Levant Company

The origins of the Levant Company lay in the Italian trade with Constantinople, and the wars against the Turks in Hungary, although a parallel was routed to Morocco and the Barbary Coast on a similar trade winds as early as 1413.Rymer, Foedera, viii, p. 732; Wood, p. The collapse of the Venetian empire, high tariffs, and the ousting of the Genoese from Scio (Chios)http://www.levantineheritage.com/testi56.htm, "On 14 April 1566 a fleet of 80 galleys, commanded by Piyale Paşa arrive in the port of Chios and succeeds to occupy without a fight" had left a vacuum that was filled by a few intrepid adventurers in their own cog vessels with endeavour to reopen trade with the East on their own accounts.privateer merchant ships recorded as setting out from England included, Anne (1446), Katherine Sturmy (1457), (Lipson, Economic, I, p. 505); Antony (1478), Mary de Toowre (1482), (Power and Postan, p. 45.); Jesus of Lübeck (1552), Mary Gonson (1552), Williamson, (Maritime Entreprise, p. 223) Following a decline in trade with the Levant over a number of decades, several London merchants petitioned Queen Elizabeth I in 1580 for a charter to guarantee exclusivity when trading in that region.The London Port Books from the 1560s and 1570s do not record any shipments by English merchants to or from the Levant, when Venice filled the role of intermediary and Antwerp retained its position as entrepôt. (Willan 1955:400ff.) In 1580 a treaty was signed between England and the Ottoman Empire, giving English merchants trading rights similar to those enjoyed by French merchants. In 1582, William Harborne, an English merchant who had carried out most of the treaty negotiations in Constantinople to French protestations, made himself permanent envoy. But by 1586 Harborne was appointed 'Her Majesty's ambassador' to the Ottoman Empire, with all his expenses (including gifts given to the Sultan and his court) to be paid by the Levant Company.Michael Strachan, "The life and Adventures of Thomas Coryate", OUP, 1962.

When the charters of the Venice Company and the Turkey Company expired, both companies were merged into the Levant Company in 1592 after Queen Elizabeth I approved its charter as part of her diplomacy with the Ottoman Empire.

The company had no colonial aspirations, but rather established "factories" (trading centers) in already-established commercial centers, such as the Levant Factory in Aleppo, as well as Constantinople, Alexandria and Smyrna. Throughout the company's history, Aleppo functioned as the central hub for the entire Middle East operations. By 1588, the Levant Company had been converted to a regulated monopoly on an established trade route, from its initial character as a joint-stock company. The prime movers in the conversion were Sir Edward Osborne and Richard Staper.

In January 1592, a new charter was granted and by 1595 its character as a regulated company had become clear.Willan 1955:405–07. In the early days of the company there were threats not just from Barbary pirates but also from Spain during the 1585 to 1604 war. In that conflict however the company with its heavily armed ships managed to repel the Spanish galleys intent on capturing the cargo in a number of pitched naval battles, in 1586, 1590, 1591 and 1600{{cite book|last=Corbett|first=Julian S|title=The Successors of Drake (1596–1603)|date=1900|publisher=Longmans|page=297|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XWcznAEACAAJ}} The company as a result surrendered some of their ships to the English Crown and these were used during the Spanish Armada campaign, proving their worth.

James I (1603–25) renewed and confirmed the company's charter in 1606, adding new privileges.{{Cite book|last=Anderson|first=Adam|author-link=Adam Anderson (economist)|title=An Historical and Chronological Deduction of the Origin of Commerce|year=1764|volume=1|url=https://archive.org/details/historicalchrono01ande|page=[https://archive.org/details/historicalchrono01ande/page/468 468]}} However he engaged in a verbal anti-Turk crusade and neglected direct relations with the Turks. The government did not interfere with trade, which expanded. Especially profitable was the arms trade as the Porte modernised and re-equipped its forces. Of growing importance was textile exports. Between 1609 and 1619, the export of cloth to the Turks increased from 46% to 79% of total cloth exports. The business was highly lucrative. Piracy continued to be a threat. Despite the anti-Ottoman rhetoric of the king, commercial relations with the Turks expanded. The king's finances were increasingly based on the revenues derived from this trade, and English diplomacy was complicated by this trade. For example, James refused to provide financial support to Poland for its war against the Turks.Eysturlid, 1993

