Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain

The first MR images of a human brain were obtained in 1978 by two groups of researchers at EMI Laboratories led by Ian Robert Young and Hugh Clow.{{cite journal | title = Britain's brains produce first NMR scans | journal = New Scientist | pages = 588 | date = 1978 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JP8ylA05RiEC&pg=PA588}} In 1986, Charles L. Dumoulin and Howard R. Hart at General Electric developed MR angiography,{{cite journal | title = Blood-flow checker | journal = Popular Science | pages = 12 | date = 1987 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=IAEAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA12}} and Denis Le Bihan obtained the first images and later patented diffusion MRI.{{cite journal | vauthors = Le Bihan D, Breton E |title= Method to Measure the Molecular Diffusion and/or Perfusion Parameters of Live Tissue |journal= US Patent # 4,809,701|year=1987}} In 1988, Arno Villringer and colleagues demonstrated that susceptibility contrast agents may be employed in perfusion MRI.{{cite journal | vauthors = Villringer A, Rosen BR, Belliveau JW, Ackerman JL, Lauffer RB, Buxton RB, Chao YS, Wedeen VJ, Brady TJ | title = Dynamic imaging with lanthanide chelates in normal brain: contrast due to magnetic susceptibility effects | journal = Magnetic Resonance in Medicine | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | pages = 164–74 | date = February 1988 | pmid = 3367774 | doi=10.1002/mrm.1910060205| s2cid = 41228095 }} In 1990, Seiji Ogawa at AT&T Bell labs recognized that oxygen-depleted blood with dHb was attracted to a magnetic field, and discovered the technique that underlies Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI).{{cite book | last1 = Faro | first1 = Scott H. | last2 = Mohamed | first2 = Feroze B | name-list-style = vanc | title = Bold fMRI. a guide to functional imaging for neuroscientists | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MkjTO4wx-bkC | access-date = 10 June 2015 | date = 2010-01-15 | publisher = Springer | isbn = 978-1-4419-1328-9 }}

File:'Jedi' helmet Wellcome L0059902.jpg

In the early 1980s to the early 1990s, 'Jedi' helmets, inspired by the 'Return of the Jedi' Star Wars film, were sometimes worn by children in order to obtain good image quality. The copper coils of the helmet were used as a radio aerial to detect the signals while the 'Jedi' association encouraged children to wear the helmets and not be frightened by the procedure. These helmets were no longer needed as MR scanners improved.

In the early 1990s, Peter Basser and Le Bihan, working at NIH, and Aaron Filler, Franklyn Howe, and colleagues developed diffusion tensor imaging (DTI).{{cite journal | vauthors = Howe FA, Filler AG, Bell BA, Griffiths JR | title = Magnetic resonance neurography | journal = Magnetic Resonance in Medicine | volume = 28 | issue = 2 | pages = 328–38 | date = December 1992 | pmid = 1461131 | doi=10.1002/mrm.1910280215| s2cid = 36417513 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Filler AG, Howe FA, Hayes CE, Kliot M, Winn HR, Bell BA, Griffiths JR, Tsuruda JS | title = Magnetic resonance neurography | journal = Lancet | volume = 341 | issue = 8846 | pages = 659–61 | date = March 1993 | pmid = 8095572 | doi=10.1016/0140-6736(93)90422-d| s2cid = 24795253 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Filler A | title = Magnetic resonance neurography and diffusion tensor imaging: origins, history, and clinical impact of the first 50,000 cases with an assessment of efficacy and utility in a prospective 5000-patient study group | journal = Neurosurgery | volume = 65 | issue = 4 Suppl | pages = A29-43 | date = October 2009 | pmid = 19927075 | doi = 10.1227/01.neu.0000351279.78110.00 | pmc=2924821}}{{Cite book|chapter-url=http://oxfordmedicine.com/view/10.1093/med/9780195369779.001.0001/med-9780195369779-chapter-047|chapter=Invention and Development of Diffusion Tensor MRI (DT-MRI or DTI) at the NIH|last=Basser|first=Peter J. | name-list-style = vanc |pages=730–740|language=en|doi=10.1093/med/9780195369779.003.0047|title=Diffusion MRI|year=2010|isbn=9780195369779|publisher=Oxford University Press}} Joseph Hajnal, Young and Graeme Bydder described the use of FLAIR pulse sequence to demonstrate high signal regions in normal white matter in 1992.{{cite journal | vauthors = Hajnal JV, De Coene B, Lewis PD, Baudouin CJ, Cowan FM, Pennock JM, Young IR, Bydder GM | title = High signal regions in normal white matter shown by heavily T2-weighted CSF nulled IR sequences | journal = Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography | volume = 16 | issue = 4 | pages = 506–13 | date = July 1992 | pmid = 1629405 | doi=10.1097/00004728-199207000-00002| s2cid = 42727826 }} In the same year, John Detre, Alan P. Koretsky and coworkers developed arterial spin labeling.{{cite journal | vauthors = Koretsky AP | title = Early development of arterial spin labeling to measure regional brain blood flow by MRI | journal = NeuroImage | volume = 62 | issue = 2 | pages = 602–7 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22245338 | pmc = 4199083 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.01.005 }} In 1997, Jürgen R. Reichenbach, E. Mark Haacke and coworkers at Washington University in St. Louis developed Susceptibility weighted imaging.{{cite journal | vauthors = Reichenbach JR, Venkatesan R, Schillinger DJ, Kido DK, Haacke EM | title = Small vessels in the human brain: MR venography with deoxyhemoglobin as an intrinsic contrast agent | journal = Radiology | volume = 204 | issue = 1 | pages = 272–7 | date = July 1997 | pmid = 9205259 | doi = 10.1148/radiology.204.1.9205259 }}

