Chittagong. His troops brought back 80,000 people – mostly weavers-- and several tens of thousands of cattle. This effectively destroyed the importance of Chittagong as a trade centre and created deep division in Arakan as the Dutch East India Company and various nobles protested the move. The sceptics of the king's plan were eventually proven correct as the resettled craftsmen were decimated by a famine in 1645 caused by the sudden change in population, effectively destroying Arakan's textile industry as well.

File:Rakhine_mrauk_u_kingdom.jpg

This destruction and Narapati's attitude to the Dutch, pushed trade in eastern Bengal further west. Furthermore, advances in Dutch shipbuilding diminished the impact of Arakanese raids in Lower Burma, further pushing that trade back to Lower Burma. During Narapati's reign, Mrauk U's control of Chittagong and the Bay of Bengal trade had all but collapsed.

File:King Min Razagyi.jpg

The Mahamuni Buddha image, which is now in Mandalay, was cast and venerated some 15 miles from Mrauk U where another Mahamuni Buddha Image flanked by two other Buddha images. Mrauk U can be easily reached via Sittwe, the capital of Rakhine State. From Yangon there are daily flights to Sittwe and there are small private boats as well as larger public boats plying through the Kaladan river to Mrauk U. It is only 45 miles from Sittwe and the seacoast. To the east of the old city is the famous Kispanadi stream and far away the Lemro river. The city area used to have a network of canals. Mrauk U maintains a small archaeological Museum near Palace site, which is right in the centre of town. As a prominent capital Mrauk U was carefully built in a strategic location by levelling three small hills. The pagodas are strategically located on hilltops and serve as fortresses; indeed they are once used as such in times of enemy intrusion. There are moats, artificial lakes and canals and the whole area could be flooded to deter or repulse attackers. There are innumerable pagodas and Buddha images all over the old city and the surrounding hills. Some are still being used as places of worship today many in ruins, some of which are now being restored to their original splendor.{{cite book|last=William|first=Cornwell|title= History of Mrauk U|year=2004|publisher=Lexington Books|location=Amherst, MD|isbn=0-7391-0356-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC&q=mrauk+u+kingdom+encyclopedia%3D10&pg=PA232 |page=232}}

{{Main article|Konbaung Dynasty conquest of Arakan}}

File:Konbaung dynasty 3.png

Following Konbaung Dynasty's conquest of Arakan in 1785 , the kingdom came to an end. As many as 35,000 people of the Rakhine State at that time fled to the neighbouring Chittagong region and Cox's Bazar areas of the British Bengal in 1799 to seek protection under the British Raj.{{Sfn|Aye Chan|2005|pp=398–9}}

In 1584 AD, Min Phalaung, the king of Arakan, invaded Tripura and advanced to Udaipur. The Arakanese forces looted Udaipur and carried out a massacre.{{Cite web |title=Sarma, Ramani Mohan (1987). Political History of Tripura |url=https://ia601401.us.archive.org/13/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.134785/2015.134785.Political-History-Of-Tripura_text.pdf}}

Min Phalaung tried to take control of northern Bengal and Tripura, areas that Arakanese kings had never fully controlled before. In January 1575, he sent a well-armed force led by Crown Prince Thado Dhamma Raza to Tripura. The Arakanese forces quickly took the Tripuri capital and Tripura agreed to become a tributary state. He also kept a strong garrison at Chittagong which included many Portuguese sailors and soldiers. Every year, the king sent hundreds of boats with supplies and troops to Chittagong, while the soldiers from the previous year returned to Mrauk-U.Sandamala Linkara Vol. 2 1999: 49

Following the conquest of Noakhali and Chittagong by the Arakanese king Min Phalaung, the Tripura king Rajdhar led a large force to reclaim the occupied territories.

