Gulf of Mexico

{{redirect|Gulf of America|the Russian waters formerly known as the Gulf of America|Nakhodka Bay|the coastline along the southern U.S.|Gulf Coast of the United States}}

{{seealso|Gulf of Mexico–America naming dispute}}

As with the name of Mexico, the gulf's name is associated with the ethnonym Mexica, which refers to the Nahuatl-speaking people of the Valley of Mexico better known as the Aztecs.{{Cite news |last=Dvorak |first=Petula |date=January 15, 2025 |title=The Gulf of Mexico's long history of colonization and varying names |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2025/01/13/gulf-of-mexico-name-history-colonization-explained/ |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250113161322/https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2025/01/13/gulf-of-mexico-name-history-colonization-explained/ |archive-date=January 13, 2025 |access-date=January 20, 2025 |newspaper=The Washington Post}} In Aztec religion, the gulf was called {{lang|nci|Chalchiuhtlicueyecatl}}, or 'House of Chalchiuhtlicue', after the deity of the seas.{{cite book|title=Dioses prehispánicos de México: mitos y deidades del panteón náhuatl|trans-title=Prehispanic deities of Mexico: myths and deities of the Nahuatl pantheon|first=Adela|last=Fernández|publisher=Panorama Editorial|location=Mexico City|date=1992|pages=118–119|isbn=978-9-6838-0306-1|url=https://archive.org/details/diosesprehispnic0000fern/|via=Internet Archive|language=es|quote={{lang|nci|Chalchiuhtlicue}}, 'La de la falda de jades o falda preciosa' es la deidad que representa el agua bajo distintos fenómenos. Ella conforma el {{lang|nci|hueyatl}}, 'mar', y por eso el Golfo de México se llama {{lang|nci|Chalchiuhtlicueyecatl}}, 'morada de la que tiene falda de esmeraldas'.|trans-quote=Chalchiuhtlicue, 'She of the Jade Skirt or Precious Skirt', is the deity that represents the water in different phenomena. She forms the {{lang|nci|hueyatl}}, 'sea', and thus the Gulf of Mexico is called {{lang|nci|Chalchiuhtlicueyecatl}}, 'abode of she of the emerald skirt'.}} Believing that the sea and sky merged beyond the horizon, they called the seas {{wt|nci|ilhuicaatl}}, meaning 'sky water', contrasting them with finite, landlocked bodies of water, such as lakes.{{cite journal|title=The Ilhuica of the Nahua: Is Heaven Just a Place?|first=John Frederick|last=Schwaller|authorlink=John Frederick Schwaller|journal=The Americas|volume=62|issue=3|date=January 2006|page=397|doi=10.1353/tam.2006.0044 |jstor=4491090 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4491090}} The Maya civilization, which used the gulf as a major trade route, likely called the gulf {{lang|myn|nahá}}, meaning 'great water'.{{cite news|title=No One Owns the Gulf of Mexico|first=Jack E.|last=Davis|authorlink=Jack E. Davis|work=The Marjorie|location=Alachua, Florida|date=January 15, 2025|accessdate=February 13, 2025|url=https://themarjorie.org/2025/01/15/op-ed-no-one-owns-the-gulf-of-mexico/}}

Up to 1530, European maps depicted the gulf, though left it unlabeled.{{cite journal |last=Galtsoff |first=Paul Simon |date=1954 |title=Historical sketch of the explorations in the Gulf of Mexico |url=https://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/pdf-content/fish-bull/fb55.2.pdf#page=15 |journal=Fishery Bulletin |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |volume=55 |issue=2 |page=15}} Hernán Cortés called it "Sea of the North" ({{langx|es|Mar del Norte}}) in his dispatches, while other Spanish explorers called it the "Gulf of Florida" ({{lang|es|Golfo de Florida}}) or "Gulf of Cortés" ({{lang|es|Golfo de Cortés}}). A 1584 map by Abraham Ortelius also labeled it as the "Sea of the North" ({{lang|und|Mare de Nort}}).{{cite news|title=Nation's Oldest City: A new name for the Gulf of Mexico?|first=Susan R.|last=Parker|work=The St. Augustine Record|location=St. Augustine, Florida|date=February 11, 2012|accessdate=January 23, 2025|url=https://www.staugustine.com/story/news/2012/02/12/nations-oldest-city-new-name-gulf-mexico/16182835007/}} Other early European maps called it the "Gulf of St. Michael" ({{langx|la|Sinus S. Michaelis}}),{{cite web|title=Nova et integra universi orbis descripsio [Paris Gilt or De Bure Globe]|first=Jim|last=Siebold|work=Cartographic Images|date=January 22, 2017|page=3|accessdate=January 26, 2025|url=https://www.myoldmaps.com/renaissance-maps-1490-1800/344-the-paris-gilt-or-de/344-gilt-globe2.pdf#page=3}} "Gulf of Yucatán" ({{lang|la|Golfo de Iucatan}}),{{cite map|title=Planisphere|first=Vesconte|last=Maggiolo|authorlink=Visconte Maggiolo|location=Genoa|date=1531|section=Indicum Occidentale|url=https://collection.louvreabudhabi.ae/en/object/planisphere-100053414|language=la|via=Louvre Abu Dhabi}} "Yucatán Sea" ({{lang|la|Mare Iuchatanicum}}),{{cite map|title=[Atlas de Battista Agnese]|first=Battista|last=Agnese|authorlink=Battista Agnese|date=1544|pages=29–30|url=https://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?lang=en&id=0000023260&page=18|language=la|via=Biblioteca Nacional de España}} "Great Antillean Gulf" ({{lang|la|Sinus Magnus Antillarum}}), "Cathayan Sea" ({{lang|la|Mare Cathaynum}}), or "Gulf of New Spain" ({{langx|es|Golfo de Nueva España}}). At one point, New Spain encircled the gulf, with the Spanish Main extending into what later became Mexico and the southeastern United States.

{{Multiple images | total_width=450

| image1 = Mount & Page Chart of the Bay of Mexico 1700 UTA.jpg|

| caption1 = An English nautical chart dated 1700 labels the body of water "the Great Bay of Mexico".

| image2 = The English pilot. (cartographic material) - The fourth book. Describing The West-India navigation, from Hudson's Bay to the River Amazones. Particularly delineating The Sea Coasts, Capes, Headlands, (14780240045).jpg

| caption2 = An English nautical chart dated 1775 labels it "the Bay of Mexico", now glossing "Mexico" as an alternative name for New Spain.

}}

The name "Gulf of Mexico" ({{langx|es|golfo de México}}; {{langx|fr|golphe du Mexique}}, later {{lang|fr|golfe du Mexique}}) first appeared on a world map in 1550 and a historical account in 1552. As with other large bodies of water, Europeans named the gulf after Mexico, land of the Mexica, because mariners needed to cross the gulf to reach that destination.{{cite news|title=The 'Gulf of America' Is an Admission of Defeat|first=David|last=Frum|authorlink=David Frum|work=The Atlantic|location=Washington, D.C.|date=February 13, 2025|accessdate=February 13, 2025|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2025/02/gulf-america-mexico-defeat/681682/}} This name has been the most common name since the mid-17th century,{{cite book|title=The Gulf of Mexico: A Maritime History|first=John S.|last=Sledge|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|location=Columbia, South Carolina|date=November 13, 2019|page=25|isbn=978-1-6433-6015-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SWWzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT25|via=Google Books}}{{cite news|title='The Gulf of America'? Here's What Mexicans and Cubans Think.|first=James|last=Wagner|work=The New York Times|location=New York City|date=January 28, 2025|accessdate=January 28, 2025|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/01/28/world/americas/gulf-mexico-name-change.html}} when it was still considered a Spanish sea.{{cite book|title=Spanish Expeditions into Texas, 1689–1768|first=William C.|last=Foster|publisher=University of Texas Press|location=Austin, Texas|date=January 1, 2010|page=14|isbn=978-0-2927-9313-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B23KAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP14|via=Google Books}} French Jesuits used this name as early as 1672.{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/2021668635/ |title=Map of the New Discovery Made by the Jesuit Fathers in 1672 and Continued by Father Jacques Marquette, from the Same Group, Accompanied by a Few Frenchmen in the Year 1673, Named "Manitounie". |publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=22 January 2025}} In the 18th century, Spanish admiralty charts similarly labeled the gulf as "Mexican Cove" or "Mexican Sound" ({{lang|es|Ensenada Mexicana}} or {{lang|es|Seno Mexicano}}). Until the Republic of Texas broke away from Mexico in 1836, Mexico's coastal boundary extended eastward along the gulf to present-day Louisiana.

