Microplastics

{{See also|Polymer degradation#Degradation in the environment}}

File:Microplastic sample.jpg

File:Snap-40.jpg

File:Photodegraded Plastic Bag.jpg green plastic bag adjacent to hiking trail in about 2,000 pieces of 1 to 25 mm size after three months' exposure outdoors.]]

The term "microplastics" was introduced in 2004 by Professor Richard Thompson, a marine biologist at the University of Plymouth in the United Kingdom.{{cite web |first1=Andrea |last1=Thompson |access-date=2 January 2020 |title=Earth Has a Hidden Plastic Problem – Scientists Are Hunting It Down |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/microplastics-earth-has-a-hidden-plastic-problem-mdash-scientists-are-hunting-it-down/ |website=Scientific American |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231021904/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/microplastics-earth-has-a-hidden-plastic-problem-mdash-scientists-are-hunting-it-down/ |url-status=live}}{{cite web |access-date=2 January 2020 |title=To Save the Oceans, Should You Give Up Glitter? |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/11/glitter-plastics-ocean-pollution-environment-spd/ |date=30 November 2017 |website=National Geographic News |archive-date=2 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102120052/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/11/glitter-plastics-ocean-pollution-environment-spd/ }}{{cite web |access-date=2 January 2020 |title=Microplastic waste: This massive (tiny) threat to sea life is now in every ocean |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/microplastic-waste-this-massive-tiny-threat-to-sea-life-is-now-in-every-ocean-9602430.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220514/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/microplastic-waste-this-massive-tiny-threat-to-sea-life-is-now-in-every-ocean-9602430.html |archive-date=14 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |date=13 July 2014 |website=The Independent}}

Microplastics are common in our world today. In 2014, it was estimated that there are between 15 and 51 trillion individual pieces of microplastic in the world's oceans, which was estimated to weigh between 93,000 and 236,000 metric tons.{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/srep23501 |pmid=27000994 |pmc=4802224 |title=The degradation potential of PET bottles in the marine environment: An ATR-FTIR based approach |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=6 |page=23501 |year=2016 |last1=Ioakeimidis |first1=C |last2=Fotopoulou |first2=KN |last3=Karapanagioti |first3=HK |last4=Geraga |first4=M |last5=Zeri |first5=C |last6=Papathanassiou |first6=E |last7=Galgani |first7=F |last8=Papatheodorou |first8=G |issue=1 |bibcode=2016NatSR...623501I}}{{Cite news |url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/08/ocean-life-eats-plastic-larvaceans-anchovy-environment/ |title=Ocean Life Eats Tons of Plastic – Here's Why That Matters |date=16 August 2017 |access-date=25 September 2018 |archive-date=25 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925065413/https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/08/ocean-life-eats-plastic-larvaceans-anchovy-environment/ }}{{Cite news |url=http://theconversation.com/far-more-microplastics-floating-in-oceans-than-thought-51974 |title=Far more microplastics floating in oceans than thought |last=Sebille |first=Erik van |work=The Conversation |access-date=25 September 2018 |archive-date=19 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200119072037/http://theconversation.com/far-more-microplastics-floating-in-oceans-than-thought-51974 |url-status=live}} Under the influence of sunlight, wind, waves and other factors, plastic degrades into small fragments known as microplastics, or even nanoplastics.{{Cite web |title=Microplastics from textiles: towards a circular economy for textiles in Europe — European Environment Agency |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/microplastics-from-textiles-towards-a |access-date=19 December 2024 |website=www.eea.europa.eu |language=en |archive-date=27 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230727193710/https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/microplastics-from-textiles-towards-a |url-status=live }} {{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}

File:Mikroplastasarp.jpg

File:Football field microplastics.jpg

Primary microplastics are small pieces of plastic that are purposefully manufactured.{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11356-018-3508-7 |pmid=30382517 |title=Occurrence, sources, human health impacts and mitigation of microplastic pollution |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |volume=25 |issue=36 |pages=36046–36063 |year=2018 |last1=Karbalaei |first1=Samaneh |last2=Hanachi |first2=Parichehr |last3=Walker |first3=Tony R. |last4=Cole |first4=Matthew |bibcode=2018ESPR...2536046K |url=http://plymsea.ac.uk/id/eprint/8036/1/Final%20manuscipt.pdf }} They are usually used in facial cleansers and cosmetics, or in air blasting technology. In some cases, their use in medicine as vectors for drugs was reported.{{cite journal |last1=Patel |first1=MM |last2=Goyal |first2=BR |last3=Bhadada |first3=SV |last4=Bhatt |first4=JS |last5=Amin |first5=AF |year=2009 |title=Getting into the Brain: Approaches to Enhance Brain Drug Delivery |journal=CNS Drugs |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=35–58 |doi=10.2165/0023210-200923010-00003 |pmid=19062774}} Microplastic "scrubbers", used in exfoliating hand cleansers and facial scrubs, have replaced traditionally used natural ingredients, including ground almond shells, oatmeal, and pumice. Primary microplastics have also been produced for use in air-blasting technology. This process involves blasting acrylic, melamine, or polyester microplastic scrubbers at machinery, engines, and boat hulls to remove rust and paint. As these scrubbers are used repeatedly until they diminish in size and their cutting power is lost, they often become contaminated with heavy metals such as cadmium, chromium, and lead.{{cite journal |ref={{harvid|Cole et al.|2011}}|last1=Cole |first1=Matthew |last2=Lindeque |first2=Pennie |last3=Halsband |first3=Claudia |last4=Galloway |first4=Tamara S. |year=2011 |title=Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: A review |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=62 |issue=12 |pages=2588–2597 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.09.025 |pmid=22001295 |bibcode=2011MarPB..62.2588C |hdl=10871/19649 |hdl-access=free}} Although many companies have committed to reducing the production of microbeads,{{Cite news |date=2014-05-16 |title=Who, What, Why: Why do people want to ban 'microbeads'? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-27440188 |access-date=2025-04-05 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}} there are still many bioplastic microbeads that also have a long degradation life cycle, for example in cosmetics.{{Cite journal |last1=Hunt |first1=Claire F. |last2=Lin |first2=Wilson H. |last3=Voulvoulis |first3=Nikolaos |date=14 December 2020 |title=Evaluating alternatives to plastic microbeads in cosmetics |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-020-00651-w |journal=Nature Sustainability |language=en |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=366–372 |doi=10.1038/s41893-020-00651-w |bibcode=2020NatSu...4..366H |hdl=10044/1/84968 |issn=2398-9629|hdl-access=free }}