After a brief period of calm, Min Phalaung launched another invasion on Chittagong. The Tripura army was defeated, with its king, Rajdhar Manikya I, being seriously wounded by a bullet shot, and his younger brother Jujhar Singh was killed. The Arakanese forces then advanced into Tripura, reaching Udaipur, which they looted and plundered.Harvey 1925: 141{{Cite web |title=Research paper on The 18th century Eastern Frontier of Tripuri State |url=https://www.worldwidejournals.com/paripex/recent_issues_pdf/2012/November/the-eighteenth-century-eastern-frontier-of-india--crisis-in-tripuri-state_November_2012_4095951755_0702230.pdf}}

{{See also|Mrauk U invasion of Chittagong|}}

Chittagong came under the Arakanese control during the 16th and 17th centuries.{{Cite web |title=History of the District Chittagong |url=https://www.chittagong.gov.bd/en/site/page/qPgv-%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8 |access-date=2024-12-22 |website=www.chittagong.gov.bd}} A Buddhist inscription from 1542 in Chittagong confirms that by the 1540s, Arakanese rule was firmly established under King Min Bin (1531–1553),{{Cite web |title=Arakan and Bengal : the rise and decline of the Mrauk U from 15th to the 17th century (PDF) |url=https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2959700/view}} who strengthened Chittagong as a key military and trade hub. Although Arakanese dominance over the region was periodically challenged by conflicts with Bengal, Tripura, and the Mughals, their rule was maintained through alliances with Portuguese mercenaries and a strong naval presence.

In the late 1530s, Afghan warlord Sher Shah (d. 1545) defeated the last independent Sultan of Bengal, Ghiyath ud-Din Mahmud Shah (1533–1538). In Chittagong, a power struggle emerged between two local governors, Amirza Khan and Khuda Bakhsh Khan, who had been appointed by Ghiyath ud-Din Mahmud Shah. Min Bin likely capitalized on this conflict to intervene and seize control of Chittagong.{{Cite web |title=Arakan and Bengal : the rise and decline of the Mrauk U from 15th to the 17th century (PDF) |url=https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2959700/view}}

Chittagong emerged as a key center for regional trade, although its administration was plagued by piracy, slave raids, and conflicts with neighboring powers. The Portuguese provided significant support to the Arakanese navy during this time. The renowned Bengali poet Alaol was enslaved during this period, later rising to prominence at the Arakanese court.

The Portuguese assisted the Arakanese in various conflicts, including piracy and instability. The Arakanese also had trade relations with the Dutch East India Company (VOC). Historians describe the atrocities committed by the Portuguese and the Mogs by noting how they plundered Bengal, capturing Hindus and Muslims, and enslaving them. These captives were often sold to Dutch, English, and French merchants at Deccan ports, while the Arakanese used them for labor in Arakan or as domestic servants.{{Cite book |last=Jadunath Sarkar |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283718/page/n391/mode/2up |title=The History of Bengal. Vol. II |publisher=Dhaka University |year=1948 |pages=378–379 |language=en}}

Arakanese forces in collaboration with the Portuguese pirates actively raided the Sundarbans delta and the Ganges delta between the 16th and 17th centuries. These raids targeted coastal Bengal, including areas like Chittagong and the Sundarbans, leading to the capture and enslavement of many inhabitants. The enslaved individuals were sold in Arakan's markets contributing to the kingdom's economy.Harvey 1925: 142–143{{Cite web |title=Arakanese Kingdom of Mrohaung {{!}} Burma, Monarchs, Buddhism {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Arakanese-Kingdom-of-Mrohaung |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}

{{Main article|Mrauk U invasion of Pegu}}

In the late 16th century, Mrauk U, under King Min Razagyi, capitalized on the declining Toungoo Dynasty by invading Pegu (present-day Bago).Sandamala Linkara Vol. 2 1999: 77–78 In 1597, Min Razagyi allied with Minye Thihathu II of Toungoo, and by March 1599, a formidable Arakanese force of approximately 30,000 troops and 300 war boats, bolstered by Portuguese mercenaries led by Filipe de Brito e Nicote, captured the strategic port city of Syriam (Thanlyin). By April, they laid siege to Pegu, leading to King Nanda Bayin's surrender in December 1599.(Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 100): Sunday, 4th waxing of Pyatho 961 ME = 19 December 1599 NS.Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 98–99 The victors divided Pegu's immense wealth, with the Arakanese seizing treasures, including gold, silver, precious stones, bronze cannons, 30 Khmer bronze statues, and a revered white elephant. Min Razagyi also took Princess Khin Ma Hnaung, Nanda Bayin's daughter as his queen.Harvey 1925: 182–183