During the English Civil War (1642–1651), some innovations were made in the government of the company, allowing many people to become members who were not qualified by the charters of Elizabeth and James, or who did not conform to the regulations prescribed. Charles II, upon his restoration, endeavored to set the company upon its original basis; to which end, he gave them a charter, containing not only a confirmation of their old one, but also several new articles of reformation.{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}

By the charter of King Charles II in 1661, the company was erected into a body politic, capable of making laws, under the title of the Company of Merchants of England trading to the Seas of the Levant. The number of members was not limited, but averaged about 300. The principal qualification required was that the candidate be a wholesale merchant, either by family, or by serving an apprenticeship of seven years. Those under 25 years of age paid 25 pounds at their admission; those above, twice as much. Each made an oath, at his entrance, not to send any merchandise to the Levant, except on his own account; and not to consign them to any but the company's agents, or factors. The company governed itself by a plurality of voices.Mortimer Epstein, The early history of the Levant Company (1908) pp. 67–99 [https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryofle00epstuoft/page/n6/mode/2up online].

The company had a court, or board at London, composed of a governor, sub-governor, and twelve directors, or assistants; who were all actually to live in London, or the suburbs. They also had a deputy-governor, in every city and port where there were any members of the company. This assembly at London sent out the vessels, regulated the tariff for the price at which the European merchandise sent to the Levant were to be sold; and for the quality of those returned. It raised taxes on merchandise, to defray impositions, and the common expense of the company; presented the ambassador, which the King was to keep at the port; elected two consuls for Smyrna and Constantinople, etc. As the post of ambassador to the Sublime Porte became increasingly important, the Crown had to assume control of the appointment.

One of the best regulations of the company was not to leave the consuls, or even the ambassador, to fix the impositions on the vessels for defraying the common expenses—something that was fatal to the companies of most other nations—but to allow a pension to the ambassador and consuls, and even to the chief officers—including the chancellor, secretary, chaplain, interpreters, and janissaries—so that there was no pretence for their raising any sum at all on the merchants or merchandises. It was true that the ambassador and consul might act alone on these occasions, but the pensions being offered to them on condition of declining them, they chose not to act.

File:FrancisLevett.jpg of Turkey merchant Francis Levett (1700–1764), chief representative of the Levant Company at Constantinople, 1737–1750]]

In extraordinary cases, the consuls, and even ambassador himself, had recourse to two deputies of the company, residing in the Levant, or if the affair be very important, assemble the whole nation. Here were regulated the presents to be given, the voyages to be made, and every thing to be deliberated; and on the resolutions here taken, the deputies appointed the treasurer to furnish the required funds. The ordinary commerce of this company employed from 20 to 25 vessels, of between 25 and 30 pieces of cannon.

The merchandises exported there were limited in quality and range, suggesting an imbalance of trade; they included traditional cloths, especially shortcloth and kerseys, tin, pewter, lead, black pepper, re-exported cochineal, black rabbit skins and a great deal of American silver, which the English took up at Cadiz. The more valuable returns were in raw silk, cotton wool and yarn, currants and raisins, nutmeg, black pepper, indigo, galls, camlets, wool and cotton cloth, the soft leathers called maroquins, soda ash for making glass and soap, and several gums and medicinal drugs. Velvet, carpets, and silk were bought by the traders.{{cite web |url=http://www.finedictionary.com/Turkey-merchant.html |title=Turkey-merchant |website=Fine Dictionary |publisher=Chambers's Twentieth Century Dictionary }}

The commerce of the company to Smyrna, Constantinople, and İskenderun, was much less considerable than that of the East India Company; but was, more advantageous to England, because it took off much more of the English products than the other, which was chiefly carried on in money. The places reserved for the commerce of this company included all the states of Venice, in the Gulf of Venice; the state of Ragusa; all the states of the "Grand Signior" (the Ottoman Sultan), and the ports of the Levant and Mediterranean Basin; excepting Cartagena, Alicante, Barcelona, Valencia, Marseille, Toulon, Genoa, Livorno (Leghorn), Civitavecchia, Palermo, Messina, Malta, Mallorca, Menorca, and Corsica; and other places on the coasts of France, Spain, and Italy.Despina Vlami, Trading with the Ottomans: The Levant Company in the Middle East (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014).