Secondary microplastics are small pieces of plastic derived from the physical breakdown and mechanical degradation of larger plastic debris, both at sea and on land. Over time, a culmination of physical, biological, and photochemical degradation, including photo-oxidation caused by sunlight exposure, can reduce the structural integrity of plastic debris to a size that is eventually undetectable to the naked eye.{{Cite report |last1=Masura |first1=Julie |last2=Baker |first2=Joel |last3=Foster |first3=Gregory |last4=Arthur |first4=Courtney |year=2015 |editor-last=Herring |editor-first=Carlie |title=Laboratory Methods for the Analysis of Microplastics in the Marine Environment: Recommendations for quantifying synthetic particles in waters and sediments |url=https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/10296 |publisher=NOAA Marine Debris Program |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=23 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623072341/https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/10296 |url-status=live}} This process of breaking down large plastic material into much smaller pieces is known as fragmentation. It is considered that microplastics might further degrade to be smaller in size, although the smallest microplastic reportedly detected in the oceans in 2017 was 1.6 micrometres (6.3×10⁻⁵ in) in diameter.{{cite journal |last1=Conkle |first1=Jeremy L. |last2=Báez Del Valle |first2=Christian D. |last3=Turner |first3=Jeffrey W. |title=Are We Underestimating Microplastic Contamination in Aquatic Environments? |journal=Environmental Management |year=2017 |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1007/s00267-017-0947-8 |pmid=29043380 |bibcode=2018EnMan..61....1C}} The prevalence of microplastics with uneven shapes suggests that fragmentation is a key source. One study suggested that more microplastics might be formed from biodegradable polymer than from non-biodegradable polymer in both seawater and fresh water.{{Cite journal |last1=Wei |first1=Xin-Feng |last2=Bohlén |first2=Martin |last3=Lindblad |first3=Catrin |last4=Hedenqvist |first4=Mikael |last5=Hakonen |first5=Aron |date=15 June 2021 |title=Microplastics generated from a biodegradable plastic in freshwater and seawater |journal=Water Research |language=en |volume=198 |page=117123 |doi=10.1016/j.watres.2021.117123 |pmid=33865028 |bibcode=2021WatRe.19817123W |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |last1=Su |first1=Yuanyuan |last2=Cheng |first2=Zhiruo |last3=Hou |first3=Yipeng |last4=Lin |first4=Shengyou |last5=Gao |first5=Liu |last6=Wang |first6=Zezheng |last7=Bao |first7=Ruiqi |last8=Peng |first8=Licheng |title=Biodegradable and conventional microplastics posed similar toxicity to marine algae Chlorella vulgaris |journal=Aquatic Toxicology |date=March 2022 |volume=244 |pages=106097 |doi=10.1016/j.aquatox.2022.106097 |pmid=35085953 |bibcode=2022AqTox.24406097S }}{{Additional citation needed|date=September 2024}}

"It's actually classified as a very high priority high contaminant by the EPA... when they litter or put something in a landfill, the plastic will break down into smaller and smaller particles. And eventually, they become microplastics... They're in the air, they're in the water, they're in the soil." {{dash}} University of Tennessee professor Mike McKinney.{{cite web | last=Williams | first=Bo | title=Microplastics: The tiny threat and why recycling is not the best answer | publisher=WATE-TV | website=AOL.com | date=14 Oct 2024 | url=https://www.aol.com/microplastics-tiny-threat-why-recycling-223057455.html | access-date=17 Oct 2024}}

Microplastic fibers enter the environment as a by-product during wear and tear and from the washing of synthetic clothing.{{Cite news |url=https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/sources-effect-microplastics-humans-animals-environment.php |title=What are the Sources of Microplastics and its Effect on Humans and the Environment? – Conserve Energy Future |date=19 May 2018 |work=Conserve Energy Future |access-date=25 September 2018 |archive-date=25 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925065335/https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/sources-effect-microplastics-humans-animals-environment.php |url-status=live}} Tires, composed partly of synthetic styrene-butadiene rubber, erode into tiny plastic and rubber particles as they are used and become dust particles. 2.0-5.0 mm plastic pellets, used to create other plastic products, enter ecosystems due to spillages and other accidents.

A 2015 Norwegian Environment Agency review report about microplastics stated it would be beneficial to classify these sources as primary, as long as microplastics from these sources are added from human society since the "start of the pipe", and their emissions are inherently a result of human material and product use and not secondary to fragmentation in the nature.Sundt, Peter, and Schulze, Per-Erik: "Sources of microplastic-pollution to the marine environment", "Mepex for the Norwegian Environment Agency", 2015{{Incomplete short citation|date=September 2024}}

Depending on the definition used, nanoplastics are less than 1 μm (i.e. 1000 nm) or less than 100 nm in size.{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-323-99908-3.00016-6 |chapter=Microplastics and nanoplastics: Occurrence, fate, and persistence in wastewater treatment plants |title=Current Developments in Biotechnology and Bioengineering |date=2023 |last1=Dhada |first1=Indramani |last2=Periyasamy |first2=Arivalagan |last3=Sahoo |first3=Kaushal Kishor |last4=Manojkumar |first4=Y. |last5=Pilli |first5=Sridhar |pages=201–240 |isbn=978-0-323-99908-3 }}There is not yet a consensus on this upper limit.