Among the other languages of Mexico, the gulf is known as {{wt|nah|Ayollohco Mexihco}} in Nahuatl, {{wt|yua|golfoil México|u golfoil México}} in Yucatec Maya, and {{wt|tzo|golfo yu'un México}} in Tzotzil.

Although there is no formal protocol on the general naming of international waters, Gulf of Mexico is officially recognized by the International Hydrographic Organization,{{cite news|title=Along Gulf Coast, Donald Trump's plan for 'Gulf of America' touches residents' pride; some wonder what difference will it make|first1=Aidan|last1=Bush|first2=Libby|last2=Clifton|agency=Fresh Take Florida|publisher=WUFT-FM|location=Gainesville, Florida|date=January 22, 2025|accessdate=January 25, 2025|url=https://www.wuft.org/fresh-take-florida/2025-01-22/along-gulf-coast-trumps-plan-for-gulf-of-america-touches-residents-pride}}{{cite book|title=Limits of Oceans and Seas|edition=3rd|publisher=International Hydrographic Organization|date=1953|page=14|access-date=December 28, 2020|url=https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008191433/http://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf|archive-date=October 8, 2011}} which seeks to standardize the names of international maritime features for certain purposes{{cite conference|title=Standardisation of Maritime Geographical Names: The Role of the International Hydrographic Organization|first=Michel|last=Huet|work=Proceedings of the 20th International Cartographic Conference|publisher=International Cartographic Association|location=Beijing|date=August 6–10, 2001|page=3|url=https://icaci.org/files/documents/ICC_proceedings/ICC2001/icc2001/file/f04016.pdf#page=4}} and counts all three countries adjacent to the gulf as member states.{{cite book|title=Yearbook – Annuaire – Anuario|publisher=International Hydrographic Organization|location=Monaco|date=January 22, 2025|accessdate=January 23, 2025|url=https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/periodical/P5YEARBOOK_ANNUAIRE.pdf}}

File:U.S. Geological Survey map of the Gulf of America, 2025.jpg map, February 2025]]

On January 20, 2025, United States president Donald Trump signed an executive order directing federal agencies to adopt the name "Gulf of America" for the gulf waters bounded by the U.S.{{Cite web |date=January 20, 2025 |title=Trump to make good on Gulf of America promise with bonkers executive order |website=The Independent |last=Rohrlich|first=Justin |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/trump-gulf-of-america-executive-order-b2682937.html |access-date=January 21, 2025}}{{Cite news |last=Rogero |first=Tiago |date=January 20, 2025 |title=Can Trump really rename the Gulf of Mexico the Gulf of America? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2025/jan/20/trump-gulf-mexico-executive-order |access-date=January 21, 2025 |work=The Guardian}}{{cite news|url=https://thehill.com/policy/energy-environment/5105335-gulf-of-america-mount-mckinley-name-changes/|work=The Hill|location=Washington, D.C.|date=January 24, 2025|accessdate=January 24, 2025|title=Feds implement 'Gulf of America,' 'Mount McKinley' name changes|last=Frazin|first=Rachel}}{{efn|While the executive order specified an area of the U.S. continental shelf "extending to the seaward boundary with Mexico and Cuba",{{cite journal |title=Restoring Names That Honor American Greatness |journal=Federal Register |date=31 January 2025 |volume=90 |issue=20 |page=8629 |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2025-01-31/pdf/2025-02096.pdf}} the Geographic Names Information System (GNIS) and the GEOnet Names Server (GNS) were modified to explicitly refer to the gulf as a whole, without distinguishing territorial waters or the continental shelf.{{GNIS|558730|Gulf of America}}{{GEOnet3|-1506402|Gulf of America}}}} Major online map platforms and several U.S.-based media outlets voluntarily adopted the change.{{cite magazine|title=Here's How All Online Maps Are Handling the 'Gulf of Mexico' Name Change|first=Reece|last=Rogers|magazine=Wired|location=San Francisco|date=February 11, 2025|accessdate=February 12, 2025|url=https://www.wired.com/story/online-maps-gulf-of-mexico-name-change/}}{{cite web |first=Joshua |last=Benton |title=Trump wants news outlets to get on board with 'Gulf of America' — or else. Will they? |url=https://www.niemanlab.org/2025/02/trump-wants-news-outlets-to-get-on-board-with-gulf-of-america-or-else-will-they/ |website=Nieman Lab |access-date=19 February 2025}}{{cite news |last1=Zehra |first1=Ailia |title=Axios to use 'Gulf of America' in compliance with Trump administration |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/media/5147756-axios-to-use-gulf-of-america-in-compliance-with-trump/ |access-date=19 February 2025 |work=The Hill |date=15 February 2025}} Mexican president Claudia Sheinbaum objected to the name change,{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2025/02/17/g-s1-49328/mexicos-president-sheinbaum-threatens-to-take-legal-action-over-the-gulf-name-change|title=Mexico's President Sheinbaum threatens to take legal action over the Gulf name change|work=NPR |access-date=19 February 2025|publisher=NPR |last1=Restrepo |first1=Manuela López |date=17 February 2025 }} and implementation of the executive order has sparked an ongoing naming dispute.

File:Verner Moore White - The Harbor at Galveston.JPG (1863–1923)]]

The International Hydrographic Organization publication Limits of Oceans and Seas{{efn|3rd edition, published in 1953. S-23 (Special Publication No. 23)}} defines the southeast limit of the Gulf of Mexico as:

A line joining Cape Catoche Light ({{Coord|21|37|N|87|04|W|display=inline}}) with the Light on Cape San Antonio in Cuba, through this island to the meridian of 83°W and to the Northward along this meridian to the latitude of the South point of the Dry Tortugas (24°35'N), along this parallel Eastward to Rebecca Shoal (82°35'W) thence through the shoals and Florida Keys to the mainland at the eastern end of Florida Bay and all the narrow waters between the Dry Tortugas and the mainland being considered to be within the Gulf.