The first study of the human brain at 3.0 T was published in 1994,{{cite journal | vauthors = Mansfield P, Coxon R, Glover P | title = Echo-planar imaging of the brain at 3.0 T: first normal volunteer results | journal = Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 339–43 | date = May 1994 | pmid = 8188896 | doi = 10.1097/00004728-199405000-00001 | s2cid = 20221062 }} and in 1998 at 8 T.{{cite journal | vauthors = Robitaille PM, Abduljalil AM, Kangarlu A, Zhang X, Yu Y, Burgess R, Bair S, Noa P, Yang L, Zhu H, Palmer B, Jiang Z, Chakeres DM, Spigos D | title = Human magnetic resonance imaging at 8 T | journal = NMR in Biomedicine | volume = 11 | issue = 6 | pages = 263–5 | date = October 1998 | pmid = 9802467 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1099-1492(199810)11:6<263::AID-NBM549>3.0.CO;2-0 | s2cid = 41305659 }} Studies of the human brain have been performed at 9.4 T (2006){{cite journal | display-authors = 9 | author = Vaughan T | author2 = DelaBarre L | author3 = Snyder C | author4 = Tian J | author5 = Akgun C | author6 = Shrivastava D | author7 = Liu W | author8 = Olson C | author9 = Adriany G | author10 = Strupp J | author11 = Andersen P | author12 = Gopinath A | author13 = van de Moortele PF | author14 = Garwood M | author15 = Ugurbil K | title = 9.4T human MRI: preliminary results | journal = Magn Reson Med | volume = 56 | issue = 6 | pages = 1274–82 | date = December 2006 | pmid = 17075852 | doi = 10.1002/mrm.21073 | pmc=4406343}} and up to 10.5 T (2019).{{Cite journal|last1=Sadeghi‐Tarakameh|first1=Alireza|last2=DelaBarre|first2=Lance|last3=Lagore|first3=Russell L.|last4=Torrado‐Carvajal|first4=Angel|last5=Wu|first5=Xiaoping|last6=Grant|first6=Andrea|last7=Adriany|first7=Gregor|last8=Metzger|first8=Gregory J.|last9=Van de Moortele|first9=Pierre‐Francois|last10=Ugurbil|first10=Kamil|last11=Atalar|first11=Ergin|date=2019-11-21|title=In vivo human head MRI at 10.5T: A radiofrequency safety study and preliminary imaging results|journal=Magnetic Resonance in Medicine|volume=84|issue=1|language=en|pages=484–496|doi=10.1002/mrm.28093|pmid=31751499|pmc=7695227|s2cid=208226414|issn=0740-3194|hdl=11693/53263|hdl-access=free}}

Paul Lauterbur and Sir Peter Mansfield were awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning MRI.File:Normal axial T2-weighted MR image of the brain.jpg