{{cite book |last1=Pinto da Costa |first1=João |chapter=Nanoplastics in the Environment |editor1-last=Harrison |editor1-first=Roy M. |editor1-link=Roy M. Harrison |editor2-last=Hester |editor2-first=Ron E. |title=Plastics and the Environment |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aC97DwAAQBAJ |series=Issues in Environmental Science and Technology |volume=47 |location=London |publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |year=2018 |page=85 |isbn=978-1-78801-241-6 |quote=First, it is necessary to define what constitutes a 'nanoplastic'. Nonoparticles exhibit specific properties that differ from their bulk counterparts and are generally considered as particles with less than 100nm in at least one dimension. [...] However, for nanoplastics, a clear consensus classification has not been reached and multiple size-based definitions have been proposed. [...] although nanoplastics are the least known type of plastic waste, they are also, potentially, the most hazardous. [...] Nanoplastics may occur in the environment as a result of their direct release or from the fragmentation of larger particles. They may, similarly to microplastics, [...] therefore be classified as either primary or secondary nanoplastics. |access-date=24 August 2019 |archive-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805212345/https://books.google.com/books?id=aC97DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} Speculations over nanoplastics in the environment range from it being a temporary byproduct during the fragmentation of microplastics to it being an invisible environmental threat at potentially high and continuously rising concentrations. The presence of nanoplastics in the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre has been confirmed{{cite journal |last1=Ter Halle |first1=Alexandra |last2=Jeanneau |first2=Laurent |last3=Martignac |first3=Marion |last4=Jardé |first4=Emilie |last5=Pedrono |first5=Boris |last6=Brach |first6=Laurent |last7=Gigault |first7=Julien |title=Nanoplastic in the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |date=5 December 2017 |volume=51 |issue=23 |pages=13689–13697 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.7b03667 |pmid=29161030 |bibcode=2017EnST...5113689T}} and recent developments in Raman spectroscopy coupled with optical tweezers (Raman Tweezers){{cite journal |last1=Gillibert |first1=Raymond |last2=Balakrishnan |first2=Gireeshkumar |last3=Deshoules |first3=Quentin |last4=Tardivel |first4=Morgan |last5=Magazzù |first5=Alessandro |last6=Donato |first6=Maria Grazia |last7=Maragò |first7=Onofrio M. |last8=Lamy de La Chapelle |first8=Marc |last9=Colas |first9=Florent |last10=Lagarde |first10=Fabienne |last11=Gucciardi |first11=Pietro G. |title=Raman Tweezers for Small Microplastics and Nanoplastics Identification in Seawater |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |date=6 August 2019 |volume=53 |issue=15 |pages=9003–9013 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.9b03105 |pmid=31259538 |bibcode=2019EnST...53.9003G |url=https://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00512/62376/85201.pdf }} as well as nano-fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (nano-FTIR) or atomic force infrared (AFM-IR) are promising answers in the near future regarding the nanoplastic quantity in the environment. Fluorescence could represent a unique tool for the identification and quantification of nanoplastics, since it allows the development of fast, easy, cheap, and sensitive methods.{{Cite journal |last1=Capolungo |first1=Chiara |last2=Genovese |first2=Damiano |last3=Montalti |first3=Marco |last4=Rampazzo |first4=Enrico |last5=Zaccheroni |first5=Nelsi |last6=Prodi |first6=Luca |date=15 December 2021 |title=Frontispiece: Photoluminescence-Based Techniques for the Detection of Micro- and Nanoplastics |journal=Chemistry – A European Journal |volume=27 |issue=70 |pages=chem.202187062 |doi=10.1002/chem.202187062 }} However, the nanoplastic problem is complex and nanoscale properties as well as interaction with biomolecules need to be explored at the fundamental level with high spatial and temporal resolution.{{Cite journal |last1=Sil |first1=Diyali |last2=Osmanbasic |first2=Edin |last3=Mandal |first3=Sasthi Charan |last4=Acharya |first4=Atanu |last5=Dutta |first5=Chayan |date=2024-05-23 |title=Variable Non-Gaussian Transport of Nanoplastic on Supported Lipid Bilayers in Saline Conditions |journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters |language=en |volume=15 |issue=20 |pages=5428–5435 |doi=10.1021/acs.jpclett.4c00806 |doi-access=free |pmid=38743920 |pmc=11129298 }}

Nanoplastics are thought to be a risk to environmental and human health.{{Cite journal |last1=Ali |first1=Nurshad |last2=Katsouli |first2=Jenny |last3=Marczylo |first3=Emma L. |last4=Gant |first4=Timothy W. |last5=Wright |first5=Stephanie |last6=Bernardino de la Serna |first6=Jorge |date=2024-01-01 |title=The potential impacts of micro-and-nano plastics on various organ systems in humans |journal=eBioMedicine |volume=99 |page=104901 |doi=10.1016/j.ebiom.2023.104901 |pmid=38061242 |pmc=10749881 |hdl=10044/1/108126 |hdl-access=free }} Due to their small size, nanoplastics can cross cellular membranes and affect the functioning of cells. Nanoplastics are lipophilic and models show that polyethylene nanoplastics can be incorporated into the hydrophobic core of lipid bilayers.{{cite journal |last1=Hollóczki |first1=Oldamur |last2=Gehrke |first2=Sascha |title=Can Nanoplastics Alter Cell Membranes? |journal=ChemPhysChem |year=2020 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=9–12 |doi=10.1002/cphc.201900481 |pmid=31483076 |pmc=6973106}} Nanoplastics are also shown to cross the epithelial membrane of fish accumulating in various organs including the gallbladder, pancreas, and the brain.{{cite journal |last1=Skjolding |first1=L. M. |last2=Ašmonaitė |first2=G. |last3=Jølck |first3=R. I. |last4=Andresen |first4=T. L. |last5=Selck |first5=H. |last6=Baun |first6=A. |last7=Sturve |first7=J. |title=An assessment of the importance of exposure routes to the uptake and internal localisation of fluorescent nanoparticles in zebrafish ( Danio rerio ), using light sheet microscopy |journal=Nanotoxicology |year=2017 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=351–359 |doi=10.1080/17435390.2017.1306128 |pmid=28286999 }}{{cite journal |last1=Pitt |first1=Jordan A. |last2=Kozal |first2=Jordan S. |last3=Jayasundara |first3=Nishad |last4=Massarsky |first4=Andrey |last5=Trevisan |first5=Rafael |last6=Geitner |first6=Nick |last7=Wiesner |first7=Mark |last8=Levin |first8=Edward D. |last9=Di Giulio |first9=Richard T. |title=Uptake, tissue distribution, and toxicity of polystyrene nanoparticles in developing zebrafish (Danio rerio) |journal=Aquatic Toxicology |year=2018 |volume=194 |pages=185–194 |doi=10.1016/j.aquatox.2017.11.017 |pmid=29197232 |pmc=6959514 |bibcode=2018AqTox.194..185P}} Nanoplastics are believed to cause interruptions in bone cell activities, causing improper bone formation.{{cite journal |last1=Giannandrea |first1=Domenica |last2=Parolini |first2=Marco |last3=Citro |first3=Valentina |last4=De Felice |first4=Beatrice |last5=Pezzotta |first5=Alex |last6=Abazari |first6=Nazanin |last7=Platonova |first7=Natalia |last8=Sugni |first8=Michela |last9=Chiu |first9=Martina |last10=Villa |first10=Alessandro |last11=Lesma |first11=Elena |last12=Chiaramonte |first12=Raffaella |last13=Casati |first13=Lavinia |title=Nanoplastic impact on bone microenvironment: A snapshot from murine bone cells |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials |date=January 2024 |volume=462 |pages=132717 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132717 |pmid=37820528 |bibcode=2024JHzM..46232717G |hdl=2434/1008709 |hdl-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Joppien |first1=Marlena |last2=Westphal |first2=Hildegard |last3=Chandra |first3=Viswasanthi |last4=Stuhr |first4=Marleen |last5=Doo |first5=Steve S. |date=2022-08-30 |title=Nanoplastic incorporation into an organismal skeleton |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=14771 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-18547-4 |pmid=36042226 |pmc=9427768 |bibcode=2022NatSR..1214771J }} Little is known on adverse health effects of nanoplastics in organisms including humans. In zebrafish (Danio rerio), polystyrene nanoplastics can induce a stress response pathway altering glucose and cortisol levels, which is potentially tied to behavioral changes in stress phases.{{cite journal |last1=Brun |first1=Nadja R. |last2=van Hage |first2=Patrick |last3=Hunting |first3=Ellard R. |last4=Haramis |first4=Anna-Pavlina G. |last5=Vink |first5=Suzanne C. |last6=Vijver |first6=Martina G. |last7=Schaaf |first7=Marcel J. M. |last8=Tudorache |first8=Christian |title=Polystyrene nanoplastics disrupt glucose metabolism and cortisol levels with a possible link to behavioural changes in larval zebrafish |journal=Communications Biology |year=2019 |volume=2 |issue=1 |page=382 |doi=10.1038/s42003-019-0629-6 |pmid=31646185 |pmc=6802380}} In Daphnia, polystyrene nanoplastic can be ingested by the freshwater cladoceran Daphnia pulex and affect its growth and reproduction as well as induce stress defense, including the ROS production and MAPK-HIF-1/NF-κB-mediated antioxidant system.{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Zhiquan |last2=Huang |first2=Youhui |last3=Jiao |first3=Yang |last4=Chen |first4=Qiang |last5=Wu |first5=Donglei |last6=Yu |first6=Ping |last7=Li |first7=Yiming |last8=Cai |first8=Mingqi |last9=Zhao |first9=Yunlong |title=Polystyrene nanoplastic induces ROS production and affects the MAPK-HIF-1/NFkB-mediated antioxidant system in Daphnia pulex |journal=Aquatic Toxicology |year=2020 |volume=220 |page=105420 |doi=10.1016/j.aquatox.2020.105420 |pmid=31986404 |bibcode=2020AqTox.22005420L }}{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Zhiquan |last2=Cai |first2=Mingqi |last3=Yu |first3=Ping |last4=Chen |first4=Minghai |last5=Wu |first5=Donglei |last6=Zhang |first6=Meng |last7=Zhao |first7=Yunlong |title=Age-dependent survival, stress defense, and AMPK in Daphnia pulex after short-term exposure to a polystyrene nanoplastic |journal=Aquatic Toxicology |year=2018 |volume=204 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1016/j.aquatox.2018.08.017 |pmid=30153596 |bibcode=2018AqTox.204....1L }}{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Zhiquan |last2=Yu |first2=Ping |last3=Cai |first3=Mingqi |last4=Wu |first4=Donglei |last5=Zhang |first5=Meng |last6=Huang |first6=Youhui |last7=Zhao |first7=Yunlong |title=Polystyrene nanoplastic exposure induces immobilization, reproduction, and stress defense in the freshwater cladoceran Daphnia pulex |journal=Chemosphere |year=2019 |volume=215 |pages=74–81 |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.09.176 |pmid=30312919 |bibcode=2019Chmsp.215...74L }} Nanoplastics can also adsorb toxic chemical pollutants, such as antibiotics, which enable the selective association with antibiotic-resistant bacteria, resulting in the dissemination of nanoplastics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria by bacterivorous nematode Caenorhabditis elegans across the soil.{{Cite journal |last1=Chan |first1=Shepherd Yuen |last2=Liu |first2=Sylvia Yang |last3=Wu |first3=Rongben |last4=Wei |first4=Wei |last5=Fang |first5=James Kar-Hei |last6=Chua |first6=Song Lin |date=2 June 2023 |title=Simultaneous Dissemination of Nanoplastics and Antibiotic Resistance by Nematode Couriers |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=57 |issue=23 |pages=8719–8727 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.2c07129 |pmid=37267481 |bibcode=2023EnST...57.8719C }}