The total population of the five U.S. states facing the gulf is 67 million people. Of these, a total of 15.8 million people live in the Gulf Coastal Region, in counties directly bordering the gulf. U.S. Census Bureau, "Coastline America", (2020) The six Mexican states that face the gulf have a total population of 19.1 million people."Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020 – SCITEL" (in Spanish). Retrieved January 26, 2025. Three provinces of northwest Cuba, including Havana, border on the gulf, with a combined population of 3,211,000.{{Britannica|145542|Cuba|Levinson, Sandra H., Knight, Franklin W.}}, retrieved January 26, 2025

[https://datacommons.org/explore#q=Population%20of%20Cuba%20by%20province|population of Cuba by provincɛ

By 1975, 400 offshore drilling rigs in the gulf hosted a temporary population of more than 10,000 workers on any given day, who were rotated on a weekly staggered schedule.{{cite news|title=A City in the Sea: 10,000 Live on 400 Rigs and Platforms in Gulf|first=James P.|last=Sterba|work=The New York Times|location=New York City|date=December 28, 1975|access-date=February 16, 2025|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1975/12/28/archives/a-city-in-the-sea-10000-live-on-400-rigs-and-platforms-in-gulf-city.html|url-access=limited}} Increasing automation later led to a decline in the offshore worker population.{{cite report|chapter=Shell Oil's Deepwater Mission to Mars|title=History of the Gulf of Mexico Offshore Oil and Gas Industry during the Deepwater Era|volume=2|first=Tyler|last=Priest|publisher=Bureau of Ocean Energy Management|location=New Orleans|date=2022|page=viii|id=OCS Study BOEM 2022-077|chapter-url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GOVPUB-I-b9afdd4582c09cfb83e5516824113d48/pdf/GOVPUB-I-b9afdd4582c09cfb83e5516824113d48.pdf#page=8}}

The consensus among geologists{{cite book |last1=Salvador |first1=Amos |title=The Gulf of Mexico Basin: The Geology of North America |date=1991 |publisher=Geological Society of America |isbn=978-0-8137-5459-8 |editor-last=Salvador |editor-first=Amos |volume=J. |location=Boulder, Colorado |pages=389–444 |chapter=Origin and development of the Gulf of Mexico basin |doi=10.1130/DNAG-GNA-J}}{{cite journal |last1=Stern |first1=Robert J. |last2=Dickinson |first2=William R. |date=2010 |title=The Gulf of Mexico is a Jurassic backarc basin |url= |journal=Geosphere |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=739–754 |doi=10.1130/GES00585.1 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2010Geosp...6..739S }} is that before the late Triassic, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist. Before the late Triassic, the area consisted of dry land, which included continental crust that now underlies Yucatán, within the middle of the supercontinent Pangaea. This land lay south of a continuous mountain range that extended from north-central Mexico, through the Marathon Uplift in west Texas and the Ouachita Mountains of Oklahoma, and to Alabama where it linked directly to the Appalachian Mountains. It was created by the collision of continental plates that formed Pangaea. As interpreted by Roy Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, this mountain range was breached in the late Cretaceous by the formation of the Mississippi Embayment.{{Cite journal |last=Van Arsdale |first=Roy B. |date=2009 |title=Adventures Through Deep Time: The Central Mississippi River Valley and Its Earthquakes |journal=GSA Special Papers |publisher=Geological Society of America |volume=455 |doi=10.1130/SPE455 |isbn=978-0-8137-2455-3}}{{Page needed|date=January 2025}}{{cite journal |last1=Cox |first1=Randel Tom |last2=Van Arsdale |first2=Roy B. |date=2002 |title=The Mississippi Embayment, North America: a first order continental structure generated by the Cretaceous superplume mantle event |journal=Journal of Geodynamics |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=163–176 |doi=10.1016/S0264-3707(02)00019-4|bibcode=2002JGeo...34..163C }}

File:Gulf of Mexico with ship.jpg

The rifting that created the basin was associated with zones of weakness within Pangaea, including sutures where the Laurentia, South American, and African plates collided to create it. First, there was a late Triassic–early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds. Second, the continental crust was stretched and thinned as rifting progressed through early and middle Jurassic times. This thinning created a broad zone of transitional crust, which displays modest and uneven thinning with block faulting and a broad zone of uniformly thinned transitional crust, which is half the typical {{convert|40|km|adj=on|lk=on|abbr=in}} thickness of continental crust. At this time, rifting first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean across central Mexico and later eastwards to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the opening basin to create an enclosed marginal sea. The subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt and associated anhydrite evaporites. During the late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the basin and progressed to the point that seafloor spreading and formation of oceanic crust occurred. At this point, sufficient circulation with the Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased.{{cite book |last1=Buffler |first1=Richard T. |title=Introduction to Central Gulf Coast Geology |date=1991 |publisher=New Orleans Geological Society |editor-last=Goldthwaite |editor-first=D. |location=New Orleans, Louisiana |pages=1–15 |chapter=Early Evolution of the Gulf of Mexico Basin}}{{Cite book |last=Galloway |first=William E. |title=The Sedimentary Basins of the United States and Canada, Sedimentary Basins |publisher=Elsevier |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-444-50425-8 |editor-last=Miall |editor-first=Andrew D. |series=Sedimentary Basins of the World |volume=5 |chapter=Depositional evolution of the Gulf of Mexico sedimentary basin}} Seafloor spreading stopped at the end of the Jurassic, about 145–150 mya.File:15-07-14-Yucatan-Ölfelder-RalfR-WMA 0481.jpg]]During the late Jurassic through early Cretaceous, the basin experienced a period of cooling and subsidence of the crust underlying it. The subsidence resulted from crustal stretching, cooling, and loading. Initially, the crustal stretching and cooling combination caused about {{convert|5|–|7|km|abbr=in}} of tectonic subsidence of the central thin transitional and oceanic crust. The basin expanded and deepened because subsidence occurred faster than sediment could fill it.{{cite book |last1=Sawyer |first1=D. S. |first2=R. T. |last2=Buffler |first3=R. H. Jr. |last3=Pilger |date=1991 |chapter=The crust under the Gulf of Mexico basin |editor-first=A. |editor-last=Salvador |pages=53–72 |title=The Gulf of Mexico Basin: The Geology of North America |volume=J. |publisher=Geological Society of America |location=Boulder, Colorado}}

Later, loading of the crust within the basin and adjacent coastal plain by the accumulation of kilometers of sediments during the rest of the Mesozoic and all of the Cenozoic further depressed the underlying crust to its current position about {{convert|10|–|20|km|abbr=in}} below sea level. Particularly during the Cenozoic, a time of relative stability for the coastal zones,{{cite journal |last1=Galloway |first1=William E. |date=December 2001 |title=Cenozoic evolution of sediment accumulation in deltaic and shore-zone depositional systems, Northern Gulf of Mexico Basin |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264817201000459 |journal=Marine and Petroleum Geology |volume=18 |issue=10 |pages=1031–1040 |doi=10.1016/S0264-8172(01)00045-9 |bibcode=2001MarPG..18.1031G |access-date=16 November 2022}} thick clastic wedges built out the continental shelf along the northwestern and northern margins of the basin.File:Sediment in the Gulf of Mexico.jpg in the gulf]]

To the east, the stable Florida Platform was not covered by the sea until the latest Jurassic or the beginning of Cretaceous time. The Yucatán Platform was emergent until the mid-Cretaceous. After both platforms were submerged, the formation of carbonates and evaporites has delineated the geologic history of these two stable areas. Most of the basin was rimmed during the early Cretaceous by carbonate platforms, and its western flank was involved during the latest Cretaceous and early Paleogene periods in a compressive deformation episode, the Laramide Orogeny, which created the Sierra Madre Oriental of eastern Mexico.

The Gulf of Mexico is 41% continental slope, 32% continental shelf, and 24% abyssal plain with the greatest depth of 12,467 feet in the Sigsbee Deep.{{cite book |last1=Ward |first1=C. H. |last2=Tunnell |first2=J. W. |date=2017 |chapter=Habitats and Biota of the Gulf of Mexico: An Overview |editor-last=Ward |editor-first=C. |title=Habitats and Biota of the Gulf of Mexico: Before the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill |pages=1–54 |publisher=Springer |location=New York, NY |doi=10.1007/978-1-4939-3447-8_1|isbn=978-1-4939-3445-4 }} Seven main areas are given as:{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}

• Gulf of Mexico basin contains the Sigsbee Deep and can be further divided into the continental rise, the Sigsbee Abyssal Plain, and the Mississippi Cone.
• Northeast Gulf of Mexico extends from a point east of the Mississippi River Delta near Biloxi to the eastern side of Apalachee Bay.
• South Florida Continental Shelf and Slope extends along the coast from Apalachee Bay to the Straits of Florida and includes the Florida Keys and Dry Tortugas.
• Campeche Bank extends from the Yucatán Straits in the east to the Tabasco–Campeche Basin in the west and includes Arrecife Alacran.
• Bay of Campeche is a bight extending from the western edge of Campeche Bank to the offshore regions east of Veracruz.
• Western Gulf of Mexico is located between Veracruz to the south and the Rio Grande to the north.
• Northwest Gulf of Mexico extends from Alabama to the Rio Grande.