Ships owned by the Levant Company from 1581 to 1640:The Early History of The Levant Company, M. Epstein, M.A., Ph.D., London, George Rutledge & Sons, 1908

{{div col|colwidth=12em}}

• Alathia
• Alcede
• Alice and Thomas
• Alice Thomas
• Aleppo Merchant
• Angel
• Anne Frane
• Ascension
• Bark Burre
• Barque Reynolds
• Centurion
• Charity
• Cherubim
• Christ
• Clement
• Cock
• Concord
• Consent
• Cosklett
• Darling
• Delight
• Desire
• Diamond
• Dragon
• Eagle
• Edward Bonaventure
• Elizabeth and Dorcas
• Elizabeth Cocken
• Elizabeth Stoaks
• Elnathan
• Emanuel
• Experience
• Freeman
• George Bonaventure
• Gift of God
• Golden Noble
• Grayhound
• Great Phoenix
• Great Suzanne
• Greenfield
• Guest
• Gyllyon
• Harry
• Harry Bonaventure
• Hector
• Hercules
• Husband
• Industry
• The Jane
• Jesus
• Jewel
• Job
• John
• John Francis
• Jollian
• Jonas
• Lanavit
• Lewis
• Little George
• London
• Margaret
• Margaret Bonaventure
• Marget and John
• Marigold
• Mary
• Mary Anne
• Mary Coust
• Mary Martin
• Mary Rose
• Mayflower
• Merchant Bonaventure
• Mignon
• Paragon
• Peregrine
• Phoenix
• Primrose
• Prosperous
• Providence
• Rainbow
• Rebecca
• Recovery
• Red Lion
• Report
• Resolution
• Roebuck
• Royal Defence
• Royal Exchange
• Royal Merchant
• Saker
• Salamander
• Salutation
• Samaritan
• Sampson
• Samuel
• Saphire
• Scipio
• Society
• Solomon
• Suzanne
• Suzanne Parnell
• Swallow
• Teagre
• Thomas and William
• Thomas Bonaventure
• Thomasine
• Toby of Harwich
• Trinity
• Trinity Bear
• Triumph
• Unicorn
• White Hind
• William and John
• William and Ralph
• William and Thomas
• William Fortune

{{div col end}}

{{div col|colwidth=20em}}

• 1581–1592 Sir Edward Osborne (nominated in first & second charters)
• 1592–1592 Richard Staper
• 1600–1600 Sir Thomas Smith (nominated in third charter)
• 1605–1623 Sir Thomas Lowe (nominated in fourth charter)
• 1623–1634 Sir Hugh Hammersley
• 1634–1643 Sir Henry Garraway
• 1643–1653 Isaac Penington
• 1654–1672 Sir Andrew Riccard
• 1672–1673 John Jolliffe
• 1673–1695 The Earl of Berkeley
• 1696–1709 Sir William Trumbull
• 1710–1718 The Lord Onslow
• 1718–1735 The Earl of Carnavon
• 1736–1766 The Earl De La Warr
• 1766–1772 The Earl of Shaftsbury
• 1772–1776 The Earl of Radnor
• 1776–1792 The Earl of Guilford
• 1792–1799 The Duke of Leeds
• 1799–1821 The Lord Grenville

{{div col end}}

The British government took over the Company in 1821 until its dissolution in 1825.

