Maya Block

The Block is commonly delimited by the continental margin in the Gulf of Mexico to the north, in the Caribbean Sea to the east, and in the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, and further, by the Motagua–Polochic Faults to the south-southeast, and by the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to the west.{{sfnm|1a1=Martens|1y=2009|1pp=8-10, 18|2a1=Bundschuh|2a2=Alvarado|2y=2012|2p=3|2loc=fig. 1.1|3a1=Dengo|3y=1969|3p=312|4a1=Ross|4a2=Stockli|4a3=Rasmussen|4a4=Gulick|4y=2021|4p=243|4loc=fig. 1|5a1=Casas-Peña|5a2=Ramírez-Fernández|5a3=Velasco-Tapia|5a4=Alemán-Gallardo|5y=2021|5p=209|6a1=Jenson|6y=2019|6pp=4-5, 7}} The Motagua–Polochic Faults divide the Maya Block from the Chortis Block, while the Isthmus of Tehuantepec divides it from the Oaxaquia Block (i.e. the Juarez, Cuicateco, or Oaxaquia Block, Terrane, or microcontinent).{{sfnm|1a1=Martens|1y=2009|1pp=6-9, 89-91|2a1=Ross|2a2=Stockli|2a3=Rasmussen|2a4=Gulick|2y=2021|2p=243|2loc=fig. 1|3a1=Bundschuh|3a2=Alvarado|3y=2012|3p=77|4a1=Authemayou|4a2=Brocard|4a3=Teyssier|4a4=Simon-Labric|4y=2011|4pp=3-4}}{{refn|group=n|The Maya Block was first defined as 'the area [of Central America ie of that land and continental shelf which extends from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico to the Atrato lowland in Colombia] north of the Motagua fault zone [...] [ie] northern Guatemala, Belice [Belize], the states of Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatán and Quintana Roo in Mexico, and the Campeche Bank in the Gulf of Mexico' {{harv|Dengo|1969|p=312}}.}}

The Block's {{em|precise}} subaerial limits are not widely agreed upon, in contrast to its relatively exact submarine borders.{{refn|group=n|{{harvnb|Martens|2009|pp=9–12, 37, 93}} notes that, though some six faults are thought to constitute the Motagua–Polochic Faults, there is no widespread agreement on which exactly divides the Maya and Chortis Blocks. Additionally, the Maya–Oaxaquia boundary, in the broadly-demarcated Isthmus of Tehuantepec, is sometimes more precisely specified by coincident or adjacent faults, as in {{harvnb|Ross|Stockli|Rasmussen|Gulick|2021|p=243|loc=fig. 1}}, {{harvnb|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|pp=278, 900}}, and {{harvnb|Martens|2009|pp=9–10}}. Faults in the Motagua–Polochic Faults include the Polochic or Chixoy–Polochic, Panima, Baja Verapaz, San Agustin, Cabañas or Cabañas–Jubuco or Motagua, and Jocotan–Chamelecon Faults ({{harvnb|Martens|2009|pp=9–11}}, {{harvnb|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|pp=328–329}}). Faults in or near the Isthmus of Tehuantepec include the Vista Hermosa Fault, the Salina Cruz Fault, and the East Mexican Transform ({{harvnb|Ross|Stockli|Rasmussen|Gulick|2021|p=243|loc=fig. 1}}, {{harvnb|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|pp=278, 900}}, {{harvnb|Martens|2009|p=9}}).}}{{citation needed|reason=for claim of wide agreement on Block's submarine limits|date=October 2022}} Furthermore, it has been recently suggested that the Block's western extreme may rather extend {{em|past}} the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, along the Gulf of Mexico, and into Louisiana.{{sfnm|1a1=Zhao|1a2=Xiao|1a3=Gulick|1a4=Morgan|1y=2020|1p=129|1loc=fig. 1|2a1=Ortega-Gutierrez|2a2=Elias-Herrera|2a3=Moran-Zenteno|2a4=Solari|2y=2018|2p=3|2loc=fig. 1}}{{refn|group=n|Nonetheless, this article employs the Maya Block's more established western limit, ie the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.}}

A broad arching fold belt of 'morphological distinct mountain ranges separated by deep fault-controlled canyons and occasional broad alluvial valleys' extends along the south-southeasterly limit of the Block.{{sfn|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=78}} The most prominent of said mountain ranges are the Northern Chiapas Mountains and the Sierra Madre de Chiapas in Mexico, the Cuchumatanes, Chama, Santa Cruz, and Lacandon Ranges in Guatemala, and the Maya Mountains in Belize.{{sfn|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=79|loc=fig. 3.2}}