{{see also|1605 Syriam battles|}}

The Kingdom had a fluctuating type of relationship with the Portuguese during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The Arakanese navy, which heavily relied on Portuguese mercenaries, controlled a significant stretch of the Bay of Bengal coastline. Tensions escalated in 1603 when Portuguese mercenary commander De Brito revolted,Than Tun 2011: 135 supported by the Portuguese viceroy of Goa. Despite efforts by King Min Razagyi to regain control of Syriam, including sending a naval force, negotiations in 1604 resulted in Syriam becoming a Portuguese colony, and Razagyi paid a ransom for the release of the crown prince.{{cite book |author=Than Tun |author-link=Than Tun |title=Myanmar History Briefs |publisher=Gangaw Myaing |year=2011 |location=Yangon |pages=135 |language=Burmese |chapter=23. Nga Zinga and Thida}}

File:Namban Elefante Filipe de Brito 1.jpg, Portuguese mercenary and governor of Syriam, Burma, circa 1600.]]

In response, Razagyi took harsh actions against Portuguese settlers in his territory, executing 600 on Dianga Island and seeking Dutch assistance to expel the Portuguese, though the Dutch declined. In 1609, Sebastian Gonzales Tibao, a Portuguese escapee, captured Sandwip Island, aligning with Razagyi’s opponents and raiding the Arakanese coast. By 1610, Tibao further betrayed Razagyi by seizing the Arakanese fleet and continuing his raids, intensifying the conflict.Phayre 1967: 174–177Harvey 1925: 142–143

{{Main article|Toungoo–Mrauk-U War}}The Toungoo–Mrauk-U War was a military conflict occurred from 1545 to 1547. The conflict pitted the Toungoo Dynasty against the Kingdom of Mrauk U.Sandamala Linkara Vol. 2 1999: 45Harvey 1925: 140

The war was mainly triggered by events in 1542, when King Min Bin provided military support to the Kingdom of Ava during the Toungoo–Ava War (1538–1545). Although Min Bin withdrew from the alliance later that same year, King Tabinshwehti of Toungoo was determined to retaliate for Mrauk U’s involvement.Sandamala Linkara Vol. 2 1999: 30

Mrauk U successfully repelled the Toungoo invasions and maintained its independence. The war also served as a deterrent, as Mrauk U would not face another Toungoo invasion until 1580.Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 71

{{Further information|Mughal conquest of Chittagong}}

The 1666 Mughal conquest of Chittagong marked a definite end of the Golden Age of Arakan for most historians. Arakan lost control of end of western bank of the Naf River in southeast Bengal after the Mughal conquest of Chittagong. In 1660, Prince Shah Shuja, the governor of Mughal Bengal and a claimant of the Peacock Throne, fled to Arakan with his family after being defeated by his brother Emperor Aurangzeb during the Battle of Khajwa. Shuja and his entourage arrived in Arakan on 26 August 1660.{{cite book|author=Niccolò Manucci|title=Storia Do Mogor: Or, Mogul India, 1653–1708|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.85174|year=1907|publisher=J. Murray}} He was granted asylum by King Sanda Thudhamma. In December 1660, the Arakanese king confiscated Shuja's gold and jewelry, leading to an insurrection by the royal Mughal refugees. According to varying accounts, Shuja's family was killed by the Arakanese, while Shuja himself may have fled to a kingdom in Manipur. However, members of Shuja's entourage remained in Arakan and were recruited by the royal army, including as archers and court guards. They were king makers in Arakan until the Burmese conquest.{{cite book|author=Mohamed Nawab Mohamed Osman|title=Islam and Peacebuilding in the Asia-Pacific|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WwYrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24|date=19 June 2017|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=978-981-4749-83-1|page=24}} The Portuguese and Arakanese continued their raids of Mughal Bengal which includes a raid in Dhaka in 1625.{{cite book|author=Stefan Halikowski Smith|title=Creolization and Diaspora in the Portuguese Indies: The Social World of Ayutthaya, 1640–1720|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7lrHeQ0zB7sC&pg=PA225|date=23 September 2011|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-19048-1|page=225}}

