Marcus Terentius Varro

{{About|the Roman polymath|the Roman general and consul of the Second Punic War|Gaius Terentius Varro}}

File:Marco Terenzio_Varrone.jpg, Les Vrais pourtraits et vies des hommes illustres grecz, latins et payens (1584).|alt=]]

Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 BCE) was a Roman polymath and a prolific author. He is regarded as ancient Rome's greatest scholar, and was described by Petrarch as "the third great light of Rome" (after Virgil and Cicero).Oxford Classical Dictionary, "[https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.6699 Terentius Varro, Marcus]" He is sometimes called Varro Reatinus ("Varro of Rieti") to distinguish him from his younger contemporary Varro Atacinus ("Varro of Atax").{{Cite book |last=Courtney |first=Edward |url=https://www.google.com.br/books/edition/The_Fragmentary_Latin_Poets/YPMRG8ZLbvsC |title=The Fragmentary Latin Poets |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-926579-4 |pages=235 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=Ferriss-Hill |first=Jennifer L. |url=https://www.google.com.br/books/edition/Roman_Satire_and_the_Old_Comic_Tradition/r6SUBgAAQBAJ |title=Roman Satire and the Old Comic Tradition |date=2015-02-26 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-08154-3 |pages=10 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=William |url=https://www.google.com.br/books/edition/A_Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_Biograph/R6c_AAAAYAAJ |title=A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology: Oarses-Zygia |date=1876 |publisher=J. Murray |pages=1227 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=Theophrastus |url=https://www.google.com.br/books/edition/On_Weather_Signs/bNas2p8fJFAC |title=On Weather Signs |date=2007 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-15593-0 |pages=21 |language=en}}

Biography

Varro was born in or near Reate (now Rieti in Lazio){{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Marcus-Terentius-Varro|title= Marcus Terentius Varro {{!}} Roman author|newspaper= Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date= 12 January 2017}} into a family thought to be of equestrian rank. He always remained close to his roots in the area, owning a large farm in the Reatine plain (reported as near Lago di Ripasottile,{{Cite web|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Varro/de_Re_Rustica/1*.html#note36|title=LacusCurtius • Varro on Agriculture – Book I|website=penelope.uchicago.edu|access-date=12 January 2017}}) until his old age. He supported Pompey, reaching the office of praetor, after having served as tribune of the people, quaestor and curule aedile.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_jhKAAAAYAAJ&q=VARRO+praetor%2C+after+having+been+tribune+of+the+people%2C+quaestor+and+curule+aedile.&pg=PA92|title=The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature|last= Baynes|first= Thomas Spencer|year= 1891 |publisher=C. Scribner's sons}} It is probable that Varro was discontented with the course on which Pompey entered when the First Triumvirate formed {{circa}} 60 BC, and he may thus have lost his chance of rising to the consulship.{{cite EB1911 |wstitle= Varro, Marcus Terentius |volume=27 |pages=923–924 |first=James Smith |last= Reid}} He actually ridiculed the coalition in a work entitled the Three-Headed Monster ({{lang|grc|Τρικάρανος}} in the Greek of Appian, The Civil Wars, II.ii.9). He was one of the commission of twenty that carried out the great agrarian scheme of Caesar for the resettlement of Capua and Campania (59 BC).

{{stack|File:Statua di Marco Terenzio Varrone (Rieti) 02.jpg.|alt=]]}}

During Caesar's civil war of 49 to 45 he commanded one of Pompey's armies in the Ilerda campaign of 49 BC.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hWSyDAAAQBAJ&q=VARRO+CIVIL+WAR+ILERDA+CAMPAIGN&pg=PA59|title= Civil War|last1= Caesar|last2= Damon|first2= Cynthia|year=2016|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674997035}} He escaped the penalties of having backed the losing side in the civil war through two pardons granted by Julius Caesar, before and after the 48 BC Battle of Pharsalus.{{Cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=H3ZaIYAaOSQC&q=varro+pardon+caesar+pharsalus&pg=PA214|title=A History of Medicine: Roman medicine|last= Prioreschi|first= Plinio|date= 1996|publisher= Horatius Press|isbn= 978-1888456035}} Caesar appointed him to oversee the public library of Rome in 47 BC, but following Caesar's death Mark Antony proscribed him, resulting in his losing much of his property, including his library. As the Republic gave way to the Empire {{circa|27 BC}}, Varro gained the favour of Augustus, under whose protection he found the security and quiet to devote himself to study and writing.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

