List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty
{{Short description|Rulers of the Mongol Empire and China (1206–1368)}}
{{Featured list}}
{{Infobox former monarchy
| royal_title = Emperor
| native_name = {{nobold|{{lang|zh|大元皇帝}}}}
| coatofarms =
| coatofarmscaption =
| image = YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg
| caption = Kublai Khan ({{Reigned|1260|1294}}), the grandson of Genghis Khan, proclaimed the Yuan dynasty in 1271.
| realm = the Yuan dynasty
| border = imperial
| first_monarch = Genghis Khan (Mongol Empire)
Kublai Khan (Yuan dynasty)
| last_monarch = Toghon Temür
| style =
| residence = Karakorum
Khanbaliq
| appointer = Hereditary
| began = 1206 (Mongol Empire)
1271 (Yuan dynasty)
| ended = 1368
| pretender =
}}
The Yuan dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China, proclaimed on 18 December 1271 by Kublai Khan, which succeeded the Song dynasty and preceded the Ming dynasty. It also functioned as a continuation of the Mongol Empire, which was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206, but which subsequently split into four autonomous states. The emperors of the Yuan dynasty thus comprise both Kublai's successors as rulers of China and his predecessors up to his grandfather Genghis, who was retrospectively presented as the founder of the dynasty.
The rulers of the Yuan dynasty were nominally superior to those of the other three post-Mongol states, but each was de facto independent of the others and occupied with their own territories. The Yuan dynasty adopted Han political traditions, including the use of posthumous names, temple names and era names. Aside from the title of emperor, Yuan rulers also concurrently held the title of khagan.
Although the reigns of Kublai and his successor Temür were generally peaceful, weaknesses in the Yuan administration became apparent and led to a gradual breakdown of political stability. By the mid-14th century, the Yuan state became impossible to govern, and in 1368 the last emperor, Toghon Temür, was forced to flee China proper. His descendants continued to rule a rump state in Inner Mongolia, known as the Northern Yuan, until 1634.
Background
{{see also|History of the Mongol Empire|History of the Yuan dynasty}}
Through years of campaigning, Genghis Khan ({{circa|1162}} – 1227) unified the tribes of the Mongolian steppe and was crowned khan of the Mongol Empire, or {{transl|mn|Yeke Monggol Ulus}}, in 1206. The campaigns of the following decades saw Mongol armies invade and conquer China, Central Asia, Persia and much of the Middle East, and Russia.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=365|May|2018|2p=39}} However, different branches of Genghis Khan's line became dominant in differing areas. As a result, by 1265, the once-united empire had begun to split into four independent states: the Golden Horde in modern-day Russia, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the Ilkhanate in the Near East, and a regime in China which was ruled by Genghis's grandson Kublai Khan and which was nominally superior to the rest.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1pp=368–369|May|2018|2p=181}}
To appease his Han Chinese-majority population, Kublai declared the foundation of a new imperial dynasty titled {{transl|zh|Da Yuan}}. Essentially a way to convey the {{transl|mn|Yeke Monggol Ulus}} in Chinese conventions, the Yuan was officially proclaimed on 18 December 1271.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=603|May|2018|2p=189}} As the dynasty was regarded as a continuation of the Mongol Empire, contemporary writers retroactively described Genghis Khan as the dynastic founder;{{efn|An alternative view, favoured by some later Chinese historians, places its foundation in 1279 with the fall of the Southern Song dynasty.