The 'most extensive karstlands of the North American continent' extend northwards from the Block's southern extreme.{{sfn|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=81}} The Block's most prominent karstic landform is the Yucatán Platform to its north.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}} Relatively less prominent karstic formations occur in the Block's southern portion, including an unnamed formation in northwestern Peten to northeastern Belize, the Belize Barrier Reef, the Lacandon Range, the Cuchumatanes Range, and various formations to the north and south of the Maya Mountains.{{sfn|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=157|loc=fig. 5.1}}{{refn|group=n|The Peten–Belize and the Barrier Reef kastlands are dolines or fluviokarsts, while the remaining southerly formations are cone or tower karsts {{harv|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=157|loc=fig. 5.1}}. The karstlands abutting the Maya Mountains are the Vaca Plateau and the Boundary ie Sibun–Manatee Faults to the north, and the Little Quartz Ridge ie K/T Fault Ridges to the south {{harv|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=157|loc=fig. 5.1}}. The unnamed Peten–Belize encompasses the Yalbac Hills {{harv|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=162}}.}}

The most prominent topographic features of the Block's Caribbean coast are extensive seagrass beds and coral reefs, with the Belize Barrier Reef forming a notable example of the latter.{{sfnm|1a1=Bundschuh|1a2=Alvarado|1y=2012|1p=187|1loc=fig. 7.1|2a1=Bundschuh|2a2=Alvarado|2y=2012|2p=193}} Its Pacific coast, in contrast, is predominated by extensive mangrove forests.{{sfn|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|pp=185, 188}}

The terrestrial portion of the Block encompasses all six districts of Belize, five northerly departments of Guatemala (Huehuetenango, Quiche, Alta Verapaz, Izabal, Peten), and five southeasterly states of Mexico (Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatán, and Quintana Roo). Its submarine portion encompasses the continental shelf which abuts the coastal districts.

Mean thickness of the continental crust constituting the Block increases southwards, ranging from {{convert|20|-|25|km|mi}} in the northern Yucatán Peninsula to {{convert|30|-|40|km|mi}} in the Peninsula's south.{{sfn|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=284}} The crust's i.e. Block's crystalline basement is composed mainly of Silurian–Triassic metamorphic and igneous rocks, and is exposed in at least five formations, namely, the Mixtequita Massif, Chiapas Massif, Cuchumatanes Dome, Tucuru–Teleman, and the Maya Mountains.{{sfnm|1a1=Martens|1y=2009|1p=18|2a1=Bundschuh|2a2=Alvarado|2y=2012|2pp=78, 348}} Elsewhere, the basement is overlain by a thick sedimentary cover of Upper Palaeozoic clasts and carbonates, Upper Jurassic continental redbeds, and Cretaceous–Eocene carbonates and evaporites.{{sfn|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=78}}

It has been suggested that the Block's continental basement is stretched, since its sedimentary cover reaches a thickness of up to {{convert|6|km|mi}}, this being considered impossible on an unstretched basement at isostatic equilibrium.{{sfn|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=284}}{{refn|group=n|Sedimentary cover thickness diminishes to {{convert|0.750|km|mi}} within the Chicxulub crater (where the crystalline basement is uplifted), and {{convert|3.300|km|mi}} near the Yucatan Peninsula's centre ({{harvnb|Guzman-Hidalgo|Grajales-Nishimura|Eberli|Aguayo-Camargo|2021|p=4|loc=fig. 2}}, {{harvnb|Guzman-Hidalgo|Grajales-Nishimura|Eberli|Aguayo-Camargo|2021|pp=7–8}}).}}

The Block is thought to fully or partially incorporate between two and thirteen geologic provinces.{{sfnm|1a1=French|1a2=Schenk|1y=2004|2a1=French|2a2=Schenk|2y=2006|3a1=Bundschuh|3a2=Alvarado|3y=2012|3p=77|3loc=fig. 3.1|4a1=Hasterok|4a2=Halpin|4a3=Collins|4a4=Hand|4y=2022|4pp=7, 25|4loc= figs. 1, 7}}

The Block is believed to fully or partially comprehend some four or five sedimentary basins.{{sfnm|1a1=Evenick|1y=2021|1loc=pp. 4, 6 and app. A supp. no. 1|2a1=Robertson|2y=2019}}

A number of faults or fault zones have been identified within the Block, the most prominent of which include various boundary faults abutting the Maya Mountains, various offshore faults east of the Yucatán Peninsula–Belize, the Ticul Fault, the Malpaso Faults, and the Rio Hondo Faults.{{sfnm|1a1=Bundschuh|1a2=Alvarado|1y=2012|1p=279|1loc=fig. 11.1|2a1=Bundschuh|2a2=Alvarado|2y=2012|2p=283|2loc=fig. 11.4|3a1=Bundschuh|3a2=Alvarado|3y=2012|3p=285|3loc=fig. 11.5}}{{refn|group=n|The Maya Block is additionally bounded by the Motagua–Polochic Faults, and possibly, faults in or near the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, as per section 'Extent' of this article.}}