The existence of microplastics in the environment is often established through aquatic studies. These include taking plankton samples, analyzing sandy and muddy sediments, observing vertebrate and invertebrate consumption, and evaluating chemical pollutant interactions.{{cite journal |last1=Ivar do Sul |first1=Juliana A. |last2=Costa |first2=Monica F. |year=2014 |title=The present and future of microplastic pollution in the marine environment |journal=Environmental Pollution |volume=185 |pages=352–364 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.036 |pmid=24275078 |bibcode=2014EPoll.185..352I}} Through such methods, it has been shown that there are microplastics from multiple sources in the environment.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}

Textiles, tires, and urban dust{{Cite web |title=Microplastics from textiles: towards a circular economy for textiles in Europe — European Environment Agency |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/microplastics-from-textiles-towards-a |access-date=15 July 2023 |website=www.eea.europa.eu |language=en |archive-date=27 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230727193710/https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/microplastics-from-textiles-towards-a |url-status=live }} account for over 80% of all microplastics in the seas and the environment. Microplastic is also a type of airborne particulates and is found to prevail in air.{{cite journal |vauthors=Xie Y, Li Y, Feng Y, Cheng W, Wang Y |title=Inhalable microplastics prevails in air: Exploring the size detection limit |journal=Environ Int |volume=162 |issue= |page=107151 |date=April 2022 |pmid=35228011 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2022.107151 |bibcode=2022EnInt.16207151X |url=|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |vauthors=Liu C, Li J, Zhang Y, Wang L, Deng J, Gao Y, Yu L, Zhang J, Sun H |title=Widespread distribution of PET and PC microplastics in dust in urban China and their estimated human exposure |journal=Environ Int |volume=128 |issue= |pages=116–124 |date=July 2019 |pmid=31039519 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2019.04.024 |bibcode=2019EnInt.128..116L |url=|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal | last1=Yuk | first1=Hyeonseong | last2=Jo | first2=Ho Hyeon | last3=Nam | first3=Jihee | last4=Kim | first4=Young Uk | last5=Kim | first5=Sumin | title=Microplastic: A particulate matter(PM) generated by deterioration of building materials | journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials | volume=437 | year=2022 | doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129290 | page=129290| pmid=35753297 | bibcode=2022JHzM..43729290Y }} Paint appears as the largest source of microplastic leakage into the ocean and waterways (1.9 Mt/year), outweighing all other sources of microplastic leakage.{{Cite web |date=July 2023 |title=Plastic paint and the environment |url=https://www.e-a.earth/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/plastic-paint-the-environment.pdf%5B%5D |access-date=April 5, 2025 |website=www.e-a.earth}} Microplastics could contribute up to 30% of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch polluting the world's oceans and, in many developed countries, are a bigger source of marine plastic pollution than the visible larger pieces of marine litter, according to a 2017 IUCN report. Oceanic microplastics are a common source of heavy metals{{harvnb|Howell et al.|2012}}; {{harvnb|Cole et al.|2011|pp=2589–2590}} due to the inclusion of coloring compounds containing chromium, manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc, zirconium, molybdenum, silver, tin, praseodymium, neodymium, erbium, tungsten, iridium, gold, lead, or uranium.{{harvnb|Emsley|2011|pp=135; 313; 141; 495; 626; 479; 630; 334; 495; 556; 424; 339; 169; 571; 252; 205; 286; 599}}