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=603}}}} the post-1271 emperors styled themselves as Mongol khans.{{sfnm|Wilkinson|2012|1p=776|Atwood|2004|2p=302}} They continued the tradition, dating from the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC), of the ruling head of state being known as huangdi, or emperor.{{sfnm|Wilkinson|1998|1p=106|Mote|1999|2p=98}} In Chinese historical texts, emperors of the Yuan dynasty, along with the Tang and Song dynasties, are referred to by their temple names; they also had posthumous names and normally multiple era names.{{sfn|Wilkinson|1998|pp=106–107}}
Kublai presided over the final conquest of the Song dynasty, which had preceded the Yuan. Although his reign was generally long and prosperous, weaknesses in the Yuan's economy, society, and administration became apparent after the death of his successor Temür in 1307, culminating in two decades of near-anarchy between 1320 and 1340.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|pp=607–608}} Although the emperor Toghon Temür then managed to set up a stable government, an economic crisis led to a breakdown of the social order, and the powerful warlord Zhu Yuanzhang, having forced Toghon Temür to flee, established the Ming dynasty in 1368.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=610|Paludan|1998|2p=157}} Members of the Yuan dynasty continued to rule a rump state in the Mongol heartland, commonly known as the Northern Yuan, until 1634.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=407}}
List of rulers
{{legend|#EBEBEB|shading, with {{small|(regency)}} in the "Reign" column, denotes regents between crowned rulers.}}
| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; width:100%;"
|+ Yuan dynasty (大元; 1271–1368) |
| scope="col" width="10%" | Portrait
! scope="col" width="15%" | Khan name{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=625}} ! scope="col" width="15%" | Personal name ! scope="col" width="25%" | Reign ! scope="col" width="12%" | Succession ! scope="col" width="23%" | Life details |
|---|
| scope="row" |File:YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg
|Genghis Khan ----{{Collapsible list | title = Other names | expand = | : Temple name: : Posthumous name: | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal }} |Temüjin |1206 – 25 August 1227 |{{circa|1162}} – 25 August 1227{{efn|The year of Genghis Khan's birth is not certain; while 1162 is most likely, 1155 and 1167 have also been proposed. For a fuller discussion, see Genghis Khan#Birth and childhood.}} ----Unified the Mongol tribes, founded the Mongol Empire in 1206, initiated the Mongol conquests. Died in uncertain circumstances.{{sfnm|Moule|1957|1p=102|Atwood|2004|2pp=97–102}} |
| style="background-color: #EAECF0"
!scope="row" |File:Tolui Khan.jpg |None, known by his personal name ----{{Collapsible list | title = Other names | expand = | : Temple name: : Posthumous name: | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal }} |Tolui |1227 – 1229 |Fourth son of Genghis |{{circa|1191}} – September/October 1231 ----Commanded armies in Central Asia and in China, and was a candidate to succeed his father as khan. Died in controversial circumstances.{{sfnm|Moule|1957|1p=102|Atwood|2004|2p=542|May|2018|3pp=69–70, 94–95}} |
| scope="row" |File:YuanEmperorAlbumOgedeiPortrait.jpg
|None, known by his personal name ----{{Collapsible list | title = Other names | expand = | : Temple name: : Posthumous name: | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal }} |Ögedei Khan |13 September 1229 – 11 December 1241 |Third son of Genghis |1186 – 11 December 1241 ----Presided over the conquests of the Jin dynasty and Kievan Rus' and the invasion of Europe, refined the imperial administration, and built Karakorum as a capital city. Died from excessive drinking.{{sfnm|Moule|1957|1p=102|Atwood|2004|2pp=416–418}} |