Varro had studied under the Roman philologist Lucius Aelius Stilo (died 74 BC), and later at Athens under the Academic philosopher Antiochus of Ascalon (died 68 BC). Varro proved a highly productive writer and turned out more than 74 Latin works on a variety of topics. Aside from his many lost works (known through fragments), two endeavors stand out for historians: Nine Books of Disciplines and his compilation of the Varronian chronology. His Nine Books of Disciplines became a model for later encyclopedists, especially for Pliny the Elder ({{circa|23}} to 79 AD). The most noteworthy portion of the Nine Books of Disciplines is its use of the liberal arts as organizing principles.{{cite book |title= The Beginnings of Western Science |last= Lindberg |first= David |year= 2007 |publisher= University of Chicago Press |location= Chicago |isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7 |page= 137 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=dPUBAkIm2lUC&pg=PA137|access-date= 6 March 2010}} Varro decided to focus on identifying{{citation needed|date=October 2023}} nine of these arts: grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, musical theory, medicine, and architecture. Using Varro's list, mediated through Martianus Capella's early-5th century allegory, subsequent writers defined the seven classical "liberal arts" of the medieval schools.

In {{circa|37}} BC,{{Cite book|title= The Cambridge companion to the Roman Republic |editor-last1 = Flower |editor-first1 = Harriet I. |edition = 2 |date= 23 June 2014|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 9781107032248 |pages= 177|oclc= 904729745 |publication-place = New York |orig-date = 2004| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7SOjAwAAQBAJ}} in his old age, Varro wrote on agriculture for his wife Fundania, producing a "voluminous" work {{lang|la|De re rustica}} (also called {{lang|la|Res rusticae}})—similar to Cato the Elder's work De agri cultura—on the management of large slave-run estates.{{Cite book |title= The Cambridge companion to the Roman Republic |editor-last1 = Flower |editor-first1 = Harriet I. |edition = 2 |date= 23 June 2014 |publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 9781107032248 |page= 193 |oclc= 904729745 |publication-place = New York |orig-date = 2004| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7SOjAwAAQBAJ}}

{{cite journal

| journal = Miscellaneous Publication

| publisher = Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station

| publication-date = 1977

| issue = 900

| page = 10

| quote = The writer Varro, whose book on agriculture was published in 37 B.C., makes it clear that such latifundia existed in those days. Varro discussed some of the problems of latifundia management.

| access-date = 2023-10-22

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vj-cUsLlD1gC

| title = Miscellaneous Publication

}}

Calendars

Image:Roman-calendar.png. This calendar predates the Julian reform of the calendar; it contains the months Quintilis and Sextilis, and allows for the insertion of an intercalary month]]

The compilation of the Varronian chronology was an attempt to determine an exact year-by-year timeline of Roman history up to his time. It is based on the traditional sequence of the consuls of the Roman Republic—supplemented, where necessary, by inserting "dictatorial" and "anarchic" years. It has been demonstrated to be somewhat erroneous{{citation |last=Lendering |first=Jona |contribution=Varronian Chronology |contribution-url=https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/varronian-chronology/ |date=2020 |title=Official site |publisher=Livius |location=Amsterdam |url=https://livius.nl/ }}. but has become the widely accepted standard chronology, in large part because it was inscribed on the arch of Augustus in Rome; though that arch no longer stands, a large portion of the chronology has survived under the name of Fasti Capitolini.

Works

Varro's literary output was prolific; Ritschl estimated it at 74 works in some 620 books, of which only one work survives complete, although we possess many fragments of the others, mostly in Gellius' Attic Nights. He was called "the most learned of the Romans" by Quintilian,{{Cite book |author=Quintilian |author-link=Quintilian |title=Institutio Oratoria |chapter=Chapter 1 |chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/10A*.html#1.95 |volume=Book X |at=Verse 95|title-link=Institutio Oratoria }} and also recognized by Plutarch as "a man deeply read in Roman history".{{Cite book|last=Plutarch|title=Life of Romulus|publisher=Modern Library|location=New York|pages=31}}

Varro was recognized as an important source by many other ancient authors, among them Cicero, Pliny the Elder, Virgil in the Georgics, Columella, Aulus Gellius, Macrobius, Augustine, and Vitruvius, who credits him [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/7*.html#Intro.14 (VII.Intr.14)] with a book on architecture.