The governance of the kingdom was structured as a feudal monarchy, where the king held ultimate authority over a layered hierarchy of nobles and administrative officers.{{Cite web |title=The Kingdom of Arakan in the Indian

Ocean Commerce [PDF, page-14] |url=https://journal.kci.go.kr/svn/archive/articlePdf?artiId=ART002533202}}

Mrauk U maintained diplomatic and trade relations with Bengal, the Portuguese, Burma and Ceylon. The ties included military alliances, religious exchanges, and occasional conflicts.

The Kingdom had an intricate relation with the Bengal region, initially serving as a vassal to the Bengal Sultanate. This relationship began when Narameikhla (Min Saw Mon), the exiled Arakanese king, sought refuge in Bengal and later reclaimed his throne in 1430 with Bengali military assistance.Sandamala Linkara Vol. 2 1999: 10 In acknowledgment of Bengal's support, Narameikhla ceded territory and accepted tributary status, leading to the integration of Islamic elements into the predominantly Buddhist kingdom's administration and culture.Jacques Leider, 'Arakan's Ascent During The Mrauk U Period', Recalling Local Pasts: Autonomous History in Southeast Asia (Silkworm Books 2002). 63In the Arakanese tradition, we find that “The restored king agreed to be tributary to the king of Bengal”.” Mohammad Ali Chowdhury, ‘Bengal-Arakan Relations at the turn of the 15th century’, Bengal-Arakan Relations (1430–1666 A.D.) (1st edn, 2004). 32

As Mrauk U's power grew after independence from Bengal, it expanded into southeastern Bengal, notably capturing Chittagong around 1590. This expansion was facilitated by alliances with Portuguese mercenaries. The Arakanese-Portuguese partnership played a vital role in establishing control over these territories. Mrauk U and Bengal had several conflicts, notably the Bengal Sultanate–Mrauk U War (1512–1516), Mrauk U invasion of Chittagong and later confrontations with the Mughal Empire in the 17th century.

{{Further information|Burmese–Portuguese conflicts}}

Mrauk U had multifaced relationship with the Portuguese during the late 16th and early 17th centuries.

In the late 16th century, the Arakanese kingdom relied heavily on Portuguese mercenaries to strengthen its naval forces, allowing them to control a vast stretch of the Bay of Bengal coastline. However, tensions between the Portuguese and the Arakanese escalated in 1603 when Portuguese mercenary commander Filipe de Brito e Nicote, supported by the Portuguese viceroy of Goa, led a revolt against the Arakanese king. This rebellion triggered a direct Portuguese attack on Mrauk U, but the Portuguese forces were ultimately repelled by the Arakanese using fireships.{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Anthony |date=2019 |title=The Fall of Mrauk U, an Episode in the First Anglo-Burmese War, 1825 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26899882 |journal=Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research |volume=97 |issue=391 |pages=319–337 |jstor=26899882 |issn=0037-9700}}

Beyond military matters, the Portuguese sought to establish economic ties with the Arakanese. In 1569, their growing influence in the region became evident when they assassinated the Afghan governor of Chittagong. Around 1590, the Portuguese provided military support to the Arakanese to help consolidate their rule in Chittagong, in return for trade privileges.