| style="background-color: #EAECF0"
!scope="row" | |None, known by her personal name ----{{Collapsible list | title = Other names | expand = | : Temple name: | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal }} |Töregene Khatun |1242 – 1246 |Wife of Ögedei |Late 1180s – late 1246 ----Her five-year regency on behalf of her son Güyük was noted for its political intrigues and her excessive taxation demands, but after it ended she quickly lost influence and died.{{sfnm|Moule|1957|1p=102|Atwood|2004|2p=544|Broadbridge|2018|3pp=166–167}}{{efn|The historian Qiu Yihao has suggested that Töregene lived much longer and assumed the regency again after Güyük's death.{{sfnm|Qiu|2011|1pp=116–117|Broadbridge|2018|2pp=192–193}}}} |
| scope="row" |File:Guyuk khan from Persian miniature.jpg
|None, known by his personal name ----{{Collapsible list | title = Other names | expand = | : Temple name: : Posthumous name: | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal }} |Güyük Khan |24 August 1246 – April 1248 |1206 – April 1248 ----Reversed his mother's economic policies and removed her associates from power; quarrelled with his cousin Batu and may have intended to campaign against him. Died of ill health.{{sfnm|Moule|1957|1p=102|Atwood|2004|2pp=211–213}} |
| style="background-color: #EAECF0"
!scope="row" | |None, known by her personal name |Oghul Qaimish |1248 – 1251 |Wife of Güyük |Early 1200s – summer 1252 ----An ineffective regent, she was outflanked by her political enemies who proclaimed Tolui's son Möngke as khan. After a coup attempt led by her sons failed, she was judged complicit and guilty of witchcraft, and executed.{{sfnm|Moule|1957|1p=102|Atwood|2004|2pp=418–419|Broadbridge|2018|3pp=196}} |
| scope="row" |File:Audience de Möngke.jpeg
|None, known by his personal name ----{{Collapsible list | title = Other names | expand = | : Temple name: : Posthumous name: | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal }} |Möngke Khan |1 July 1251 – 11 August 1259 |First son of Tolui |10 January 1209 – 11 August 1259 ----Purged those who had opposed his accession in the Toluid Revolution; sent his brother Hulegu to campaign in the Middle East, and himself led the invasion of the Song dynasty, during which he died of fever.{{sfnm|Moule|1957|1p=102|Atwood|2004|2pp=362–364}} |
| colspan="6" style="background-color: #8F5F00" | |
| scope="row" | File:YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg
| Setsen Khan better known as Kublai Khan ----{{Collapsible list | title = Other names | expand = | : Temple name: : Posthumous name: | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal }} | Borjigin Kublai | 5 May 1260 – 18 February 1294 | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal | title = Era(s) | expand = |
}} | Second son of Tolui | 23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294 ----Established the Yuan dynasty in 1271, completed the conquest of the Song dynasty, won the Toluid Civil War, and moved the capital to Khanbaliq. Died of natural causes.{{sfnm|1a1=Paludan|1y=1998|1p=148–153|2a1=Rossabi|2y=1994|2pp=454–489|3a1=Moule|3y=1957|3p=103}} |
| scope="row" | File:YuanEmperorAlbumTemurOljeituPortrait.jpg
| Öljeytü Khan ----{{Collapsible list | title = Other names | expand = | : Temple name: : Posthumous name: | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal }} | Borjigin Temür | 10 May 1294 – 10 February 1307 | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal | title = Era(s) | expand = |
}} | Grandson of Kublai | 15 October 1265 – 10 February 1307 ----His reign was prosperous yet conservative, implementing policies intended to ensure stability, but he failed to resolve increasing ineffiency in the Yuan administration. Died of natural causes.{{sfnm|1a1=Paludan|1y=1998|1pp=154–156|2a1=Ch'i-Ch'ing|2y=1994|2pp=492–503|3a1=Moule|3y=1957|3p=103}} |