{{div col|colwidth=20em}}

• 1582–1588 William Harborne
• 1588–1597 Edward Barton
• 1597–1607 Henry Lello
• 1606–1611 Sir Thomas Glover
• 1611–1620 Paul Pindar
• 1619–1621 Sir John Eyre (or Ayres)
• 1621–1622 John Chapman (agent)
• 1621–1628 Sir Thomas Roe
• 1627–1638 Sir Peter Wyche
• 1633–1647 Sir Sackville Crowe
• 1647–1661 Sir Thomas Bendysh
• Richard Salway (never sent out)
• Richard Lawrence (agent only)
• 1668–1672 Heneage Finch, Earl of Winchilsea
• 1668–1672 Sir Daniel Harvey
• 1672–1681 Sir John Finch
• 1680–1687 James, Lord Chandos
• 1684–1686 Sir William Soames
• 1686–1691 Sir William Trumbull
• 1690–1691 Sir William Hussey
• Thomas Coke (chargé d'affaires only)
• 1691–1692 William Harbord
• 1692–1702 William, Lord Paget
• Sir James Rushout, 1st Baronet (nominated only)
• George Berkeley, 1st Earl of Berkeley (nominated only)
• 1700–1717 Sir Robert Sutton
• 1716–1718 Edward Wortley-Montagu
• 1717–1730 Abraham Stanyan
• 1729–1736 George Hay, 8th Earl of Kinnoull
• 1735–1746 Sir Everard Fawkener
• Stanhope Aspinwall (chargé d'affaires only)
• 1746–1762 James Porter
• 1761–1765 Henry Grenville
• William Kinloch (chargé d'affaires only)
• 1765–1775 John Murray
• Anthony Hayes (Chargé d'affaires only)
• 1775–1794 Sir Robert Ainslie
• 1794–1795 Robert Liston
• Spencer Smith (Chargé d'affaires)
• Francis James Jackson (never took up appointment)
• 1799–1803 Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin
• Alexander Straton (Chargé d'affaires)
• 1803–1804 William Drummond
• 1804–1807 Charles Arbuthnot
• 1809–1810 Robert Adair
• 1810–1812 Stratford Canning Minister Plenipotentiary
• 1812–1820 Robert Liston
• 1820–1824 Percy Clinton, 6th Viscount Strangford.

{{div col end}}

{{div col|colwidth=20em}}

• 1611–1624 William Markham
• 1624–1630 William Salter
• 1630–1633 Lawrence Green
• 1633–1634 James Higgins
• 1634–1635 John Freeman
• 1635–1638 Edward Bernard
• 1638–1643 Edward Stringer
• 1644–1649 John Wilde
• 1649–1657 Spencer Bretton
• 1659–1660 William Prideaux
• 1660–1661 Richard Baker
• 1661–1667 William Cave
• 1667–1677 Paul Rycaut
• 1677–1703 William Raye
• 1703–1716 William Sherrard
• 1716–1722 John Cooke
• 1722–1723 George Boddington
• 1733–1741 Francis Williams
• 1741–1742 Thomas Carleton
• 1742–1762 Samuel Crawley
• 1762–1794 Anthony Hayes
• 1794–1825 Francis Werry

{{div col end}}

{{div col|colwidth=20em}}

• 1580–1586 William Barrett
• 1586–1586 James Toverson
• 1586–1586 John Eldred
• 1592–1594 Michael Locke
• 1596 George Dorrington (acting vice-consul)
• 1596–1596 Thomas Sandys
• 1596–1597 Ralph Fitch
• 1597–1597 Richard Colthurst
• vacant
• 1606 James Hawarde (acting vice-consul)
• 1606–1610 Paul Pindar
• 1610–1616 Bartholomew Haggatt
• 1616–1621 Libby Chapman
• 1621–1627 Edward Kirkham
• 1627–1630 Thomas Potton
• 1630–1638 John Wandesford
• 1638–1649 Edward Bernard
• 1649–1659 Henry Riley
• 1659–1672 Benjamin Lannoy
• 1672–1686 Gamaliel Nightingale
• 1686–1689 Thomas Metcalfe
• 1689–1701 Henry Hastings
• 1701–1706 George Brandon
• 1707–1715 William Pilkington
• 1716–1726 John Purnell
• 1727–1740 Nevil Coke
• 1740–1745 Nathaniel Micklethwait
• 1745–1751 Arthur Pollard
• 1751–1758 Alexander Drummond
• 1758–1758 Francis Browne
• 1759–1766 William Kinloch
• 1766–1768 Henry Preston
• 1768–1770 William Clark
• 1770–1772 Charles Smith (pro-consul)
• 1770–1783 John Abbott
• 1783–1784 David Hays (pro-consul)
• 1784–1786 Charles Smith (pro-consul)
• 1786–1791 Michael de Vezin (pro-consul)
• factory closed 1791–1803
• 1803–1825 John Barker

{{div col end}}

File:Levant or Turkey Company coat of arms.jpg

{{main|List of chaplains of the Levant Company}}

{{Infobox UK legislation

| short_title = Dissolution of Levant Company Act 1825

| type = Act

| parliament = Parliament of the United Kingdom

| long_title =

| year = 1825

| citation = 6 Geo. 4. c. 33

| introduced_commons =

| introduced_lords =

| territorial_extent =

| royal_assent = 10 June 1825

| commencement = 10 June 1825

| expiry_date =

| repeal_date = 5 August 1873

| amends =

| replaces =

| amendments =

| repealing_legislation = Statute Law Revision Act 1873

| related_legislation =

| status = Repealed

| legislation_history =

| theyworkforyou =

| millbankhansard =

| original_text =

| revised_text =

| use_new_UK-LEG =

| UK-LEG_title =

| collapsed = yes

}}

{{see also|Old China Trade|History of opium in China}}

Membership began declining in the early eighteenth century. In its decline the company was looked upon as an abuse, a drain on the resources of Britain. The company's purview was thrown open to free trade in 1754, but continued its activities until dissolution in 1825.