Culturally, the Portuguese left a lasting imprint on Mrauk U. Friar Sebastião Manrique, an Augustinian monk, spent several years in Mrauk U from 1630 to 1635, offering valuable accounts of the kingdom's society and religious practices.{{Cite journal |last=Leider |first=Jacques P |date=2002 |title=Tilling the Lord's Vineyard and Defending Portuguese Interests: Towards a Critical Reading of Father S. Manrique's Account of Arakan |url=https://thesiamsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2002/03/JSS_090_0d_Leider_FatherManriquesAccountOfArakan.pdf |journal=Journal of the Siam Society |volume=90 |pages=39–58}} During this time, Portuguese missionaries built churches and introduced Christian religious practices.{{Cite web |title=Arakan, Min Yazagyi, and the Portuguese : the relationship between the growth of Arakanese imperial power and Portuguese mercenaries on the fringe of mainland Southeast Asia 1517–1617. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/34088599}}

File:Natives_of_Arrakan_sell_slaves_to_the_Dutch_East_India_Company_(1663).jpg sell slaves to the Dutch East India Company, c.{{nbsp}}1663 CE.]]

Mrauk U had economic relations with the Dutch East India Company (VOC) during the 17th century by trade, military collaboration, and occasional tensions. The Dutch first initiated trade relations with Mrauk U in 1608, signaling the beginning of their commercial interest in the region. By 1610, they established their first trade settlement, or ‘factory,’ in Mrauk U, capitalizing on the kingdom’s strategic location along the Bay of Bengal and its bustling markets.{{Cite web |title=Trade Relations with Dutch East Indies [PDF] |url=https://dwc.knaw.nl/DL/publications/PU00010895.pdf}}

The primary motivation for the Dutch presence in Mrauk U was economic. The VOC aimed to engage in trade, particularly in goods such as rice, ivory, elephants, tree sap, cotton, spices, textiles, and slaves. However, their engagement was also linked to military considerations, as the Arakanese kingdom had a powerful war fleet that conducted raids, often with the support of Portuguese and Dutch mercenaries.{{Cite journal |last=Subrahmanyam |first=Sanjay |date=1997-01-01 |title=Slaves and Tyrants: Dutch Tribulations in Seventeenth-Century Mrauk-U |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/jemh/1/3/article-p201_2.xml |journal=Journal of Early Modern History |language=en |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=201–253 |doi=10.1163/157006597X00028 |issn=1385-3783}}

Cultural and religious interactions did occur during the Dutch presence in the kingdom. The presence of both Portuguese and Dutch traders and mercenaries contributed to the cultural diversity in Mrauk U. However, it is clear that the primary motive for the Dutch presence was economic, and cultural exchanges were secondary to their commercial activities.{{Cite web |title=Arakan and Bengal : the rise and decline of the Mrauk U |url=https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2959698/view}}

In September 1627, a Rakhine embassy reached Batavia (now Jakarta) with a letter from the king assuring to increase its trade with the Dutch.{{Cite journal |title=Guidebook on Mrauk U |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369406651_Guidebook_on_Mrauk_U_-_2020 |journal=Ministry of Religious Affairs and Culture, Myanmar |pages=Page 22 of PDF}}

By 1665, the Dutch influence in Mrauk U began to decline. Several factors contributed to this, including shifts in regional power dynamics, changes in trade routes, and internal challenges within the VOC itself. The loss of significant territories such as Chittagong in 1666 to the Mughals, further weakened the kingdom’s economic stability leading to the gradual withdrawal of the Dutch from southeastern Bengal and a decline in commercial activities in the region.{{citation needed|date=March 2025}}

The Arakanese kings had minimal relations with Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka), primarily focused on religion and Buddhist influences.{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/ReligiousRelationsBetweenArakanAndSriLankaCeylonByAshinSriOkkantha?view=theater&ui=embed&wrapper=false |title=Religious Relations Between Arakan And Sri Lanka ( Ceylon) By Ashin Sri Okkantha |pages=193}} Some notable ties are:

• Ba Saw Phyu established strong religious ties with Ceylon, which presented him with the Tripiṭaka, the revered scriptures of Theravada Buddhism.Sandamala Linkara Vol.2 1999: 23–24 He constructed the Mahabodhi Shwe-Gu Temple as a symbol of his devotion.