| scope="row" | File:YuanEmperorAlbumQaishanKulugPortrait.jpg
| Külüg Khan ----{{Collapsible list | title = Other names | expand = | : Temple name: : Posthumous name: | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal }} | Borjigin Haishan | 21 June 1307 – 27 January 1311 | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal | title = Era(s) | expand = |
}} | Great-grandson of Kublai | 4 August 1281 – 27 January 1311 ----Disregarded established systems, rapidly expanded the bureaucracy, and caused immense fiscal difficulties. Died of natural causes.{{sfnm|1a1=Paludan|1y=1998|1p=156|2a1=Ch'i-Ch'ing|2y=1994|2pp=505–512|3a1=Moule|3y=1957|3p=103}} |
| scope="row" | File:YuanEmperorAlbumAyurbarvadaBuyantuPortrait.jpg
| Buyantu Khan ----{{Collapsible list | title = Other names | expand = | : Temple name: : Posthumous name: | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal }} | Borjigin Ayurbarwada | 7 April 1311 – 1 March 1320 | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal | title = Era(s) | expand = |
}} | Brother of Külüg | 9 April 1285 – 1 March 1320 ----Reversed most of his brother's policies, reintroduced the Confucian examination system, and codifed laws, but failed to restore fiscal order and was undermined by factional struggles. Died of natural causes.{{sfnm|1a1=Paludan|1y=1998|1p=156|2a1=Ch'i-Ch'ing|2y=1994|2pp=513–526|3a1=Moule|3y=1957|3p=103}} |
| scope="row" |
| Gegeen Khan ----{{Collapsible list | title = Other names | expand = | : Temple name: : Posthumous name: | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal }} | Borjigin Shidibala | 19 April 1320 – 4 September 1323 | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal | title = Era(s) | expand = |
}} | Son of Ayurbarwada | 22 February 1302 – 4 September 1323 ----Attempted to reduce the power of the minister {{ill|铁木迭儿|zh|lt=Temuder}} and instituted monetary reforms after the latter's death, but was killed in a coup by Temuder's supporters.{{sfnm|1a1=Paludan|1y=1998|1p=156|2a1=Ch'i-Ch'ing|2y=1994|2pp=527–531|3a1=Moule|3y=1957|3p=103}} |
| scope="row" |
| None, known either by his personal or era name | Borjigin Yesün Temür | 4 October 1323 – 15 August 1328 | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal | title = Era(s) | expand = |
}} | Great-Grandson of Kublai | 28 November 1293 – 15 August 1328{{efn|Some uncertainty surrounds his birth and death dates.{{sfn|Ch'i-Ch'ing|1994|p=353}}}} ----Acceded through assassination but achieved stability by purging those who had brought him to power; restored religious impartiality in the administration. Died of natural causes.{{sfnm|1a1=Paludan|1y=1998|1p=156|2a1=Ch'i-Ch'ing|2y=1994|2pp=535–540|3a1=Moule|3y=1957|3p=104}} |
| scope="row" |
| None, known either by his personal or era name | Borjigin Ragibagh | October 1328 – 14 November 1328 | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal | title = Era(s) | expand = |
}} | Son of Yesün | 1320 – 14 November 1328 ----Child emperor; probably murdered amid the War of the Two Capitals.{{sfnm|1a1=Paludan|1y=1998|1p=156|2a1=Ch'i-Ch'ing|2y=1994|2pp=541–557|3a1=Moule|3y=1957|3p=104}} |
| scope="row" | File:YuanEmperorAlbumTughTemurPortrait.jpg
| Jayaatu Khan ----{{Collapsible list | title = Other names | expand = | : Temple name: : Posthumous name: | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal }} | Borjigin Tugh Temür | 16 October 1328 – 26 February 1329 | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal | title = Era(s) | expand = |
}} | Son of Külüg | 16 February 1304 – 2 September 1332 ----Abdicated in favor of his brother Khutughtu Khan.{{sfnm|1a1=Paludan|1y=1998|1pp=156–157|2a1=Ch'i-Ch'ing|2y=1994|2pp=541–557|3a1=Moule|3y=1957|3p=104}} |