The Block is thought to experience significant counterclockwise rotation and a north-northwest down tilt, which gradually lowers the northern portion of the Yucatán Platform, thereby lifting its southern extreme in the Maya Mountains.{{sfn|Monroy-Rios|2020|pp=34-35, 90}} It is nonetheless tectonically rigid or stable, experiencing an absolute west-southwest motion of {{convert|1.8|cm|in}} per annum.{{sfnm|1a1=Monroy-Rios|1y=2020|1pp=34-35|2a1=Authemayou|2a2=Brocard|2a3=Teyssier|2a4=Simon-Labric|2y=2011|2p=2|2loc=fig. 1}}{{refn|group=n|With the Cocos Plate experiencing an absolute northeast motion of {{convert|7|cm|in}} per annum, the Chortis Block a southeast motion of {{convert|0.9|cm|in}} per annum, and the Cayman Ridge a southwest-northeast rifting of {{convert|2|cm|in}} per annum {{harv|Authemayou|Brocard|Teyssier|Simon-Labric|2011|p=2|loc=fig. 1}}.}} Central America, including the southern portion of the Maya Block, 'is very well-known and characterised by numerous, medium size earthquakes preceded and followed by damaging shocks,' with the Middle America Trench in the Pacific deemed the main source of such quakes.{{sfn|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|pp=324, 327-328}}{{refn|group=n|Ninety-three per cent of the total moment for M_s > 7.0 earthquakes in Central America during 1898–1994 was released along the Middle America Trench {{harv|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=324}}. Earthquakes of M_s ≥ 8.0 have not been observed in Central America since 1505, though this 500-year period has been deemed 'not long enough to rule out the occurrence of such events in the region,' while 16th and 17th century Spanish historical records have been described as 'poor' {{harv|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=324}}.}} Of thirty-three earthquakes of M_s ≥ 7.0 in Central America during 1900–1993, the epicentres of at least two of these were located {{em|within}} the Block (in its southwestern quadrant), though a further nine were located {{em|near}} it (in the Motagua–Polochic Faults or the portion of the Middle America Trench bordering the Block).{{sfnm|1a1=Bundschuh|1a2=Alvarado|1y=2012|1p=325|1loc=fig. 12.1|2a1=Bundschuh|2a2=Alvarado|2y=2012|2p=326|2loc=tab. 12.1}}