{{Clear}}

A number of brine pools, sometimes called brine lakes, are known on the seafloor of the northern half of the Gulf of Mexico. Brine pools in the Gulf of Mexico range from just {{convert|1|m}} across to {{convert|20|km}} long. Brine is produced wherever the water of the Gulf comes in contact with the Louann Salt, a evaporite formation from the Jurassic period, along faults or in unconsolidated sediments. The Louann Salt extends under most of the continental shelf around the northern part of the Gulf from west of Florida to Texas. Under the pressure of overlaying sediments, the salt deforms and migrates, a process known as salt tectonics. Masses of salt may rise through overlaying sediments to form salt domes, or may be extruded along the Sigsbee Escarpment where the slope of the continental shelf exposes lower laying stata.{{Cite web |last=Carney |first=Bob |title=Lakes within Oceans |url=https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/02mexico/background/brinepool/brinepool.html |access-date=March 23, 2025 |website=NOAA Ocean Explorer}}{{Cite web |title=Louann Salt Layer (map) |url=https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/02mexico/background/brinepool/media/gulf_salt.html |access-date=March 23, 2025 |website=NOAA Ocean Explorer}}

The brines usually exceed 200 parts-per-thousand (ppt) of salt and are 25% or more denser than most seawater (average 35 ppt). The density difference inhibits mixing of the brine with other sea water, and the brine flows downslope and gathers in depressions in the gulf floor. Hydrocarbons and gas hydrates rising from salt diapirs may cause doming of the gulf floor, with the gas sometimes erupting strongly enough to leave a depression in the gulf floor surrounded by a rim, where brine may pool. The East Flower Garden Bank brine pool is in a crater formed by the collapsed cap of a salt dome. The circular pool covers {{convert|500|m2}} with a maximum depth of {{convert|25|cm}}, and is {{convert|70|m}} beneath the surface of the Gulf. It is anoxic and contain quantities of hydrogen sulfide and methane.{{Cite journal |last=MacDonald |first=Ian R. |date=1992 |title=Sea-Floor Brine Pools Affect Behavior, Mortality, and Preservation of Fishes in the Gulf of Mexico: Lagerstätten in the Making? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3514824 |journal=PALAIOS |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=383–387 |doi=10.2307/3514824 |issn=0883-1351 |jstor=3514824|bibcode=1992Palai...7..383M }}{{Rp|p=383}}

The brine pool known as GB425, which is {{convert|600|m}} deep, is fed by a mud volcano. The temperature at the surface of the pool can vary from {{convert|6 to 48|°C}}, and is on average {{convert|20|°C}} warmer than normal bottom temperatures. The brine pool known as GC233 is at a depth similar to that of GB425, {{convert|650|m}} deep. The pool sits in a depression at the top of a mound and covers about {{convert|190|m2}}. While GC233 has a lower inflow of brine than GB425 and a temperature about {{convert|15|°C}} below that of GB425, the two pools share some similarities, such as a salinity of about 130 ppt, low sulfides, almost no sulfates, and high concentrations of hydrocarbons.{{Cite journal |last1=Joye |first1=S. B. |last2=MacDonald |first2=I. R. |last3=Montoya |first3=J. P. |last4=Peccini |first4=M. |date=2005 |title=Geophysical and geochemical signatures of Gulf of Mexico seafloor brines |url=https://bg.copernicus.org/articles/2/295/2005/bg-2-295-2005.pdf |journal=Biogeosciences |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=300, 306–307 |doi=10.5194/bg-2-295-2005 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2005BGeo....2..295J |via=copernicus.org}}

The Orca Basin is {{convert|2100|m}} deep, and covers about {{convert|400|km2}} with a maximum depth of {{convert|350|m}}. The large size is the result of the merger of several salt domes. Salinity in the pool increases gradually over a depth of {{convert|75|m}}, and reaches 300 ppt at depth, with zero dissolved oxygen.{{Rp|p=383–384}}

A brine pool was discovered in 2014 on the sea floor at a depth of {{convert|3300|ft|m}} with a circumference of {{convert|100|ft|m}} and depth of {{convert|12|ft|m|0}}, which is four to five times saltier than the surrounding water. The site cannot sustain any kind of life other than bacteria, mussels with a symbiotic relationship, tube worms, and certain kinds of shrimp. It has been called the "Jacuzzi of Despair" because it is warmer at {{convert|65|F|C|order=flip}} compared to the surrounding water at {{convert|39|F|C|order=flip}}.{{cite web|url=https://www.seeker.com/deep-sea-brine-lake-dubbed-jacuzzi-of-despair-1777954783.html?slide=zYTSKy|title=Deep-Sea Brine Lake Dubbed 'Jacuzzi of Despair'|last=Niiler|first=Eric|publisher=seeker.com|date=May 5, 2016|access-date=December 18, 2018|archive-date=August 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801082553/https://www.seeker.com/deep-sea-brine-lake-dubbed-jacuzzi-of-despair-1777954783.html?slide=zYTSKy|url-status=dead}}

{{more citations needed|1=section|date=October 2023}}

As early as the Maya civilization, the Gulf of Mexico was used as a trade route off the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula and present-day Veracruz.

Although Europeans credited the Spanish voyage of Christopher Columbus with the discovery of the Americas, the ships in his four voyages did not reach the Gulf of Mexico. Instead, the Spanish sailed into the Caribbean around Cuba and Hispaniola.{{Cite web |title=Christopher Columbus – The second and third voyages |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Christopher-Columbus |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512051604/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/127070/Christopher-Columbus |archive-date=May 12, 2015 |access-date=2021-03-21 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}} The first alleged European exploration of the Gulf of Mexico was by Amerigo Vespucci in 1497. Vespucci is purported to have followed the coastal land mass of Central America before returning to the Atlantic Ocean via the Straits of Florida between Florida and Cuba. However, this first voyage of 1497 is widely disputed. Many historians doubt that it took place as described.{{Cite web|title=Amerigo Vespucci {{!}} Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Amerigo-Vespucci|access-date=2021-03-21|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=February 6, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206125520/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Amerigo-Vespucci|url-status=live}} In his letters, Vespucci described this trip, and once Juan de la Cosa returned to Spain, a famous world map was produced.

In 1506, Hernán Cortés participated in the conquest of Hispaniola and Cuba, receiving a large estate of land and enslaving Indigenous people for his efforts. In 1510, he accompanied Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, an aide to the governor of Hispaniola, on his expedition to conquer Cuba. In 1518, Velázquez put him in command of an expedition to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for colonization.

In 1517, Francisco Hernández de Córdoba discovered the Yucatán Peninsula. This was the first European encounter with an advanced civilization in the Americas, with solidly built buildings and complex social structures which they found comparable to those of the Old World. They also had reason to expect that this new land would have gold. All of this encouraged two further expeditions, the first in 1518 under the command of Juan de Grijalva, and the second in 1519 under the command of Hernán Cortés, which led to the Spanish exploration, military invasion, and ultimately settlement and colonization known as the Conquest of Mexico. Hernández did not live to see the continuation of his work: he died in 1517, the year of his expedition, as the result of the injuries and the extreme thirst suffered during the voyage, and disappointed in the knowledge that Velázquez had given precedence to Grijalva as the captain of the next expedition to Yucatán.