| scope="row" | File:YuanEmperor Kusala.jpg
| Khutughtu Khan ----{{Collapsible list | title = Other names | expand = | : Temple name: : Posthumous name: | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal }} | Borjigin Kusala | 27 February 1329 – 30 August 1329 | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal | title = Era(s) | expand = |
}} | Son of Külüg | 22 December 1300 – 30 August 1329 ----Briefly ruled before being killed by El Temür.{{sfnm|1a1=Paludan|1y=1998|1p=156|2a1=Ch'i-Ch'ing|2y=1994|2pp=541–557|3a1=Moule|3y=1957|3p=104}} |
| scope="row" | File:YuanEmperorAlbumTughTemurPortrait.jpg
| Jayaatu Khan | Borjigin Tugh Temür | 8 September 1329 – 2 September 1332 | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal | title = Era(s) | expand = |
}} | Son of Külüg | 16 February 1304 – 2 September 1332 ----A patron of the arts and scholarship, his reign was dominated by the ministers El Temür and Bayan of the Merkid. Died of natural causes.{{sfnm|1a1=Paludan|1y=1998|1pp=156–157|2a1=Ch'i-Ch'ing|2y=1994|2pp=541–557|3a1=Moule|3y=1957|3p=104}} |
| scope="row" | File:YuanEmperorAlbumIrinchinbalPortrait.jpg
| None, known by his personal name ----{{Collapsible list | title = Other names | expand = | : Temple name: : Posthumous name: | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal }} | Borjigin Rinchinbal | 23 October 1332 – 14 December 1332 | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal | title = Era(s) | expand = |
}} | Son of Khutughtu | 1 May 1326 – 14 December 1332 ----Child emperor; died of sudden illness.{{sfnm|1a1=Paludan|1y=1998|1p=157|2a1=Moule|2y=1957|2p=104}} |
| scope="row" |
| Ukhaghatu Khan ----{{Collapsible list | title = Other names | expand = | : Temple name: : Posthumous name: | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal }} | Borjigin Toghon Temür | 19 July 1333 – 10 September 1368 | titlestyle = background-color:transparent; text-align:right; font-weight:normal | title = Era(s) | expand = |
}} | Son of Khutughtu | 25 May 1320 – 23 May 1370 ----Restored stable government, but an economic crisis led to a breakdown of the social order; was forced to flee to Karakorum in 1368 by the warlord Zhu Yuanzhang, and founded the Northern Yuan dynasty in Inner Mongolia. Died of natural causes.{{sfnm|1a1=Goodrich|1a2=Fang|1y=1976|1pp=1290–1293|2a1=Paludan|2y=1998|2p=157|3a1=Dardess|3y=1994|3pp=566–583|4a1=Moule|4y=1957|4p=104|Atwood|2004|5p=609}} |
Timeline
ImageSize = width:1200 height:auto barincrement:15
PlotArea = top:10 bottom:30 right:120 left:20
AlignBars = early
DateFormat = yyyy
Period = from:1200 till:1380
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:1200
Colors =
id:canvas value:rgb(0.97,0.97,0.97)
id:ME value:rgb(1,0.6,0.2)
id:YU value:rgb(0.2,0.8,0.8)
Backgroundcolors = canvas:canvas
BarData =
barset:Rulers
bar:eon
PlotData=
align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(0,-5)
bar:eon
from: 1206 till: 1271 color:ME text:Mongol Empire
from: 1271 till: 1368 color:YU text:Yuan dynasty
width:5 align:left fontsize:S shift:(5,-4) anchor:till
barset:Rulers
from: 1206 till: 1227 color:ME text:"Genghis Khan (1206–1227)"
from: 1227 till: 1229 color:ME text:"Tolui (regent; 1227–1229)"
from: 1229 till: 1241 color:ME text:"Ögedei Khan (1229–1241)"
from: 1241 till: 1246 color:ME text:"Töregene Khatun (regent; 1241–1246)"
from: 1246 till: 1248 color:ME text:"Güyük Khan (1246–1248)"
from: 1248 till: 1251 color:ME text:"Oghul Qaimish (regent; 1248–1251)"
from: 1251 till: 1259 color:ME text:"Möngke Khan (1251–1259)"
from: 1260 till: 1294 color:YU text:"Kublai Khan (1260–1294)"
from: 1294 till: 1307 color:YU text:"Temür Khan (1294–1307)"
from: 1307 till: 1311 color:YU text:"Külüg Khan (1307–1311)"