• Min Razagyi expanded the Andaw-thein Ordination Hall to enshrine a tooth relic of the Buddha, which he brought back from his pilgrimage to Ceylon, either in 1596 or between 1606 and 1607.Gutman 2001: 112, Sandamala Linkara Vol. 2 1999: 84

• Min Phalaung constructed the Pitaka-Taik to store the Buddhist scriptures which he received from Ceylon.Gutman 2001: 124–125

The Shitthaung pillar inscription of Anandacandra records links between Arakan and Sri Lanka including donations to Sri Lankan monastic communities. In the 16th century, Sri Lankan King Vimaladhamma Suriya, concerned about the decline of Buddhism sent a mission to Arakan. As a result, the Arakanese monk Nandicakka traveled to Sri Lanka to perform the upasampadā ordination during which several members of the royal and noble families were ordained.{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/PAMELAGUTMANBURMASLOSTKINGDOMSSPLENDOURSBookZa.org |title=Burma's Lost Kingdoms: Splendours of Arakan by Pamela Gutman |pages=153-158}}

Several bronze Buddha images of Sri Lankan origin were found at Koe-thaung Temple, including a miniature figure in the Avukana style. Additionally, two fine Sri Lankan-style bronzes were discovered near the Teza-rama Monastery at Shan-taung-myo.

The kingdom was a center of Theravada Buddhism, with the monarchy actively supporting religious institutions. This patronage reinforced the king's legitimacy and promoted cultural development. The capital, Mrauk U, was renowned for its numerous temples and monasteries.{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/PAMELAGUTMANBURMASLOSTKINGDOMSSPLENDOURSBookZa.org |title=Burma's Lost Kingdoms: Splendours of Arakan by Pamela Gutman}}

Due to proximity and help of Bengal, the Arakanese kings compared themselves to Sultans and fashioned themselves after Mughal rulers. They also employed some Indians and Muslims in prestigious positions within the royal administration. The court adopted some Indian and Islamic fashions from neighbouring Bengal. Syed Alaol and Daulat Qazi were prominent poets of Arakan.{{cite book |author1=Francesca Orsini |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P0SlCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA424 |title=Tellings and Texts: Music, Literature and Performance in North India |author2=Katherine Butler Schofield |date=5 October 2015 |publisher=Open Book Publishers |isbn=978-1-78374-102-1 |page=424}}

The Portuguese missionaries also built churches and introduced Christian (Catholic) religious practices to the region.

Mrauk U thrived as a commercial hub engaging in trade with Arab, Dutch, Portuguese, and other merchants. The administration regulated trade, collected customs duties, and maintained diplomatic relations to bolster the kingdom's economy.{{cite book |author1=William J. Topich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DIuaa5yKv-sC&pg=PA17 |title=The History of Myanmar |author2=Keith A. Leitich |date=9 January 2013 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-35725-1 |pages=17–22}}

Sebastien Manrique, who visited the region in the early 1630s, estimated the city’s population at 160,000 and likened its grandeur to that of Venice.{{Cite web |title=The Kingdom of Arakan in the Indian

Ocean Commerce [PDF] |url=https://journal.kci.go.kr/svn/archive/articlePdf?artiId=ART002533202}}

Agricultural development during this period was notable with techniques such as the construction of dams and embankments along rivers and the use of animal manure as fertilizer. The Mughal historian Shiabuddin Talish noted that while Portuguese pirates sold captives into slavery, the Arakanese employed them in agriculture and other services, thereby increasing the available labor force. Rice became the principal export crop, though it was also essential for local consumption. The kingdom derived much of its revenue from the rice trade. Animal husbandry developed alongside agriculture.{{Cite web |title=Arakan and Bengal- the rise and decline of the Mrauk U kingdom |url=https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2959707/view}}

While the majority of Arakanese people were engaged in agriculture, the royal court took part in maritime trade. Some Arakanese became seafarers and traders, engaging with neighboring regions and conducting raids in the Ganges Delta. Unlike Burma and Siam, which used alloyed metals and silver in commerce, Arakan began minting its own coins. This monetary system supported market development and improved taxation. Alongside Arakanese coins, Mughal tangas were also used in Arakanese ports during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.