Oral intake is the main pathway of human exposure to microplastics.{{Cite journal |last1=Prata |first1=Joana Correia |last2=da Costa |first2=João P. |last3=Lopes |first3=Isabel |last4=Duarte |first4=Armando C. |last5=Rocha-Santos |first5=Teresa |date=February 2020 |title=Environmental exposure to microplastics: An overview on possible human health effects |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=702 |pages=134455 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134455 |pmid=31733547 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.70234455P }} Microplastics exist in our daily necessities like drinking water, bottled water, seafood, salt, sugar, tea bags, milk, and so on.{{Cite journal |last1=Praveena |first1=Sarva Mangala |last2=Laohaprapanon |first2=Sawanya |date=December 2021 |title=Quality assessment for methodological aspects of microplastics analysis in bottled water – A critical review |journal=Food Control |volume=130 |pages=108285 |doi=10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108285 }}

65 million microplastics are released into water sources every day.{{Cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=Fionn |last2=Ewins |first2=Ciaran |last3=Carbonnier |first3=Frederic |last4=Quinn |first4=Brian |date=2016-05-18 |title=Wastewater Treatment Works (WwTW) as a Source of Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=50 |issue=11 |pages=5800–5808 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.5b05416 |pmid=27191224 |bibcode=2016EnST...50.5800M |url=https://myresearchspace.uws.ac.uk/ws/files/53640347/2016_05_06_Murphy_et_al_Wastewater_accepted.pdf }} In 2017, more than eight million tons of plastics entered the oceans, greater than 33 times as much as that of the total plastics accumulated in the oceans by 2015.{{Cite journal |last1=Peng |first1=Licheng |last2=Fu |first2=Dongdong |last3=Qi |first3=Huaiyuan |last4=Lan |first4=Christopher Q. |last5=Yu |first5=Huamei |last6=Ge |first6=Chengjun |date=January 2020 |title=Micro- and nano-plastics in marine environment: Source, distribution and threats — A review |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=698 |pages=134254 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134254 |pmid=31514025 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.69834254P }} One consequence of this is marine life consumption of microplastics. It is estimated that Europeans are exposed to about 11,000 particles/person/year of microplastics due to shellfish consumption.{{Cite journal |last1=Van Cauwenberghe |first1=Lisbeth |last2=Janssen |first2=Colin R. |date=October 2014 |title=Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human consumption |journal=Environmental Pollution |volume=193 |pages=65–70 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2014.06.010 |pmid=25005888 |bibcode=2014EPoll.193...65V }}

Microplastics may enter drinking water sources in a number of ways: from surface runoff (e.g. after a rain event), to wastewater effluent (both treated and untreated), combined sewer overflows, industrial effluent, degraded plastic waste, and atmospheric deposition. Surface run-off and wastewater effluent are recognized as the two main sources, but better data are required to quantify the sources and associate them with more specific plastic waste streams. Plastic bottles and caps that are used in bottled water may also be sources of microplastics in drinking-water.{{cite journal |last1=Prasad |first1=Vinayak |last2=Schwerdtfeger |first2=Ulrike |last3=El-Awa |first3=Fatimah |last4=Bettcher |first4=Douglas |last5=da Costa e Silva |first5=Vera |title=Closing the door on illicit tobacco trade, opens the way to better tobacco control |journal=Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal |date=June 2015 |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=379–380 |doi=10.26719/2015.21.6.379 |pmid=26369995 }}

Microplastics may also have been widely distributed in soil, especially in agricultural systems.{{cite journal |last1=Rillig |first1=Matthias C. |last2=Lehmann |first2=Anika |title=Microplastic in terrestrial ecosystems |journal=Science |date=26 June 2020 |volume=368 |issue=6498 |pages=1430–1431 |doi=10.1126/science.abb5979 |pmid=32587009 |pmc=7115994 |bibcode=2020Sci...368.1430R }} They (especially with negative charge) can get into the water transport system of plants, and then move to the roots, stems, leaves, and fruits.{{cite journal |last1=Schwab |first1=Fabienne |last2=Rothen-Rutishauser |first2=Barbara |last3=Petri-Fink |first3=Alke |title=When plants and plastic interact |journal=Nature Nanotechnology |date=September 2020 |volume=15 |issue=9 |pages=729–730 |doi=10.1038/s41565-020-0762-x |pmid=32901157 |bibcode=2020NatNa..15..729S |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/329417/files/fin_wpp.pdf }} Once microplastics enter agricultural systems through sewage sludge, compost, and plastic mulching, they will cause food pollution, which may increase the risk of human exposure.{{cite journal |last1=Corradini |first1=Fabio |last2=Meza |first2=Pablo |last3=Eguiluz |first3=Raúl |last4=Casado |first4=Francisco |last5=Huerta-Lwanga |first5=Esperanza |last6=Geissen |first6=Violette |title=Evidence of microplastic accumulation in agricultural soils from sewage sludge disposal |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=June 2019 |volume=671 |pages=411–420 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.368 |pmid=30933797 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.671..411C |doi-access=free }}

{{Clothing and the environment}}

Studies have shown that many synthetic fibers, such as polyester, nylon, acrylics, and spandex, can be shed from clothing and persist in the environment.{{Cite web |url=http://projects.leitat.org/mermaids/ |title=Life-Mermaids Project |date=8 August 2014 |website=Leitat |publisher=leitat|location=Terrassa, Spain |access-date=2 February 2018 |archive-date=2 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180202190645/http://projects.leitat.org/mermaids/ |url-status=live}}Grossman, Elizabeth: "How Microplastics from Your Fleece Could End up on Your Plate", "Civil Eats", 15 January 2015{{cite journal |last1=Periyasamy |first1=Aravin Prince |last2=Tehrani-Bagha |first2=Ali |title=A review of microplastic emission from textile materials and its reduction techniques |journal=Polymer Degradation and Stability |date=March 2022 |volume=199 |page=109901 |doi=10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.109901 |doi-access=free}} Each garment in a load of laundry can shed more than 1900 fibers of microplastics, with fleeces releasing the highest percentage of fibers, over 170% more than other garments.{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.1504135112 |pmid=25944930 |pmc=4426466 |title=News Feature: Microplastics present pollution puzzle |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=112 |issue=18 |pages=5547–5549 |year=2015 |last1=Katsnelson |first1=Alla |bibcode=2015PNAS..112.5547K |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/es201811s |pmid=21894925 |title=Accumulation of Microplastic on Shorelines Worldwide: Sources and Sinks |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=45 |issue=21 |pages=9175–9179 |year=2011 |last1=Browne |first1=Mark Anthony |last2=Crump |first2=Phillip |last3=Niven |first3=Stewart J. |last4=Teuten |first4=Emma |last5=Tonkin |first5=Andrew |last6=Galloway |first6=Tamara |last7=Thompson |first7=Richard |bibcode=2011EnST...45.9175B }} For an average wash load of {{Convert|6|kg|lbs}}, over 700,000 fibers could be released per wash.{{cite journal |last1=Napper |first1=Imogen E. |last2=Thompson |first2=Richard C. |title=Release of synthetic microplastic plastic fibres from domestic washing machines: Effects of fabric type and washing conditions |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |year=2016 |volume=112 |issue=1–2 |pages=39–45 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.09.025 |pmid=27686821 |bibcode=2016MarPB.112...39N |hdl=10026.1/8163 |hdl-access=free}}