from: 1311 till: 1320 color:YU text:"Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan (1311–1320)"
from: 1320 till: 1323 color:YU text:"Gegeen Khan (1320–1323)"
from: 1323 till: 1328 color:YU text:"Yesün Temür (1323–1328)"
from: 1328 till: 1328 color:YU text:"Ragibagh Khan (1328)"
from: 1328 till: 1332 color:YU text:"Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür (1328–1332)"
from: 1329 till: 1329 color:YU text:"Khutughtu Khan Kusala (1329)"
from: 1332 till: 1332 color:YU text:"Rinchinbal Khan (1332)"
from: 1333 till: 1368 color:YU text:"Toghon Temür (1333–1368)"
barset:skip
See also
References
=Notes=
{{notelist}}
=Citations=
{{reflist}}
=Bibliography=
{{refbegin}}
- {{cite book |last=Atwood |first=Christopher P. |author-link=Christopher Atwood |date=2004 |title=Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8160-4671-3 |url=https://www.academia.edu/8855875}}
- {{cite book |last=Broadbridge |first=Anne F. |date=2018 |title=Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |series=Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization |isbn=978-1-1086-3662-9 }}
- {{Cite Cambridge History of China |volume=6 |last=Ch'i-Ch'ing |first=Hsiao |chapter=Mid-Yüan politics |year=1994}}
- {{Cite Cambridge History of China |volume=6 |last=Dardess |first=John |author-link=John Dardess |chapter=Shun-ti and the end of Yüan rule in China |year=1994}}
- {{cite book |editor-last1=Goodrich |editor-first1=Luther Carrington |editor-link1=Luther Carrington Goodrich |editor2=Fang Chaoying |editor-link2=Fang Chao-ying |year=1976 |title=Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644 |volume=2 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-03833-1 |ref={{sfnRef|Goodrich|Fang|1976}}}}
- {{cite book |last=May |first=Timothy |date=2018 |title=The Mongol Empire |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctv1kz4g68 |location=Edinburgh |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |jstor=10.3366/j.ctv1kz4g68 |isbn=978-0-7486-4237-3}}
- {{cite book |last=Mote |first=Frederick W. |author-link=Frederick W. Mote |date=1999 |title=Imperial China, 900–1800 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location= Cambridge |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQWW7QgUH4gC |isbn=978-0-6740-1212-7}}
- {{cite book |last=Moule |first=Arthur C. |author-link=Arthur Christopher Moule |year=1957 |title=The Rulers of China, 221 BC-AD 1949 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |oclc=223359908 |url=https://archive.org/details/the-rulers-of-china |url-access=registration }}
- {{cite book |last=Paludan |first=Ann |author-link=Ann Paludan |year=1998 |title=Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=London |isbn=978-0-500-05090-3 }}
- {{cite thesis |last=Qiu |first=Yihao |title= 蒙古帝国的权力结构（13—14世纪）| trans-title= The Power Structure of the Mongol Empire (13th - 14th centuries) |degree=PhD |location=Shanghai |publisher=Fudan University|year=2011 |language=zh}}
- {{Cite Cambridge History of China |volume=6 |last=Rossabi |first=Morris |author-link=Morris Rossabi |chapter=The reign of Khubilai khan |year=1994}}
- {{cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Endymion |author-link=Endymion Wilkinson |date=1998 |title=Chinese History: A Manual |isbn=978-0-6740-0249-4 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge}}
- {{cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Endymion |author-link=Endymion Wilkinson |date=2012 |orig-date=1998 |edition=Third |title=Chinese History: A New Manual |isbn=978-0-6740-6715-8 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge}}
{{refend}}
External links
- {{Commons category-inline|Emperors of the Yuan Dynasty}}
{{Yuan dynasty topics}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Yuan Dynasty}}
Category:Lists of Chinese monarchs