In 1523, a treasure ship was wrecked en route at Padre Island, Texas. When word of the disaster reached Mexico City, the viceroy requested a rescue fleet and sent Ángel de Villafañe from Mexico City, marching overland to find the treasure-laden vessels. Villafañe traveled to Pánuco and hired a ship to transport him to the site, which that community had already visited. He arrived in time to greet García de Escalante Alvarado (a nephew of Pedro de Alvarado), commander of the salvage operation, when Alvarado arrived by sea on 22 July 1554. The team laboured until 12 September to salvage the Padre Island treasure. This loss, combined with other ship disasters around the Gulf of Mexico, led to a plan for establishing a settlement on the northern Gulf Coast to protect shipping and rescue castaways more quickly. As a result, the expedition of Tristán de Luna y Arellano was sent and landed at Pensacola Bay on 15 August 1559.

On 11 December 1526, Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire granted Pánfilo de Narváez a licence to establish colonial settlements along the present-day Gulf Coast of the United States, known as the Narváez expedition. The contract gave him one year to gather an army, leave Spain, be large enough to found at least two towns of 100 people each, and garrison two more fortresses anywhere along the coast. On 7 April 1528, they spotted land north of what is now Tampa Bay. They turned south and traveled for two days, looking for a great harbour the master pilot Miruelo knew of. Sometime during these two days, one of the five remaining ships was lost on the rugged coast, but nothing else is known.

In 1697, French sailor Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was chosen by the Minister of Marine to lead an expedition to rediscover the mouth of the Mississippi River and to settle Louisiana, which French explorer Robert Cavelier de La Salle had named. The English coveted this region, however in 1682 it was named to honour King Louis XIV of France. D'Iberville's fleet sailed from Brest on 24 October 1698, reaching Santa Rosa Island near Pensacola; he sailed from there to Mobile Bay and explored Massacre Island. He anchored between Cat Island and Ship Island. On 13 February 1689, he went to ashore at what is now Biloxi, with his teenage brother Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville,{{cite web |last=Knight |first=Kevin |year=2009 |title=Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d'Iberville |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07614b.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515002256/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07614b.htm |archive-date=May 15, 2008 |access-date=May 8, 2009 |publisher=newadvent.org}} and completed Fort Maurepas on the northeast side of the Bay of Biloxi on 1 May. Three days later, d'Iberville sailed for France leaving his brother Jean-Baptiste as second in command.

The first permanent settlement, Fort Maurepas (now Ocean Springs, Mississippi), was founded in 1699 by d'Iberville. By then the French had also built a small fort at the mouth of the Mississippi at a settlement they named La Balise (or La Balize), "seamark" in French.{{cite web |last=Roth |first=David |date=2003 |title=Louisiana Hurricane History: 18th century (1722–1800) |url=http://www.srh.noaa.gov/lch/research/la18hu.php#18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805171217/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/lch/research/la18hu.php#18 |archive-date=5 August 2009 |access-date=7 May 2008 |publisher=Tropical Weather—National Weather Service—Lake Charles, Louisiana}}

File:Wide natural beach near Sabine Pass.jpgThe Gulf of Mexico's eastern, northern, and northwestern shores lie along the US states of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. The US portion of the coastline spans {{convert|2700|km|mi|abbr=in}}, receiving water from 33 major rivers that drain 31 states and 2 Canadian provinces.{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/water/waterplan/documents/05guidance.htm#gulf |title=National Water Program Guidance: FY 2005 |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=January 21, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061002133559/http://www.epa.gov/water/waterplan/documents/05guidance.htm |archive-date=October 2, 2006 }} The southwestern and southern shores lie along the Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatán, and the northernmost tip of Quintana Roo. On its southeast quadrant, the gulf is bordered by Cuba. It supports major American, Mexican, and Cuban fishing industries. The outer margins of the wide continental shelves of Yucatán and Florida receive cooler, nutrient-enriched waters from the deep by a process known as upwelling, which stimulates plankton growth in the euphotic zone. This attracts fish, shrimp, and squid.{{cite web | url=https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/rrg07 | title=Gulf of Mexico | work=Handbook of Texas Online | publisher=Texas State Historical Association | access-date=June 26, 2010 | date=June 15, 2010 | archive-date=December 2, 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202132845/http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/rrg07 | url-status=live }} River drainage and atmospheric fallout from industrial coastal cities also provide nutrients to the coastal zone.File:Mississippiriver-new-01.png is the largest drainage basin of the Gulf of Mexico Watershed.{{cite web |title=Gulf of Mexico Watershed |url=http://www.epa.gov/gmpo/edresources/watrshed.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106232528/https://www.epa.gov/gulfofmexico |archive-date=November 6, 2020 |access-date=December 6, 2010 |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency}}|left]]The Gulf Stream, a warm Atlantic Ocean current and one of the strongest ocean currents known, originates in the gulf as a continuation of the Caribbean Current–Yucatán Current–Loop Current system. Other circulation features include a permanent cyclonic gyre in the Bay of Campeche and anticyclonic gyres, which are shed by the Loop Current and travel westwards, where they eventually dissipate. The Bay of Campeche constitutes a major arm of the Gulf of Mexico. Numerous bays and smaller inlets fringe the gulf's shoreline. Streams that empty into the gulf include the Mississippi River and the Rio Grande in the northern gulf and the Grijalva and Usumacinta rivers in the southern gulf. The land that forms the gulf's coast, including many long, narrow barrier islands, is almost uniformly low-lying and is defined by marshes, swamps, and stretches of sandy beach.

File:Northern Gulf of Mexico map.png

The Gulf of Mexico is an excellent example of a passive margin. The continental shelf is quite wide at most points along the coast, notably at the Florida and Yucatán Peninsulas. The shelf is exploited for its oil through offshore drilling rigs, most of which are situated in the western gulf and the Bay of Campeche. Another important commercial activity is fishing; major catches include red snapper, amberjack, tilefish, swordfish, and various grouper, as well as shrimp and crabs. Oysters are also harvested on a large scale from many bays and sounds. Other important industries along the coast include shipping, petrochemical processing and storage, military use, paper manufacture, and tourism.File:Caribbean Sea Gulf of Mexico shaded relief bathymetry land map.png map of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean area|left]]

The gulf is considered aseismic; however, mild tremors have been recorded throughout history (usually 5.0 or less on the Richter magnitude scale). Interactions between sediment loading on the sea floor and adjustment by the crust may cause earthquakes.{{cite web

|url=http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/russo/florida_eq.html

|title=Earthquakes in the Gulf of Mexico

|access-date=December 27, 2006

|archive-date=June 29, 2007

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629051638/http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/russo/florida_eq.html

|url-status=live

}} On 10 September 2006, the U.S. Geological Survey National Earthquake Information Center reported that a magnitude 6.0 earthquake occurred about {{convert|400|km|mi|abbr=in}} west-southwest of Anna Maria, Florida. The quake was reportedly felt from Louisiana to Florida. There were no reports of damage or injuries.{{cite web|url=http://www.wftv.com/news/9817047/detail.html |title=Central Florida Feels Quake |access-date=December 27, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070828130901/http://www.wftv.com/news/9817047/detail.html |archive-date=August 28, 2007 }}{{cite web|url=http://www.observernews.net/artman/publish/article_001724.shtml|title=6.0 Magnitude Earthquake in Gulf of Mexico Shakes Southeast|website=www.observernews.net|access-date=September 10, 2006|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120904232339/http://www.observernews.net/artman/publish/article_001724.shtml|archive-date=September 4, 2012|url-status=dead}} Items were knocked from shelves and seiches were observed in swimming pools in parts of Florida.{{Cite web|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/eqinthenews/2006/usslav/#summary|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014050751/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/eqinthenews/2006/usslav/|url-status=dead|title=United States Geological Survey, September 11, 2006|archivedate=14 October 2006}} The earthquake was described by the USGS as an intraplate earthquake, the largest and most widely felt recorded in the past three decades in the region. According to The Tampa Tribune on the following day, earthquake tremors were last felt in Florida in 1952, recorded in Quincy, {{convert|32|km|mi|abbr=in}} northwest of Tallahassee.