Washing machine manufacturers have also reviewed research into whether washing machine filters can reduce the amount of microfiber fibers that need to be treated by sewage treatment facilities.{{Cite web |url=http://www.patagonia.com/blog/2017/02/an-update-on-microfiber-pollution/ |title=An Update on Microfiber Pollution |date=3 February 2017 |website=Patagonia |access-date=14 May 2017 |archive-date=26 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170526143218/http://www.patagonia.com/blog/2017/02/an-update-on-microfiber-pollution |url-status=live}}

These microfibers have been found to persist throughout the food chain from zooplankton to larger animals such as whales. The primary fiber that persists throughout the textile industry is polyester which is a cheap cotton alternative that can be easily manufactured. However, these types of fibers contribute greatly to the persistence of microplastics in terrestrial, aerial, and marine ecosystems. The process of washing clothes causes garments to lose an average of over 100 fibers per liter of water. This has been linked with health effects possibly caused by the release of monomers, dispersive dyes, mordants, and plasticizers from manufacturing. The occurrence of these types of fibers in households has been shown to represent 33% of all fibers in indoor environments.

Textile fibers have been studied in both indoor and outdoor environments to determine the average human exposure. The indoor concentration was found to be 1.0–60.0 fibers/m³, whereas the outdoor concentration was much lower at 0.3–1.5 fibers/m³.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2016.12.013 |pmid=27989388 |title=A first overview of textile fibers, including microplastics, in indoor and outdoor environments |journal=Environmental Pollution |volume=221 |pages=453–458 |year=2017 |last1=Dris |first1=Rachid |last2=Gasperi |first2=Johnny |last3=Mirande |first3=Cécile |last4=Mandin |first4=Corinne |last5=Guerrouache |first5=Mohamed |last6=Langlois |first6=Valérie |last7=Tassin |first7=Bruno |bibcode=2017EPoll.221..453D |url=https://enpc.hal.science/hal-01418927/file/dris2017.pdf }} The deposition rate indoors was 1586–11,130 fibers per day/m³ which accumulates to around 190-670 fibers/mg of dust. The largest concern with these concentrations is that it increases exposure to children and the elderly, which can cause adverse health effects.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}}

Plastic containers can shed microplastics and nanoparticles into foods and beverages.{{cite journal |last1=Hussain |first1=Kazi Albab |last2=Romanova |first2=Svetlana |last3=Okur |first3=Ilhami |last4=Zhang |first4=Dong |last5=Kuebler |first5=Jesse |last6=Huang |first6=Xi |last7=Wang |first7=Bing |last8=Fernandez-Ballester |first8=Lucia |last9=Lu |first9=Yongfeng |last10=Schubert |first10=Mathias |last11=Li |first11=Yusong |title=Assessing the Release of Microplastics and Nanoplastics from Plastic Containers and Reusable Food Pouches: Implications for Human Health |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |date=4 July 2023 |volume=57 |issue=26 |pages=9782–9792 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.3c01942 |pmid=37343248 |bibcode=2023EnST...57.9782H }}

In one study, 93% of the bottled water from 11 different brands showed microplastic contamination. Per liter, researchers found an average of 325 microplastic particles.{{cite journal |last1=Mason |first1=Sherri A. |last2=Welch |first2=Victoria G. |last3=Neratko |first3=Joseph |date=11 September 2018 |title=Synthetic Polymer Contamination in Bottled Water |journal=Frontiers in Chemistry |volume=6 |page=407 |bibcode=2018FrCh....6..407M |doi=10.3389/fchem.2018.00407 |pmc=6141690 |pmid=30255015 |doi-access=free}} Of the tested brands, Nestlé Pure Life and Gerolsteiner bottles contained the most microplastic with 930 and 807 microplastic particles per liter (MPP/L), respectively. San Pellegrino products showed the least quantity of microplastic densities. Compared to water from taps, water from plastic bottles contained twice as much microplastic. Another study capable of detecting nanoplastics found 240,000 fragments per liter: 10% between 5 mm and 1 μm and 90% under 1 μm in diameter.{{cite news |author=James Doubek |date=10 January 2024 |title=Researchers find a massive number of plastic particles in bottled water |url=https://www.npr.org/2024/01/10/1223730333/bottled-water-plastic-microplastic-nanoplastic-study |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217203211/https://www.npr.org/2024/01/10/1223730333/bottled-water-plastic-microplastic-nanoplastic-study |archive-date=17 February 2024 |access-date=17 February 2024 |publisher=NPR}}{{cite journal |author1=Naixin Qian |author2=Xin Gao |author3=Xiaoqi Lang |author4=Huiping Deng |author5=Teodora Maria Bratu |author6=Qixuan Chen |author7=Phoebe Stapleton |author8=Beizhan Yan |author9=Wei Min |date=16 January 2024 |title=Rapid single-particle chemical imaging of nanoplastics by SRS microscopy |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=121 |pages=e2300582121 |bibcode=2024PNAS..12100582Q |doi=10.1073/pnas.2300582121 |pmc=10801917 |pmid=38190543 |number=3}}

Some of the contamination likely comes from the process of bottling and packaging the water, and possibly from filters used to purify the water.