Middle America, including the Maya Block, is thought to have taken shape sometime after 170 million years ago.{{sfn|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=9}} Its formation is thought to have 'involved [the] complex movement of [various] crustal blocks and terranes between the two pre-existing continental masses [ie North and South America].'{{sfn|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=10}} Details of the pre-Cenozoic portion of this process (170–67 million years ago), however, are not widely agreed upon.{{sfn|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=10}}{{refn|group=n|{{harvnb|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|pp=10, 542–543}} suggest that geologic models of the formation of Middle America differ most significantly in their handling of the Caribbean Plate, with one group of models proposing its formation in the Pacific and subsequent movement to its present location, and another group proposing its formation in its present location.}} Nonetheless, it has been proposed that the Block formed before or during the opening of the Iapetus Ocean.{{sfn|Ross|Stockli|Rasmussen|Gulick|2021|p=243}} It, together with the Oaxaquia, Suwannee, and Carolina Blocks, are thought to have constituted a peri-Gondwanan terrane on that continent's western, northwestern, northern, or eastern edge during the Appalachian–Caledonian or Ouachita–Marathon–Appalachian orogeny (that is, during the formation of Pangaea from the collision of Gondwana and Laurentia).{{sfnm|1a1=Zhao|1a2=Xiao|1a3=Gulick|1a4=Morgan|1y=2020|1p=129|2a1=Guzman-Hidalgo|2a2=Grajales-Nishimura|2a3=Eberli|2a4=Aguayo-Camargo|2y=2021|2p=15|3a1=Ross|3a2=Stockli|3a3=Rasmussen|3a4=Gulick|3y=2021|3pp=242-243|4a1=Casas-Peña|4a2=Ramírez-Fernández|4a3=Velasco-Tapia|4a4=Alemán-Gallardo|4y=2021|4pp=206, 222|5a1=Martens|5y=2009|5pp=120, 143|6a1=Tian|6a2=Fan|6a3=Valencia|6a4=Chamberlain|6y=2021|6p=266}} It is thought to have been displaced away from the Laurentian craton by clockwise rotation, translation, or anticlockwise rotation, during the Middle Jurassic opening of the Gulf of Mexico and subsequent northwesterly drift of North America away from Pangaea.{{sfnm|1a1=Guzman-Hidalgo|1a2=Grajales-Nishimura|1a3=Eberli|1a4=Aguayo-Camargo|1y=2021|1p=15|2a1=Ross|2a2=Stockli|2a3=Rasmussen|2a4=Gulick|2y=2021|2p=254|3a1=Bundschuh|3a2=Alvarado|3y=2012|3p=308}}{{refn|group=n|The palaeogeographic positions and tectonic interactions of pre-Mesozoic crustal blocks in present-day Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean are still debated {{harv|Ross|Stockli|Rasmussen|Gulick|2021|p=242}}. Fixing the pre-Mesozoic position of the Maya Black with respect to the southwestern margin of Laurentia is an important step in plate reconstructions of the assembly of Pangaea and the rotation-induced rifting and opening of the Gulf of Mexico {{harv|Ross|Stockli|Rasmussen|Gulick|2021|p=242}}. Furthermore, {{harvnb|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=299}} note –{{blockquote|text=Numerous illustrations/models show the Maya and Chortis blocks originating in the Gulf of Mexico or [show the] Maya [block originating] in the Gulf and [the] Chortis [block elsewhere]. They are shown to have rotated clockwise or anticlockwise by as much as 80º about various poles or migrating poles to their present locations. The variety and complexity of interpretations reflects dominance of models over data.|author=Keith H. James in {{harvnb|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=299}}}}}}{{refn|group=n|However, {{harvnb|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=299}} note –{{blockquote|text=Similarity of basement, Jurassic and Cretaceous sections on [the] Maya and Chortis [blocks] should be reason to relate the two. Models should not deny stratigraphy. The two blocks have similar tectonic origins and similar structure. They are continental remnants of Pangean breakup, left at the western end of the Caribbean. [The] Maya [block] was sinistrally offset from [the] Chortis [block] when [the] early Cayman offset developed. Neither block is a terrane rotated into place form another location. The major Jurassic faults on [the] Maya and Chortis [blocks] (Río Hondo and Guayape) that remain parallel to coeval faults in the North and South America show that no rotation has occurred. Restoration of the blocks along the Cayman trend by re-aligning their eastern faulted margins also results in line-up the Río Hondo-Guayape systems.|author=Keith H. James in {{harvnb|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=299}}}}}}

File:Peri-Gondwana Terranes.png

Details of the Cenozoic (66–0 million years ago) geologic history of Middle America, including that of the Maya Block, are relatively more widely agreed upon.{{sfn|Bundschuh|Alvarado|2012|p=10}} In broad strokes, the Chortis Block is thought to have reached its present-day position by at least 20 million years ago.{{sfnm|1a1=DTM|1y=2013|1loc=sec. Cenozoic maps nos. NAM_key-35Ma_Eocene_Olig and NAM_key-20Ma_Ear_Mio|2a1=Bundschuh|2a2=Alvarado|2y=2012|2p=215|2loc=fig. 8.4 (g) to (h)}} The northern and eastern coasts of the Block are not thought to have been fully subaerially exposed until some 5–2 million years ago.{{sfn|DTM|2013|loc=sec. Cenozoic maps nos. NAM_key-5Ma_Plio and NAM_key_Pleist_Wisc}} The Block's coastlines, which were initially more expansive than its present-day ones, are thought to have reached modern dimensions due to rising sea levels some 11–8 thousand years ago.{{sfn|DTM|2013|loc=sec. Cenozoic maps nos. NAM_key_Present and NAM_key_Pleist_Holo}}

The Block was discovered in 1969 by Gabriel Dengo, a Guatemalan geographer.{{sfnm|1a1=Dengo|1y=1969|1p=312|2a1=Martens|2y=2009|2p=6|3a1=Bundschuh|3a2=Alvarado|3y=2012|3p=278}} It was quickly adopted in scholarship, and remains 'accepted by many as a valid subdivision of Central America's geology, especially of its crystalline basement.'{{sfn|Martens|2009|p=6}}

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• Carolina terrane, a similar peri-Gondwanan block

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{{refend}}

{{Physiographic regions}}

{{authority control}}

Category:Geology of North America

Category:Geology of the Atlantic Ocean

Category:Geology of Belize

Category:Geology of Guatemala

Category:Geology of Mexico

Category:Geomorphology#Physiographic divisions

Category:Physiographic divisions

Category:Terranes