Cuba and Mexico: Exchange of notes constituting an agreement on the delimitation of the exclusive economic zone of Mexico in the sector adjacent to Cuban maritime areas (with map), of July 1976.

Cuba and United States: Maritime boundary agreement between the United States of America and the Republic of Cuba, of December 1977.

Mexico and United States: Treaty to resolve pending boundary differences and maintain the Rio Grande and Colorado River as the international boundary, of November 1970; Treaty on maritime boundaries between the United States of America and the United Mexican States (Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean), of May 1978, and treaty on the delimitation of the continental shelf in the western Gulf of Mexico beyond {{convert|200|nmi|lk=in}}, of June 2000.

In December 2007, Mexico submitted information to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) regarding the extension of Mexico's continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles.{{cite journal|url=http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx/revista/pdf/MexicanLawReview/10/nte/nte8.pdf|title=Mexico's Attempt to Extend its Continental Shelf Beyond 200 Nautical Miles Serves as a Model for the International Community, Mexican Law Review, Volume V, Number 2, Jan.– June 2013|journal=Mexican Law Review|volume=1|issue=10|date=January 2013|last1=Heaton|first1=S. Warren Jr.|access-date=July 17, 2014|archive-date=March 4, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083502/http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx/revista/pdf/MexicanLawReview/10/nte/nte8.pdf|url-status=live}} Mexico sought an extension of its continental shelf in the Western Polygon based on international law, UNCLOS, and bilateral treaties with the United States, in accordance with Mexico's domestic legislation. In March 2009, the CLCS accepted Mexico's arguments for extending its continental shelf up to {{convert|350|nmi}} into the Western Polygon. Since this would extend Mexico's continental shelf well into territory claimed by the United States, Mexico and the United States would need to enter a bilateral agreement based on international law that delimits their respective claims.

A ship now called the Mardi Gras sank around the early 19th century about {{convert|56|km|mi|abbr=on}} off the coast of Louisiana in {{convert|1,200|m|ft|abbr=in}} of water. The ship, whose real identity remains a mystery, is believed to have been a privateer or trader. The shipwreck lay forgotten at the bottom of the sea until it was discovered in 2002 by an oilfield inspection crew working for the Okeanos Gas Gathering Company (OGGC). In 2007, an expedition led by Texas A&M University and funded by OGGC under an agreement with the Minerals Management Service (now BOEM) was launched to undertake the deepest scientific archaeological excavation to that date to study the site on the seafloor and recover artifacts for public display in the Louisiana State Museum. Videos and a documentary about the project, Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck, was made by Nautilus Productions with help from BOEM, Texas A&M University, the Florida Public Archaeology Network{{cite web|title=FPAN Home|url=http://www.flpublicarchaeology.org/|website=Florida Public Archaeology|access-date=July 31, 2015|archive-date=December 9, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209121940/http://flpublicarchaeology.org/|url-status=live}} and Veolia Environmental.{{cite web|title=Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck|url=http://nautilusproductions.com/projects/mystery-mardi-gras-shipwreck-documentary|website=Nautilus Productions|access-date=July 31, 2015|archive-date=June 13, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613054648/http://nautilusproductions.com/projects/mystery-mardi-gras-shipwreck-documentary|url-status=live}} about the project, short videos and video updates during the expedition. Video footage from the ROV was used in the documentary.{{cite journal|title=Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck Documentary|url=http://mua.apps.uri.edu/in_the_field/mardigras.html|journal=The Museum of Underwater Archaeology|year=2007|last1=Opdyke|first1=Mark|access-date=July 31, 2015|archive-date=March 28, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328163209/http://mua.apps.uri.edu/in_the_field/mardigras.html|url-status=live}}

On 30 July 1942, the SS Robert E. Lee, captained by William C. Heath, was torpedoed by the {{GS|U-166|1941|6}}. The steamship was en route to New Orleans, sailing southeast of the entrance to the Mississippi River; she was being escorted by USS PC-566, captained by Lieutenant Commander Herbert G. Claudius. The explosion destroyed the #3 hold; vented through the B and C decks; and damaged the engines, the radio compartment, and the steering gear. PC-566 dropped depth charges on a sonar contact, sinking U-166. The badly damaged Robert E. Lee first listed to port, then to starboard, and finally sank within about 15 minutes of the attack. One officer, nine crew members, and 15 passengers were lost. The passengers aboard Robert E. Lee were primarily survivors of previous torpedo attacks by German U-boats.{{cite web

|title=Robert E. Lee

|url=http://www.uboat.net/allies/merchants/1981.html

|last=Helgason

|first=Guðmundur

|website=German U-boats of World War II – uboat.net

|access-date=August 1, 2015

|archive-date=January 26, 2016

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126152704/http://www.uboat.net/allies/merchants/1981.html

|url-status=live

}} The wreck was discovered that also located the U-166. In 2001, the wrecks of U-166 and Robert E. Lee were found during the C & C Marine survey. The submarine was found in {{convert|5000|ft|m}} of water, about {{convert|3|km|mi|abbr=in|spell=in}} from where it had attacked the liner.{{cite web |last1=Warren |first1=Daniel J. |last2=Church |first2=Robert A. |title=The Discovery of U – 166 : Rewriting History with New Technology |url=http://www.cctechnol.com/Files/Articles/170_0.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212184844/https://www.oceaneering.com/survey-and-mapping/ |archive-date=December 12, 2019 |access-date=July 31, 2015 |publisher=Offshore Technology Conference}}

Various biota include chemosynthetic communities near cold seeps and nonchemosynthetic communities such as bacteria and other micro-benthos, meiofauna, macrofauna, and megafauna (larger organisms such as crabs, sea pens, crinoids, demersal fish, cetaceans, and the extinct Caribbean monk seal) are living in the Gulf of Mexico.Minerals Management Service Gulf of Mexico OCS Region (November 2006). "Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2007–2012. Western Planning Area Sales 204, 207, 210, 215, and 218. Central Planning Area Sales 205, 206, 208, 213, 216, and 222. Draft Environmental Impact Statement. Volume I: Chapters 1–8 and Appendices". U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans. page 3-27–3-34 [http://www.gomr.mms.gov/PDFs/2006/2006-062-Vol1.pdf PDF] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326005638/http://www.gomr.mms.gov/PDFs/2006/2006-062-Vol1.pdf |date=March 26, 2009 }} Recently, resident Bryde's whales within the gulf were classified as an endemic, unique subspecies and making them as one of the most endangered whales in the world.Rosel, E. P.; Corkeron, P.; Engleby, L.; Epperson, D.; Mullin, D. K.; Soldevilla, S. M.; Taylor, L. B. 2016. [http://www.cio.noaa.gov/services_programs/prplans/pdfs/ID337_BrydesWhale_FinalProduct.pdf. STATUS REVIEW OF BRYDE'S WHALES (BALAENOPTERA EDENI) IN THE GULF OF MEXICO UNDER THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807112620/https://www.cio.noaa.gov/services_programs/prplans/pdfs/ID337_BrydesWhale_FinalProduct.pdf.|date=August 7, 2020}}. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-692. The Gulf of Mexico yields more fish, shrimp, and shellfish annually than the south and mid-Atlantic, Chesapeake, and New England areas combined.