File:Infant drinks milk from bottle.jpg

In 2020 researchers reported that polypropylene infant feeding bottles with contemporary preparation procedures were found to cause microplastics exposure to infants ranging from 14,600 to 4,550,000 particles per capita per day in 48 regions. Microplastics release is higher with warmer liquids and similar with other polypropylene products such as lunchboxes.{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |date=19 October 2020 |title=Bottle-fed babies swallow millions of microplastics a day, study finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/oct/19/bottle-fed-babies-swallow-millions-microplastics-day-study |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109035524/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/oct/19/bottle-fed-babies-swallow-millions-microplastics-day-study |archive-date=9 November 2020 |access-date=9 November 2020 |work=The Guardian}}{{cite news |title=High levels of microplastics released from infant feeding bottles during formula prep |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-10-high-microplastics-infant-bottles-formula.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031235701/https://phys.org/news/2020-10-high-microplastics-infant-bottles-formula.html |archive-date=31 October 2020 |access-date=9 November 2020 |work=phys.org}}{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Dunzhu |last2=Shi |first2=Yunhong |last3=Yang |first3=Luming |last4=Xiao |first4=Liwen |last5=Kehoe |first5=Daniel K. |last6=Gun'ko |first6=Yurii K. |last7=Boland |first7=John J. |last8=Wang |first8=Jing Jing |year=2020 |title=Microplastic release from the degradation of polypropylene feeding bottles during infant formula preparation |journal=Nature Food |volume=1 |issue=11 |pages=746–754 |doi=10.1038/s43016-020-00171-y |pmid=37128027 |hdl-access=free |hdl=2262/94127}} Unexpectedly, silicone rubber baby bottle nipples degrade over time from repeated steam sterilization, shedding micro- and nano-sized particles of silicone rubber, researchers found in 2021. They estimated that, using such heat-degraded nipples for a year, a baby will ingest more than 660,000 particles.{{Cite web |last=Amherst |first=University of Massachusetts |title=Steam disinfection of baby bottle nipples exposes babies and the environment to micro- and nanoplastic particles |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-11-steam-disinfection-baby-bottle-nipples.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129231356/https://phys.org/news/2021-11-steam-disinfection-baby-bottle-nipples.html |archive-date=29 November 2021 |access-date=30 November 2021 |website=phys.org |language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=Su |first1=Yu |last2=Hu |first2=Xi |last3=Tang |first3=Hongjie |last4=Lu |first4=Kun |last5=Li |first5=Huimin |last6=Liu |first6=Sijin |last7=Xing |first7=Baoshan |last8=Ji |first8=Rong |date=11 November 2021 |title=Steam disinfection releases micro(nano)plastics from silicone-rubber baby teats as examined by optical photothermal infrared microspectroscopy |journal=Nature Nanotechnology |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=76–85 |doi=10.1038/s41565-021-00998-x |pmid=34764453 }}

File:Kaffe og mandarin (5198912077).jpg

Common single-use plastic products, such as plastic cups, or even paper coffee cups that are lined with a thin plastic film inside, release trillions of microplastic-nanoparticles per liter into water during normal use.{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Guanyu |last2=Wu |first2=Qidong |last3=Tang |first3=Peng |last4=Chen |first4=Chen |last5=Cheng |first5=Xin |last6=Wei |first6=Xin-Feng |last7=Ma |first7=Jun |last8=Liu |first8=Baicang |date=2023 |title=How many microplastics do we ingest when using disposable drink cups? |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials |volume=441 |page=129982 |bibcode=2023JHzM..44129982Z |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129982 }}{{cite journal |last1=Zangmeister |first1=Christopher D. |last2=Radney |first2=James G. |last3=Benkstein |first3=Kurt D. |last4=Kalanyan |first4=Berc |title=Common Single-Use Consumer Plastic Products Release Trillions of Sub-100 nm Nanoparticles per Liter into Water during Normal Use |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |date=3 May 2022 |volume=56 |issue=9 |pages=5448–5455 |bibcode=2022EnST...56.5448Z |doi=10.1021/acs.est.1c06768 |pmid=35441513 }} Single-use plastic products enter aquatic environments{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Chaoran |last2=Busquets |first2=Rosa |last3=Campos |first3=Luiza C. |title=Assessment of microplastics in freshwater systems: A review |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=March 2020 |volume=707 |pages=135578 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135578 |pmid=31784176 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.70735578L |url=https://eprints.kingston.ac.uk/id/eprint/44516/1/Li-C-44516-AAM.pdf }} and "[l]ocal and statewide policies that reduce single-use plastics were identified as effective legislative actions that

communities can take to address plastic pollution".{{cite journal |last1=Rochman |first1=Chelsea M. |last2=Munno |first2=Keenan |last3=Box |first3=Carolynn |last4=Cummins |first4=Anna |last5=Zhu |first5=Xia |last6=Sutton |first6=Rebecca |date=5 January 2021 |title=Think Global, Act Local: Local Knowledge Is Critical to Inform Positive Change When It Comes to Microplastics |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |language=en |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=4–6 |bibcode=2021EnST...55....4R |doi=10.1021/acs.est.0c05746 |pmid=33296180 |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |last1=Okeke |first1=Emmanuel Sunday |last2=Okoye |first2=Charles Obinwanne |last3=Atakpa |first3=Edidiong Okokon |last4=Ita |first4=Richard Ekeng |last5=Nyaruaba |first5=Raphael |last6=Mgbechidinma |first6=Chiamaka Linda |last7=Akan |first7=Otobong Donald |date=1 February 2022 |title=Microplastics in agroecosystems-impacts on ecosystem functions and food chain |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |language=en |volume=177 |page=105961 |bibcode=2022RCR...17705961O |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105961 }}

Plastics are extensively used in the construction and renovation industry.{{Cite journal |last=Turner |first=Andrew |date=2021-08-01 |title=Paint particles in the marine environment: An overlooked component of microplastics |journal=Water Research X |volume=12 |page=100110 |doi=10.1016/j.wroa.2021.100110 |pmid=34401707 |bibcode=2021WRX....1200110T |pmc=8350503 }} Airborne microplastic dust is produced during renovation, building, bridge and road reconstruction projects{{cite journal |last1=Prasittisopin |first1=Lapyote |last2=Ferdous |first2=Wahid |last3=Kamchoom |first3=Viroon |year=2023 |title=Microplastics in construction and built environment |journal=Developments in the Built Environment |publisher=Elsevier BV |volume=15 |doi=10.1016/j.dibe.2023.100188 |doi-access=free}} and the use of power tools.{{cite web |last=Galloway |first=Nanette LoBiondo |date=13 Sep 2024 |title=Ventnor introduces ordinance to control microplastics contamination |url=https://downbeach.com/news/2024/sep/13/ventnor-introduces-ordinance-to-control-microplastics-contamination/ |access-date=2 Oct 2024 |website=DownBeach}}