The name of the bird called 'turkey' came from the Turkey merchants.{{cite web |url=http://nowiknow.com/how-turkey-got-its-name/ |title=How Turkey Got Its Name |date=23 November 2010 |website=Now I Know }}{{cite news |last=Forsyth |first=Mark |date=27 November 2013 |title=The Turkey's Turkey Connection |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/28/opinion/the-turkeys-turkey-connection.html |newspaper=The New York Times }}

Turkish opium was bought by the Levant Company.{{cite news |date=1998 |title=Opium Throughout History: The Opium Kings |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/heroin/etc/history.html |newspaper=PBS }}{{cite book|author=M. Kienholz|title=Opium Traders and Their Worlds – Volume One: A Revisionist Exposé of the World's Greatest Opium Traders|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2YlO9qraI4MC&q=turkey+merchant+opium&pg=PT108 |date= 2008|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-91078-6}}

The Levant Company encompassed American merchants before 1811 who bought Turkish opium. These merchants would sell the opium to the Chinese, beginning in 1806. Among these American Turkey merchants were members of the famous Astor family.{{cite book|author1=Clifford Putney|author2=Paul T. Burlin|title=The Role of the American Board in the World: Bicentennial Reflections on the Organization's Missionary Work, 1810–2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FzNNAwAAQBAJ&q=turkey+merchant+opium&pg=PA30|date=2012|publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers|isbn=978-1-61097-640-4|pages=30–31}}{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Van |date=21 October 2014 |title=Baltimore's narcotic history dates back to the 19th-century shipping-driven boom, quietly aided by bringing Turkish opium to China |url=http://www.citypaper.com/news/mobtownbeat/bcp-baltimores-narcotic-history-dates-back-to-the-19thcentury-shippingdriven-boom-quietly-aided-by-bring-20141021-story.html |newspaper=Baltimore City Paper |access-date=29 August 2016 |archive-date=11 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911041448/http://www.citypaper.com/news/mobtownbeat/bcp-baltimores-narcotic-history-dates-back-to-the-19thcentury-shippingdriven-boom-quietly-aided-by-bring-20141021-story.html |url-status=dead }}

File:Flag of the Levant Company.svg

The arms of the Levant Company were: Azure, on a sea in base proper, a ship with three masts in full sail or, between two rocks of the second, all the sails, pennants, and ensigns argent, each charged with a cross gules, a chief engrailed of the third, in base a seahorse proper. * The crest was: On a wreath of the colours, a demi seahorse saliant.

• The supporters were: Two seahorses.
• The Latin motto was: Deo reip et amicis.As recorded in {{cite book |last=Fox-Davies |first=Arthur Charles |author-link=Arthur Charles Fox-Davies |title= The Book of Public Arms |year=1915 |publisher=T. C. & E. C. Jack |page=436 |url=https://archive.org/stream/bookofpublicarms00foxd/bookofpublicarms00foxd_djvu.txt}}

• Chartered companies
• British foreign policy in the Middle East
• Turkey–United Kingdom relations

{{Reflist|30em}}

• {{cite book|first=W|last=Fawkener|title=Add MSS Memorandum (ff. 80–97): from the Office of the Committee of the Privy Council for trade) to the Dukes of Leeds on the Turkey Company trade|date=19 October 1790}}
• Harley MSS, 306 Standing Ordinances of the Levant Company (ff. 72–74) c. 1590
• Lansdowne MSS. 60 Petition of the Turkey and Venice Merchants to be incorporated into one body (f.8) c. 1590–91
• MSS Bodleian Library Folio 665, (i List of the Membership of The Levant Company, 1701 (ff. 97–98)
• British Museum, 1718. Paragraphs of Some Letters to Prove the Reasonablness of The Levant Company 's late order to carry on their trade by general ships, Bodleian Pamphlets, Folio 666, ff. 288–89.
• 1718–1719, The Case of The Levant Company, British Museum. 351–356, 6(40)
• 1825, Proceedings of The Levant Company respecting the Surrender of their Charters, BM6/6259