His only complete work extant, {{lang|la|Rerum rusticarum libri tres}} ("Three Books on Agriculture"), has been described as "the well digested system of an experienced and successful farmer who has seen and practised all that he records."{{cite book|last=Harrison|first=Fairfax|title=Roman Farm Management|year=1918|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=1–14 [10]|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/romanfarmmanagem02harruoft|chapter=Note Upon the Roman Agronomists}}

One noteworthy aspect of the work is his anticipation of microbiology and epidemiology. Varro warned his readers to avoid swamps and marshland, since in such areas

...there are bred certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, but which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and cause serious diseases.{{Cite book |last=Varro |first=Marcus Terentius |year=2014 |orig-year=1934 |title=De Re Rustica |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Varro/de_Re_Rustica/1*.html#12.2 |publisher=Loeb Classical Library |at=I.12.2 |via=Bill Thayer's Website}}{{Cite journal |last=Thompson |first=Sue |date=March 2014 |title=From Ground to Tap |url=http://mag.digitalpc.co.uk/fvx/rsc/themole/1403/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012012410/http://www.rsc.org/eic/sites/default/files/The-Mole-March-2014-corrected.pdf |archive-date=12 October 2014 |journal=The Mole |page=3 (sidebar) |access-date=21 August 2017}}{{Cite journal |last1=Hempelmann |first1=Ernst |last2=Krafts |first2=Kristine |date=October 2013 |title=Bad Air, Amulets and Mosquitoes: 2,000 Years of Changing Perspectives on Malaria |journal=Malaria Journal |volume=12 |page=232 |doi=10.1186/1475-2875-12-232 |pmid=23835014 |pmc=3723432 |issn=1475-2875 |doi-access=free }}

All of the manuscripts of Cato's treatise De agri cultura also include a copy of Varro's De re rustica. J.G. Schneider and Heinrich Keil showed that the existing manuscripts directly or indirectly descend from a long-lost manuscript called the Marcianus, which was once in the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice and described by Petrus Victorinus as liber antiquissimus et fidelissimus ({{lit|a book most ancient and faithful}}). The oldest existing manuscript is the Codex Parisinus 6842, written in Italy at some point before the end of the 12th century. The editio princeps was printed at Venice in 1472; Angelo Politian's collation of the Marcianus against his copy of this first printing is considered an important witness for the text.M.D. Reeve discusses the descent of both Cato's and Varro's essays in Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics, edited by L.D. Reynolds (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), pp. 40–42.

A modern scholar, Bertha Tilly, assesses Varro's work as follows:

For the immense mass of work completed, for his patriotic fervour, his high moral sentiments, for versatility in forms of writing and in subjects, for the vast range of material, Varro towers above all his contemporaries and his successors: he was distinguished for learning as no other man had ever been or was to be.Tilly, Bertha (1973). Varro the Farmer, p. 13.

=Extant works=

File:Birdhouse at Casinum.jpg

De lingua latina libri XXV (or On the Latin Language in 25 Books, of which six books (V–X) survive, partly mutilated)
Rerum rusticarum libri III (or Three Books of Rural Topics), also known as the {{lang|la|De re rustica}} ("On Agriculture") or {{lang|la|Res rusticae}} ("Agriculture")

=Known lost works=

Saturarum Menippearum libri CL or Menippean Satires in 150 books
Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum libri XLI (Antiquities of Human and Divine Things){{Cite news