The Smithsonian Institution Gulf of Mexico holdings are expected to provide an important baseline of understanding for future scientific studies on the impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.{{cite news|url=https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20100721/ap_on_re_us/us_smithsonian_gulf_coast |title=Smithsonian Holdings to Aid Researchers in the Gulf |agency=Associated Press |date=July 21, 2010 |first=Brett |last=Zongker |access-date=July 29, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100724092358/http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20100721/ap_on_re_us/us_smithsonian_gulf_coast |archive-date=July 24, 2010 }} In Congressional testimony, Dr. Jonathan Coddington, associate director of Research and Collections at the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History, provides a detailed overview of the Gulf collections and their sources which Museum staff have made available on an online map. The samples were collected for years by the former Minerals Management Service (renamed the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement) to help predict the potential impacts of future oil/gas explorations. Since 1979, the specimens have been deposited in the national collections of the National Museum of Natural History.{{cite news | url=http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/images/Documents/20100615/testimony_coddington.pdf | title=Testimony to the Subcommittee on Insular Affairs, Oceans and Wildlife; Committee on Natural Resources; U.S. House of Representatives | publisher=[Smithsonian Ocean Portal] | date=June 15, 2010 | first=Jonathan | last=Coddington | access-date=July 29, 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100707221304/http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/images/Documents/20100615/testimony_coddington.pdf | archive-date=July 7, 2010 | url-status=dead }}

File:Dead Zone NASA NOAA.jpg]]

The major environmental threats to the gulf are agricultural runoff and oil drilling. There are 27,000 abandoned oil and gas wells beneath the gulf. These have generally not been checked for potential environmental problems.{{Cite news | first=Jeff | last=Donn | title=Gulf home to 27,000 abandoned wells | publisher=Burlington Free Press | location=Burlington, Vermont | pages= 1A | date=July 7, 2010 }} In 1973 the United States Environmental Protection Agency prohibited the dumping of undiluted chemical waste by manufacturingsediment interests into the gulf, and the military confessed to similar behavior in waters off Horn Island.Davis, Jack E. (2018). The Gulf: the Making of an American Sea. New York: Liveright Publishing Corp. p. 416. {{ISBN|978-1-63149-402-4}}. Microplastics within semi-enclosed seas like the gulf have been reported in high concentrations and the gulf's first such study estimated concentrations that rival the highest globally reported.{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2017.07.030|pmid=28734261|title=Abundant plankton-sized microplastic particles in shelf waters of the northern Gulf of Mexico|journal=Environmental Pollution|volume=230|pages=798–809|date=November 2017|last1=Di Mauro|first1=Rosana|last2=Kupchik|first2=Matthew J.|last3=Benfield|first3=Mark C.|bibcode=2017EPoll.230..798D }}

There are frequent "red tide" algae blooms{{cite web

|url=http://www.tulane.edu/~bfleury/envirobio/enviroweb/DeadZone.htm

|title=The Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone and Red Tides

|access-date=December 27, 2006

|archive-date=May 7, 2015

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150507132040/http://www.tulane.edu/~bfleury/envirobio/enviroweb/DeadZone.htm

|url-status=live

}} that kill fish and marine mammals and cause respiratory problems in humans and some domestic animals when the blooms reach close to shore. This has especially been plaguing the southwest and southern Florida coast, from the Florida Keys to north of Pasco County, Florida.

The gulf contains a hypoxic dead zone that runs east–west along the Texas–Louisiana coastline. In July 2008, researchers reported that between 1985 and 2008, the area roughly doubled in size.Joel Achenbach, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2008/07/31/ST2008073100349.html?hpid=topnews "A 'Dead Zone' in The Gulf of Mexico: Scientists Say Area That Cannot Support Some Marine Life Is Near Record Size"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503234243/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2008/07/31/ST2008073100349.html?hpid=topnews|date=May 3, 2017}}, Washington Post, July 31, 2008. It was {{convert|22,730|km|mi|abbr=in}} in 2017, the largest ever recorded.{{cite news |title=New Jersey-Size 'Dead Zone' Is Largest Ever in Gulf of Mexico |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/08/gulf-mexico-hypoxia-water-quality-dead-zone/ |work=National Geographic |date=August 2, 2017 |access-date=July 16, 2020 |archive-date=December 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201214155002/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/08/gulf-mexico-hypoxia-water-quality-dead-zone/ |url-status=dead }} Poor agricultural practices in the northern portion of the Gulf of Mexico have led to a tremendous increase of nitrogen and phosphorus in neighboring marine ecosystems, which has resulted in algae blooms and a lack of available oxygen. Occurrences of virilization and estrogen suppression were observed as a result. A 2007 study of the Atlantic croaker found a disproportioned sex ratio of 61% males to 39% females in hypoxic sites. This was compared with a 52% to 48% male-female ratio found in reference sites, showing impaired reproductive output for fish populations inhabiting hypoxic coastal zones.{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Peter |last2=Rahman |first2=Saydur |year=2012 |title=Extensive Reproductive Disruption, Ovarian Masculinization and Aromatase Suppression in Atlantic Croaker in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Hypoxic Zone |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=279 |issue=1726 |pages=28–38 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2011.0529 |pmc=3223642 |pmid=21613294}}

{{Further|Deepwater Horizon oil spill}}

According to the National Response Center, the oil industry has thousands of minor accidents annually in the Gulf of Mexico.{{cite web |last1=Chow |first1=Lorraine |date=May 13, 2016 |title=Shell Oil Spill Dumps Nearly 90,000 Gallons of Crude into Gulf |url=http://ecowatch.com/2016/05/13/shell-oil-spill-gulf-mexico/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520114049/http://ecowatch.com/2016/05/13/shell-oil-spill-gulf-mexico/ |archive-date=May 20, 2016 |access-date=June 6, 2016 |website=EcoWatch}} The gulf's largest oil spill to date began in June 1979, when the Ixtoc I oil platform in the Bay of Campeche suffered a blowout and a catastrophic explosion, and lasted until the well was finally capped in April 1980.File:Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling unit on fire 2010.jpg in flames after the explosion, 20 April 2010]]