File:Lord of The Golden Palace ABhaya MahaRaza.jpg|Arakanese Coin stamped by King Abhaya Maha Raza during 1774

File:Arakan coins.jpg|Arakan coin showing Hindu Shrivatsa symbol

File:Muhghazi.jpg|Coin of Arakan minted by Shams al-din Muhammad Ghazi, sultan of Bengal.

File:Vista de Mrauk-U, ou Arrakan (cidade de Arracão) no primeiro plano o bairro português.jpgArakanese chronicle records that more than six million shrines and pagodas flourished in Mrauk-U. A British archaeologist, Emil Forchhammer noted that "in durability, architectural skill, and ornamentation the Mrauk-U temples far surpass those on the banks of Irrawaddy."{{Cite book |last=Emil |first=Forchhammer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hgf3MgEACAAJ |title=Arakan |date=1891 |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Koski |first=Oskar |date=2024-05-02 |title=MRAUK U AND KINGDOMS OF ARAKAN » Discovery DMC |url=https://discoverydmc.com/myanmar/west/mrauk-u-3/ |access-date=2025-03-05 |language=en-US}} The English author Maurice Collis made Mrauk U and Rakhine famous with his book "The Land of the Great Image: Being experiences of Friar Manrique in Arakan" based on the accounts of Friar Manrique travels in Arakan.{{cite book |author=Maurice Collis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aPlZJlwHCmoC |title=Land of the Great Image |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1995 |isbn=978-81-206-1023-1 |pages=5}}

File:King Maha Thammada Raza.jpg, the last king of Mrauk-U]]

Gold and silver coins serve as the heritage of the Mrauk-U period. The tradition of coin-making was handed down from the Vesali kings who started minting coins around the fifth century. The coins so far found are of one denomination only. Inscribed on the coins are the title of the ruling king and his year of coronation; coins before 1638 had Rakhine inscriptions on one side and Persian and Nagari inscriptions on the other. The inclusion of the foreign inscriptions was meant for the easy acceptance by the neighbouring countries and the Arab traders. Twenty-three types of silver coins and three types of gold coins have so far been found.{{Cite web |title=The Golden Mrauk U - Ancient City of Rakhine State by U Shwe Zan |url=https://ia800705.us.archive.org/29/items/GoldenMrauk-uTheAnAncientCapitalOfRakhineByUShweZan/GuideToMrauk-uByTunShweKhine_text.pdf}}

The historical ruins of the Mrauk U Kingdom include over 700 ancient temples and pagodas nestled amidst lush hills in Myanmar's Rakhine State. Notable sites include the Shitthaung Pagoda, known as the "Temple of 80,000 Buddhas", the tooth-shrine temple of Andaw-thein, and the fortress-like Htukkanthein Temple.{{Cite web |last1=Magazine |first1=Smithsonian |last2=Hammer |first2=Joshua |title=The Hidden City of Myanmar |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/hidden-city-myanmar-180973486/ |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}

Tibetan records also suggest a consistent and ongoing exchange of monks between Arakan, Bengal and Tibet, where this interaction reaching its peak in the 16th century. The earliest examples of this particular image type may have originated in Tibet during the early 15th century, possibly brought from Bengal by Min Saw Mon upon his return to reclaim Arakan from the Burmans.{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/PAMELAGUTMANBURMASLOSTKINGDOMSSPLENDOURSBookZa.org/mode/1up |title=Burma's Lost Kingdoms: Splendours of Arakan by Pamela Gutman |pages=150}}