• {{citation|title=Calendar of State Papers, Venetian 1581–1591}}
• {{citation|title=Calendar of State Papers, Domestic 1547–1580}}
• {{cite journal|first=J. T.|last=Bent|title=The English in The Levant Company|journal=English Historical Review|volume=5|date=October 1890}}
• {{cite book|last1=Epstein|first1=M.|title=The Early History of the Levant Company|date=1908|publisher=George Routledge & Sons; Dutton|location=London; New York|url=https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryofle00epstuoft|access-date=23 October 2017}} Covers the years of the periodic charterers, 1581–1605 and the permanent charter to 1640.
• {{cite journal|last=Eysturlid|first=Lee W.|title=Where Everything is Weighed in the Scales of Material Interest: Anglo-Turkish Trade, Picary, and Diplomacy in the Mediterranean during the Jacobean Period|journal=Journal of European Economic History|date=Winter 1993|volume=22|issue= 3|ref=p.613-25}}
• {{cite book|first=S.|last=Lans-Poole|title=The Life of Stratford Canning|volume=2 vols|place=London|date=1833}}
• {{cite book|last=Mather|first=James|title=Pashas: Traders and Travellers in the Islamic World|publisher=Yale University Press|date=2009|isbn=978-0300170917}}
• {{cite book|first=H.G.|last=Rosedale|title=Queen Elizabeth and The Levant Company|date=1904|publisher=Henry Frowde|location=London|url=https://archive.org/details/queenelizabethle00roseuoft|access-date=23 October 2017}}
• {{cite book|first=Sir Arthur|last=Paget|title=Diplomatic Correspondence and Other Correspondence|volume=2 vols|place=London|publisher=Heinemann|date=1896}}
• {{cite book|last1=Wood|first1=Alfred C.|title=A History of the Levant Company|date=1935|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.187679|access-date=23 October 2017}}

{{wiktionary|Turkey merchant}}

• {{cite book|last=Bent |first=James Theodore|title=Early Voyages and Travels in the Levant: I. The Diary of Master Thomas Dallam, 1599–1600. II. Extracts from the Diaries of Dr. John Covel, 1670–1679. With Some Account of the Levant Company of Turkey Merchants|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUERAQAAIAAJ|year=1893|publisher=B. Franklin}}
• {{cite book|author-link1=Jerry Brotton | last = Brotton | first = Jerry | year = 2016 | title = This Orient Isle: Elizabethan England and the Islamic World | publisher = Allen Lane | location =London | isbn = 978-0241004029 }}
• {{cite book|author1=Thomas Dallam|author2=John Covel|author3=James Theodore Bent|title=Works Issued by the Hakluyt Society|url=https://archive.org/details/earlyvoyagesand00bentgoog|year=1893|publisher=The Society}}
• {{cite book|author1=Thomas Dallam |title=Early Voyages And Travels In The Levant|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uJ58CgAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Read Books Limited|isbn=978-1-4474-8322-9}}
• {{cite book|first=Christine|last=Laidlaw|title=The British in the Levant: Trade and Perceptions of the Ottoman Empire in the Eighteenth Century|publisher= I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd|series= Library of Ottoman Studies|isbn= 978-1848853355|date= 2010|ref=pages. 288}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |title=Levant Company |encyclopedia=Literature of Travel and Exploration |year=2003 |last=Paterson |first=James |publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn |location=London |isbn=1579584241 |url=https://archive.org/details/literatureoftrav0002unse/page/716/mode/1up }}
• {{cite book|author=G. A. Russell|title=The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4H2fESItCVIC |year=1994|publisher=Brill|isbn=90-04-09888-7}}

{{Chartered companies}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Chartered companies

Category:Trading companies of England

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Category:1592 establishments in England

Category:Trading companies established in the 16th century

Category:Organizations established in the 1590s

Category:British companies disestablished in 1825

Category:Defunct shipping companies of the United Kingdom

Category:Economic history of England

Category:Economy of the Ottoman Empire

Category:Ottoman Empire–United Kingdom relations