| url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Marcus-Terentius-Varro

| title=Marcus Terentius Varro {{!}} Roman author

| newspaper=Encyclopædia Britannica

| access-date=4 January 2019

}}

Logistoricon libri LXXVI
Hebdomades vel de imaginibus
Disciplinarum libri IX (An encyclopedia on the liberal arts, of which the first book dealt with grammar)
De rebus urbanis libri III (or On Urban Topics in Three Books)
De gente populi Romani libri IIII (cf. Augustine, 'De civitate dei' xxi. 8.)
De sua vita libri III (or On His Own Life in Three Books)
De familiis troianis (or On the Families of Troy)
De Antiquitate Litterarum libri II (addressed to the tragic poet Lucius Accius; it is therefore one of his earliest writings)
De Origine Linguae Latinae libri III (addressed to Pompey; cf. Augustine, 'De civitate dei' xxii. 28.)
Περί Χαρακτήρων (in at least three books, on the formation of words)
Quaestiones Plautinae libri V (containing interpretations of rare words found in the comedies of Plautus)
De Similitudine Verborum libri III (on regularity in forms and words)
De Utilitate Sermonis libri IIII (on the principle of anomaly or irregularity)
{{ill|De Sermone Latino|it|De sermone Latino}} libri V (?) (addressed to Marcellus,{{refn|Several people called Marcellus lived during Varro's time. The identity of this one is unclear.{{cite book |chapter-url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/16400/16400-h/varrolat.htm |via=Project Gutenberg |title=De M. Terenti Varronis Libris Grammaticis |first=Augustus |last=Wilmanns |author-link=August Wilmanns |location=Berlin |publisher=Weidmann |year=1864 |chapter=II:97 |quote=Marcellus autem ad quem haec uolumina misit quis fuerit nescio.}}}} on orthography and the metres of poetry)
De philosophia (cf. Augustine, 'De civitate dei' xix. 1.)
De Bibliothecis (in three books)Reid Byers, The Private Library: The History of the Architecture and Furnishing of the Domestic Bookroom, 2021, p.53.

Most of the extant fragments of these works (mostly the grammatical works) can be found in the Goetz–Schoell edition of De Lingua Latina, pp. 199–242; in the collection of Wilmanns, pp. 170–223; and in that of Funaioli, pp. 179–371.

References

Bibliography

Cardauns, B. Marcus Terentius Varro: Einführung in sein Werk. Heidelberger Studienhefte zur Altertumswissenschaft. Heidelberg, Germany: C. Winter, 2001.
d’Alessandro, P. "Varrone e la tradizione metrica antica". Spudasmata, volume 143. Hildesheim; Zürich; New York: Georg Olms Verlag, 2012.
Dahlmann, H.M. "Terentius Varro. Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft". Supplement 6, Abretten bis Thunudromon. Edited by Wilhelm Kroll, 1172–1277. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1935.
Ferriss-Hill, J. "Varro’s Intuition of Cognate Relationships". Illinois Classical Studies, volume 39, 2014, pp. 81–108.
Freudenburg, K. "The Afterlife of Varro in Horace's Sermones: Generic Issues in Roman Satire." Generic Interfaces in Latin Literature: Encounters, Interactions and Transformations, edited by Stavros Frangoulidis, De Gruyter, 2013, pp. 297–336.
Kronenberg, L. Allegories of Farming from Greece and Rome: Philosophical Satire in Xenophon, Varro and Virgil. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Nelsestuen, G. Varro the Agronomist: Political Philosophy, Satire, and Agriculture in the Late Republic. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2015.
Richardson, J.S. "The Triumph of Metellus Scipio and the Dramatic Date of Varro, RR 3". The Classical Quarterly, volume 33, no. 2, 1983, pp. 456–463.
Taylor, D.J.. Declinatio : A Study of the Linguistic Theory of Marcus Terentius Varro. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1974.
Van Nuffelen, P. "Varro’s Divine Antiquities: Roman Religion as an Image of Truth". Classical Philology, volume 105, no. 2, 2010, pp. 162–188.

External links

Marcus Terentius Varro: Latin works in the Latin Wikisource.

{{Library resources box |by=yes |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Varro

|viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}

{{Gutenberg author | id=6680| name=Marcus Terentius Varro}}
{{Internet Archive author |sname=Marcus Terentius Varro}}
{{Librivox author |id=862}}
[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Varro/de_Re_Rustica/home.html de Re Rustica] (Latin and English at LacusCurtius)
[http://www.attalus.org/info/varro.html Links to translation of De Linga Latina by R.G.Kent]
[https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronology/varro.html Livius.org: Varronian chronology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007093520/http://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronology/varro.html |date=7 October 2014 }}
[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/varro.html thelatinlibrary.com: Latin works of Varro]
[https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-6699 Oxford Classical Dictionary]
[https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195389661/obo-9780195389661-0161.xml Oxford Bibliographies]