File:Haridaung-Mrauk U-Aussicht-10-Shite Thaung-gje.jpg|Shite Thaung Temple

File:Mrauk U portugais.jpg|Portugese office

File:Interior Chamber of Dukkanthein Paya - Mrauk U (Myuhaung) - Arakan State - Myanmar (Burma) - 03 (12232000506).jpg|Interior Chamber of Dukkanthein Paya

File:Shitthaung temple interior - depictions of Arakan characters (2).jpg|Depictions of Arakan kings in Shitthaung temple

File:Arakan coins.jpg|Arakan Coin

File:Mrauk U, Rakhine State 23.jpg|Historical ruins of Mrauk U

File:Mrauk U, Rakhine State 29.jpg|Historial Ruins of Mrauk U

File:Le Myet Hna Temple - Mrauk U.jpg|Le Myet Hna Temple of Mrauk U

File:Kouthaung temple view.png|Temple of 90,000 Buddha Images

• List of Arakanese monarchs
• Arakanese monarchs' family tree
• History of Rakhine
• History of Chittagong
• History of Burma

{{Reflist}}

• {{cite journal |author=Aye Chan |url=https://www.soas.ac.uk/sbbr/editions/file64388.pdf |title=The Development of a Muslim Enclave in Arakan (Rakhine) State of Burma (Myanmar) |journal=SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research |date=Autumn 2005 |volume=3 |number=2 |access-date=11 September 2017 |archive-date=12 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712065830/http://www.soas.ac.uk/sbbr/editions/file64388.pdf |url-status=dead }}
• {{cite book | last=Charney | first=Michael W.| title= 'Arakan, Min Yazagyi, and the Portuguese: The Relationship Between the Growth of Arakanese Imperial Power and Portuguese Mercenaries on the Fringe of Mainland Southeast Asia 1517–1617.' Masters dissertation, Ohio University | year=1993 }}
• {{cite book | last=Hall | first=D.G.E. | title=Burma | edition=3rd | year=1960 |publisher=Hutchinson University Library| isbn=978-1-4067-3503-1}}
• {{cite book | last=Harvey | first= G. E.| title=History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824 | publisher=Frank Cass & Co. Ltd | year = 1925| location = London}}
• {{cite book | last=Htin Aung | first=Maung | title=A History of Burma | publisher=Columbia University Press | location=New York and London | year=1967}}
• {{cite book | last=Maung Maung Tin | title=Konbaung Hset Maha Yazawin | volume=2 | year=1905 | edition=2004 | publisher=Department of Universities History Research, University of Yangon | location=Yangon | language=my}}
• {{cite book | title=Myanma Swezon Kyan | publisher=Sarpay Beikman | language=my | location=Yangon | year=1964 | edition=1 | volume=9 | editor=Myat Soe}}
• {{cite book | last=Myint-U | first=Thant | title=The River of Lost Footsteps—Histories of Burma | year=2006 | publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux | isbn=978-0-374-16342-6 }}
• {{cite book | last=Phayre | first=Lt. Gen. Sir Arthur P. | title=History of Burma | year=1883 | edition=1967 | publisher=Susil Gupta | location=London}}
• Encyclopædia Britannica. 1984 Edition. Vol. VII, p. 76

{{Burma (Myanmar) topics}}

{{Bangladesh topics}}

{{Burmese monarchs}}

{{coord|20|35|24|N|93|11|33|E|region:MM|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mrauk U}}

.01

Category:Former countries in Burmese history

Category:Former countries in Southeast Asia

Category:Former kingdoms

Category:Burmese monarchy

Category:Former monarchies of Southeast Asia

Category:History of Chittagong Division

Category:15th century in Burma

Category:16th century in Burma

Category:17th century in Burma

Category:18th century in Burma

Category:2nd millennium in Bangladesh

Category:States and territories established in 1429

Category:States and territories disestablished in 1785

Category:1429 establishments in Asia

Category:1780s disestablishments in Asia

Category:Bengal Sultanate

Category:Former monarchies of Asia

Category:Former protectorates

Category:History of Rakhine