The record for the highest spatial resolution of a whole intact brain (postmortem) is 100 microns, from Massachusetts General Hospital. The data was published in Scientific Data on 30 October 2019.{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencealert.com/100-hour-mri-marathon-gives-the-world-its-closest-ever-3d-view-of-the-human-brain|title = 100-Hour-Long MRI of Human Brain Produces Most Detailed 3D Images Yet| date=10 July 2019 }}{{Cite web|url=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2019-10-team-publishes-highest-resolution-brain.html|title = Team publishes on highest resolution brain MRI scan}}

One advantage of MRI of the brain over computed tomography of the head is better tissue contrast,{{cite book|last1=Ebel|first1=Klaus-Dietrich|last2=Benz-Bohm|first2=Gabriele| name-list-style = vanc |title=Differential diagnosis in pediatric radiology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGMrGn49QZUC&pg=PA538|access-date=18 July 2011|date=1999|publisher=Thieme|isbn=978-3-13-108131-5|pages=538–}} and it has fewer artifacts than CT when viewing the brainstem. MRI is also superior for pituitary imaging.{{cite book|last1=Bradley|first1=William G.|last2=Brant-Zawadzki|first2=Michael|last3=Cambray-Forker|first3=Jane| name-list-style = vanc |title=MRI of the brain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40f2WPdivA8C|access-date=24 July 2011|date=2001-01-15|publisher=Surendra Kumar|isbn=978-0-7817-2568-2}} It may however be less effective at identifying early cerebritis.{{cite book|last1=Roos|first1=Karen L.|last2=Tunkel|first2=Allan R.| name-list-style = vanc |title=Bacterial infections of the central nervous system|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GgQshXzR9scC&pg=PA69|access-date=18 July 2011|date=2010|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-444-52015-9|pages=69–}}

In the case of a concussion, an MRI should be avoided unless there are progressive neurological symptoms, focal neurological findings or concern of skull fracture on exam.{{Citation |author1 = American Medical Society for Sports Medicine|date = 24 April 2014 |title = Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question |publisher = American Medical Society for Sports Medicine |work = Choosing Wisely: an initiative of the ABIM Foundation |url = http://www.choosingwisely.org/doctor-patient-lists/american-medical-society-for-sports-medicine/ |access-date = 29 July 2014}} In the analysis of a concussion, measurements of Fractional Anisotropy, Mean Diffusivity, Cerebral Blood Flow, and Global Connectivity can be taken to observe the pathophysiological mechanisms being made while in recovery.{{cite journal| doi = 10.1016/j.nicl.2017.02.015 | pmid = 28280686 | pmc = 5334547 | volume=14 | title=The first week after concussion: Blood flow, brain function and white matter microstructure| year=2017| journal=NeuroImage: Clinical| pages=480–489| author=Churchill Nathan W., Hutchison Michael G., Richards Doug, Leung General, Graham Simon J., Schweizer Tom A.}}

In analysis of the fetal brain, MRI provides more information about gyration than ultrasound.{{cite book|last=Garel|first=Cathérine | name-list-style = vanc |title=MRI of the fetal brain: normal development and cerebral pathologies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qbd75DzWGh8C|access-date=24 July 2011|date=2004|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-540-40747-8}}

MRI is sensitive for the detection of brain abscess.{{cite journal | last1=Rath | first1=Tanya J. | last2=Hughes | first2=Marion | last3=Arabi | first3=Mohammad | last4=Shah | first4=Gaurang V. | title=Imaging of Cerebritis, Encephalitis, and Brain Abscess | journal=Neuroimaging Clinics of North America | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=22 | issue=4 | year=2012 | issn=1052-5149 | pmid=23122258 | doi=10.1016/j.nic.2012.04.002 | pages=585–607}}

A number of different imaging modalities or sequences can be used with imaging the nervous system:

• T₁-weighted (T1W) images: Cerebrospinal fluid is dark. T₁-weighted images are useful for visualizing normal anatomy.
• T₂-weighted (T2W) images: CSF is light, but fat (and thus white matter) is darker than with T₁. T₂-weighted images are useful for visualizing pathology.{{cite book|last1=Butler|first1=Paul|last2=Mitchell|first2=Adam W. M.|last3=Ellis|first3=Harold| name-list-style = vanc |title=Applied Radiological Anatomy for Medical Students|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COrAyvWUt68C&pg=PA12|access-date=18 July 2011|date=2007-11-19|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-81939-8|pages=12–}}
• Diffusion-weighted images (DWI): DWI uses the diffusion of water molecules to generate contrast in MR images.
• Proton density (PD) images: CSF has a relatively high level of protons, making CSF appear bright. Gray matter is brighter than white matter.{{cite book|last=Tofts|first=Paul|title=Quantitative MRI of the Brain: Measuring Changes Caused by Disease|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f5ZPsReoG1IC&pg=PA86|access-date=18 July 2011|date=2005-09-01|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-0-470-86949-9|pages=86–}}

File:Brain MRI 0230 15.jpg MRI by applying red to T1, green to PD and blue to T2. {{noprint|Click here to scroll through the stack, and for further description of the colors.}}]]

• Fluid attenuation inversion recovery (FLAIR): useful for evaluation of white matter plaques near the ventricles.{{cite book |last1=Chowdhury|first1=Rajat |last2=Wilson|first2=Iain |last3=Rofe|first3=Christopher |first4=Graham|last4=Lloyd-Jones | name-list-style = vanc |title=Radiology at a Glance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=---xH-DNsrwC&pg=PA95|access-date=18 July 2011|date=2010-04-19|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-9220-0|pages=95–}} It is useful in identifying demyelination.{{cite book|last=Granacher|first=Robert P.| name-list-style = vanc |title=Traumatic brain injury: methods for clinical and forensic neuropsychiatric assessment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xt1YFydzXKQC&pg=PT247|access-date=18 July 2011|date=2007-12-20|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-8493-8138-6|pages=247–}}

MRI of the brain and head has multiple diagnostic usages, including identifying aneurysms, strokes, tumors and other brain injury.{{Cite web |title=MRI - Mayo Clinic |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/mri/about/pac-20384768 |access-date=2023-12-22 |website=www.mayoclinic.org}} In many diseases, such as Parkinson's or Alzheimer's, MRI is useful to help differentially diagnose against other diseases.{{Cite journal |last=Heim |first=Beatrice |last2=Krismer |first2=Florian |last3=De Marzi |first3=Roberto |last4=Seppi |first4=Klaus |date=2017-08-01 |title=Magnetic resonance imaging for the diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-017-1717-8 |journal=Journal of Neural Transmission |language=en |volume=124 |issue=8 |pages=915–964 |doi=10.1007/s00702-017-1717-8 |issn=1435-1463 |pmc=5514207 |pmid=28378231}}{{Cite journal |last=Frisoni |first=Giovanni B. |last2=Fox |first2=Nick C. |last3=Jack |first3=Clifford R. |last4=Scheltens |first4=Philip |last5=Thompson |first5=Paul M. |date=February 2010 |title=The clinical use of structural MRI in Alzheimer disease |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nrneurol.2009.215 |journal=Nature Reviews Neurology |language=en |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=67–77 |doi=10.1038/nrneurol.2009.215 |issn=1759-4766|pmc=2938772 }} On the topic of diagnosis, MRI data has been used with deep learning networks to identify brain tumors.{{cite journal | last1=Segato | first1=Alice | last2=Marzullo | first2=Aldo | last3=Calimeri | first3=Francesco | last4=De Momi | first4=Elena | title=Artificial intelligence for brain diseases: A systematic review | journal=APL Bioengineering | publisher=AIP Publishing | volume=4 | issue=4 | date=2020-12-01 | issn=2473-2877 | doi=10.1063/5.0011697 | page=041503| pmid=33094213 | pmc=7556883 }}

• Human Connectome Project
• History of neuroimaging

Image:Brain regions on T1 MRI.png|Brain regions on T1 MRI

Image:Falxmeningeom MRT T1 mit Kontrastmittel.jpg|T1 (note CSF is dark) with contrast (arrow pointing to meningioma of the falx)

Image:Brain-T2-axial.png|Normal axial T2-weighted MR image of the brain

Image:MRI brain surface normal.jpg|MRI image of the surface of the brain.

{{Commons category|Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain}}

{{clear}}

{{reflist|30em}}

{{Central nervous system tests and procedures}}

{{Medical imaging}}

Category:Magnetic resonance imaging

Category:Neuroimaging