On 20 April 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil platform, located in the Mississippi Canyon about {{convert|64|km|mi|abbr=in}} off the Louisiana coast, suffered a catastrophic explosion and later sank.[http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2010/04/23/burning_oil_rig_sinks_setting_stage_for_spill_11_still_missing "Burning oil rig sinks, setting stage for spill; 11 still missing"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906052441/http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2010/04/23/burning_oil_rig_sinks_setting_stage_for_spill_11_still_missing/ |date=September 6, 2015 }}, by Kevin McGill and Holbrook Mohr (Associated Press), Boston Globe, April 23, 2010{{efn|The rig was storing {{convert|700000|USgal|liters}} of diesel fuel.{{cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2010/05/05/ongoing-administration-wide-response-deepwater-bp-oil-spill|title=The Ongoing Administration-Wide Response to the Deepwater BP Oil Spill|last=Avery|first=Heidi|date=5 May 2010|access-date=19 March 2025}}{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125143214/http://www.oilspillcommission.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Working%20Paper.Amount%20and%20Fate.For%20Release.pdf|title=The Amount and Fate of the Oil|author=National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling|version=Draft|id=Staff Working Paper No. 3|url-status=dead|url=http://www.oilspillcommission.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Working%20Paper.Amount%20and%20Fate.For%20Release.pdf|archive-date=25 November 2010|date=6 October 2010}}}} Oil flowed from the wellhead, about {{Convert|1.5|km|abbr=on}} below the surface on the ocean floor,[http://www.boston.com/lifestyle/green/articles/2010/04/25/well_from_sunken_rig_leaking_oil "Well from sunken rig leaking oil"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150608173529/http://www.boston.com/lifestyle/green/articles/2010/04/25/well_from_sunken_rig_leaking_oil/|date=June 8, 2015}}, by Cain Burdeau (Associated Press), Boston Globe, April 25, 2010 creating a slick that covered hundreds of square kilometers of ocean surface, threatening marine life, adjacent coastal wetlands, and the livelihoods of Gulf Coast shrimpers and fishermen.[http://www.boston.com/lifestyle/green/articles/2010/04/27/race_to_plug_leaking_oil_well_off_la_spurs_new_tactics "Race to plug leaking oil well off La. spurs new tactics"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150608173412/http://www.boston.com/lifestyle/green/articles/2010/04/27/race_to_plug_leaking_oil_well_off_la_spurs_new_tactics/|date=June 8, 2015}}, by Cain Burdeau (Associated Press), Boston Globe, April 27, 2010 Estimates of the daily flow jumped several times—on April 24, it was {{convert|160|m3|oilbbl|sp=us}} by BP's estimate; on April 28, a NOAA scientist increased the estimate to {{convert|5000|oilbbl|m3}};{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/29/us/29spill.html | work=The New York Times | title=Size of Spill in Gulf of Mexico Is Larger Than Thought | first1=Campbell | last1=Robertson | first2=Leslie | last2=Kaufman | date=April 28, 2010 | access-date=February 24, 2017 | archive-date=December 8, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208225516/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/29/us/29spill.html | url-status=live }}{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/report-federal-government-underestimated-underreported-oil-spill-size|title=Report: Government Underestimated, Underreported Oil Spill Size|website=PBS News|last=Winerman|first=Lea|date=6 October 2010|access-date=19 March 2025}} and on May 27 the USGS put the rate at {{convert|12,000|–|19000|oilbbl/d}}.[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/05/100527-energy-nation-gulf-oil-spill-top-kill-obama/ "Gulf Oil Spill Worst in U.S. History; Drilling Postponed"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190129153030/https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/05/100527-energy-nation-gulf-oil-spill-top-kill-obama/ |date=January 29, 2019 }}, by Marianne Lavelle, National Geographic, May 27, 2010 Final estimates suggested a leak of {{convert|62000|oilbbl/d|m3/d}}, a scale that had been suggested by both independent observers and federal scientists early on, but official attempts to release modeling data had been suppressed by the White House Office of Management and Budget according to a report by the government commission investigating the response.{{rp|10}} On 15 July, BP announced that the leak had stopped. In July, BP agreed to pay $18.7 billion to the U.S. government, the states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas, as well as 400 local authorities. {{As of|2015}}, BP had spent $54 billion on cleanup, penalties, and to repair environmental and economic damage.{{cite news |last1=Crooks |first1=Ed |last2=Adams |first2=Christopher |date=July 9, 2015 |title=BP: Into uncharted waters |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/0a71ce8c-24b9-11e5-9c4e-a775d2b173ca.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914042407/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/0a71ce8c-24b9-11e5-9c4e-a775d2b173ca.html |archive-date=September 14, 2015 |access-date=August 10, 2015 |newspaper=Financial Times}}

{{anchor|Brutus oil spill}}On 12 May 2016, oil from subsea infrastructure on Shell's Brutus oil rig released 2,100 barrels of oil. This leak created a {{Convert|5 to 34|km|mi|abbr=on}} oil slick in the sea about {{convert|156|km|mi|abbr=in}} south of Port Fourchon, Louisiana, according to the U.S. Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement.{{cite news |last1=Mufson |first1=Steven |title=Shell's Brutus production platform spills oil into Gulf of Mexico |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2016/05/13/shells-brutus-production-platform-spills-oil-into-gulf-of-mexico/ |newspaper=Washington Post |access-date=January 20, 2021 |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127231900/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2016/05/13/shells-brutus-production-platform-spills-oil-into-gulf-of-mexico/ |url-status=live }}

File:GulfMexTemps 2005Hurricanes.gif and Rita. Although Katrina cooled waters in its path by up to {{Convert|4|C-change}}, they had rebounded by the time of Rita's appearance.]]

The gulf's warm sea surface temperatures can feed powerful, deadly, and destructive Atlantic hurricanes such as Hurricane Katrina in 2005. In the open Atlantic, a hurricane will draw up cool water from the depths, making it less likely that further hurricanes will follow (warm water being one of the preconditions necessary for their formation). However, the gulf is shallower; when a hurricane passes over, the water temperature may drop, but it soon rebounds enough to support another tropical cyclone.{{cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17038 |title=Warm Waters Provide Fuel for Potential Storms |publisher=NASA Earth Observatory |access-date=May 5, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001040517/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17038 |archive-date=October 1, 2006 }} From 1970 to 2020, surface temperatures warmed at about twice the rate observed for the global ocean surface.{{cite web |url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/news/gulf-mexico-getting-warmer |title=The Gulf of Mexico Is Getting Warmer |date=January 30, 2023 |publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information |access-date=March 27, 2023}}

Moisture from the Gulf of Mexico is a primary factor for the development of tornadoes and other severe weather in Tornado Alley, a term used to describe an area of the United States that is one of the most tornado-prone areas in the world. Dry air from the Rocky Mountains converges with Gulf moisture in the area, which produces storms and supercells that produce some of the most violent tornadoes in the world.{{cite web |url=https://www.noaa.gov/stories/story-map-inside-tornado-alley |title=Story map: Inside Tornado Alley |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |date=8 July 2019 |access-date=29 January 2025}} A study published in the Journal of Climate by Dongmin Kim, Sang-Ki Lee, and Hosmay Lopez, found that the Madden–Julian oscillation strengthens the North American low-level jet, which increases the flow of Gulf moisture and atmospheric instability into the Central United States, furthering tornadogenesis in the region.{{cite web |url=https://cpo.noaa.gov/is-there-a-connection-between-mjo-and-tornadoes-in-the-united-states/ |title=Is There a Connection Between MJO and Tornadoes in the United States? |publisher=Climate Program Office (NOAA) |date=2 April 2020 }}

{{portal|North America|Oceans}}

• Charlotte Harbor (estuary), an estuary in Florida
• Green Canyon, a US Gulf of Mexico petroleum exploration area
• Gulf of Mexico Foundation
• Jack 2 (a test well in the deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico)
• Keathley Canyon, a US Gulf of Mexico petroleum exploration area
• Nepheloid layer
• Orca Basin
• Outer Continental Shelf
• Sigsbee Escarpment, a US Gulf of Mexico petroleum exploration area
• Territorial evolution of the Caribbean
• Tunica Mound

{{Notelist}}

{{Reflist|refs=

National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Global Land One-kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) v.1. Hastings, D. and P.K. Dunbar. [http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/topo/gltiles.html National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110210142322/http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/topo/gltiles.html |date=February 10, 2011 }}. doi:10.7289/V52R3PMS [access date: March 16, 2015]

Amante, C. and B.W. Eakins, 2009. ETOPO1 1 Arc-Minute Global Relief Model: Procedures, Data Sources and Analysis. NOAA Technical Memorandum NESDIS NGDC-24. [http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/global.html National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626132058/http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/global.html |date=June 26, 2015 }}. doi:10.7289/V5C8276M [access date: March 18, 2015].

}}

• {{Cite book |last=Weddle |first=Robert Samuel |title=Spanish Sea: The Gulf of Mexico in North American Discovery 1500–1685 |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-58544-066-5}}

{{Commons}}

• [http://www.gulfbase.org/ Resource Database for Gulf of Mexico Research]
• {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080603122307/http://gulfsci.usgs.gov/ |date=June 3, 2008 |title=Gulf of Mexico Integrated Science}}

{{List of seas}}

{{Marginal seas of the Atlantic Ocean}}

{{Petroleum industry}}

{{Waters of Texas}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gulf Of Mexico}}

Category:Bodies of water of Alabama

Category:Bodies of water of Florida

Category:Bodies of water of Louisiana

Category:Bodies of water of Mississippi

Category:Bodies of water of Texas

Category:Geographical naming disputes

Category:Gulfs of Mexico

Category:Gulfs of the Atlantic Ocean

Category:Gulfs of the United States

Category:Landforms of Campeche

Category:Landforms of Tabasco

Category:Landforms of Tamaulipas

Category:Landforms of Veracruz

Category:Landforms of Yucatán

Category:Marginal seas of the Atlantic Ocean

Category:Mexico–United States border

Category:Piracy by body of water

Category:Seas of the United States