Materials containing polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polycarbonate, polypropylene, and acrylic, can degrade overtime releasing microplastics. During the construction process single use plastic containers and wrappers are discarded adding to plastic waste.{{Cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=Guadalupe |last2=Esmizadeh |first2=Elnaz |last3=Riahinezhad |first3=Marzieh |date=2024-02-01 |title=Recycling Construction, Renovation, and Demolition Plastic Waste: Review of the Status Quo, Challenges and Opportunities |journal=Journal of Polymers and the Environment |language=en |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=479–509 |doi=10.1007/s10924-023-02982-z |doi-access=free }} These plastics are difficult to recycle and end up in landfills where they break down over a long period of time causing potential leaching into the soil and the release of airborne microplastics.{{Cite journal |last1=Wojnowska-Baryła |first1=Irena |last2=Bernat |first2=Katarzyna |last3=Zaborowska |first3=Magdalena |date=January 2022 |title=Plastic Waste Degradation in Landfill Conditions: The Problem with Microplastics, and Their Direct and Indirect Environmental Effects |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |language=en |volume=19 |issue=20 |page=13223 |doi=10.3390/ijerph192013223 |doi-access=free |pmid=36293805 |pmc=9602440 }}{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Sandeep |last2=Malyan |first2=Sandeep K. |last3=Maithani |first3=Chinmay |last4=Kashyap |first4=Sujata |last5=Tyagi |first5=Vinay Kumar |last6=Singh |first6=Rajesh |last7=Malhotra |first7=Sarthak |last8=Sharma |first8=Manish |last9=Kumar |first9=Amit |last10=Panday |first10=Bijay K. |last11=Pandey |first11=R.P. |title=Microplastics in landfill leachate: Occurrence, health concerns, and removal strategies |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |date=September 2023 |volume=342 |pages=118220 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118220 |pmid=37290308 |bibcode=2023JEnvM.34218220S }} Airborne microplastic dust is also generated by deterioration of building materials

Due to the environmental impact from plastic waste creation in the construction and renovation sectors waste management practices that address this issue are required.{{cite journal |last1=Tahir |first1=Furqan |last2=Sbahieh |first2=Sami |last3=Al-Ghamdi |first3=Sami G. |title=Environmental impacts of using recycled plastics in concrete |journal=Materials Today: Proceedings |date=2022 |volume=62 |pages=4013–4017 |doi=10.1016/j.matpr.2022.04.593 }}{{cite journal |last1=Prasittisopin |first1=Lapyote |last2=Ferdous |first2=Wahid |last3=Kamchoom |first3=Viroon |title=Microplastics in construction and built environment |journal=Developments in the Built Environment |date=October 2023 |volume=15 |pages=100188 |doi=10.1016/j.dibe.2023.100188 |doi-access=free }}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}

{{cite journal |last1=Ahmed |first1=Nadia |title=Utilizing plastic waste in the building and construction industry: A pathway towards the circular economy |journal=Construction and Building Materials |date=June 2023 |volume=383 |pages=131311 |doi=10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.131311 }} Although many researchers have investigated the use of wastes, such as plastic, in the construction process in an effort to reduce waste and increase sustainability, construction is not an environmentally-friendly activity by nature. Efforts have been made to reduce plastic waste by adding it to concrete as agglomerates. However, one solution for resolving the problem from the large amount of plastic wastes generated could bring another serious problem of leaching of microplastics. The unknown part of this area is huge and needs prompt investigation.

Around twenty percent of all plastics and seventy percent of all polyvinyl chloride (PVC) produced in the world each year are used by the construction industry.{{cite web | last=Smethurst | first=Tom | title=Why we must limit use of construction plastics | website=RICS | date=18 May 2023 | url=https://ww3.rics.org/uk/en/journals/built-environment-journal/plastics-construction-materials-health.html | access-date=5 Dec 2024}}{{cite journal | last1=Hernandez | first1=German | last2=Low | first2=Joanne | last3=Nand | first3=Ashveen | last4=Bu | first4=Alex | last5=Wallis | first5=Shannon L | last6=Kestle | first6=Linda | last7=Berry | first7=Terri-Ann | title=Quantifying and managing plastic waste generated from building construction in Auckland, New Zealand | journal=Waste Management & Research: The Journal for a Sustainable Circular Economy | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=41 | issue=1 | date=13 Jun 2022 | doi=10.1177/0734242x221105425 | doi-access=free | pages=205–213| pmid=35698793 | pmc=9925883 | hdl=10652/5874 | hdl-access=free }} It is predicted that much more will be produced and used in the future. "In Europe, approximately 20% of all plastics produced are used in the construction sector including different classes of plastics, waste and nanomaterials."

Common types:

• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
• Polyethylene (PE)
• Polypropylene (PP)
• Expandable polystyrene (EPS)
• Polyurethane (PU)

Indirect use (packaging of construction materials) examples:

• Foils and moisture barriers
• Covers
• Soft plastic wraps
• EPS and PP sacks

Direct use (construction materials containing plastics) examples:

• Building products
• Insulation
• Damp-proofing
• Flooring
• Roofing
• Windows
• Laminated surfaces
• Building service installations
• Pipes
• Cabling
• Surface treatments
• Paints
• Varnishes
• Sealants
• Glues
• Resins
• Covers
• Shrink wrap
• Tarpaulins

Some companies have replaced natural exfoliating ingredients with microplastics, usually in the form of "microbeads" or "micro-exfoliates". These products are typically composed of polyethylene, a common component of plastics, but they can also be manufactured from polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and nylon.{{cite web |url=http://www.beatthemicrobead.org/en/ |title=International Campaign against Microbeads in Cosmetics |website=Beat the Microbead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150315021442/http://beatthemicrobead.org/en/ |archive-date=15 March 2015 |publisher=Plastic Soup Foundation |location=Amsterdam}} They are often found in face washes, hand soaps, and other personal care products; the beads are usually washed into the sewage system immediately after use. Their small size prevents them from fully being retained by preliminary treatment screens at wastewater plants, thereby allowing some to enter rivers and oceans.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.04.025 |pmid=19481226 |title=Contributing to marine pollution by washing your face: Microplastics in facial cleansers |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=58 |issue=8 |pages=1225–1228 |year=2009 |last1=Fendall |first1=Lisa S. |last2=Sewell |first2=Mary A. |bibcode=2009MarPB..58.1225F}} Wastewater treatment plants only remove an average of 95–99.9% of microbeads because of their small design. This leaves an average of 0–7 microbeads per litre being discharged.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.10.048 |pmid=27836135 |title=Microplastics in personal care products: Exploring perceptions of environmentalists, beauticians and students |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=113 |issue=1–2 |pages=454–460 |year=2016 |last1=Anderson |first1=A.G. |last2=Grose |first2=J. |last3=Pahl |first3=S. |last4=Thompson |first4=R.C. |last5=Wyles |first5=K.J. |bibcode=2016MarPB.113..454A |hdl=10026.1/8172 |hdl-access=free }} Considering that the treatment plants of the world discharge 160 trillion liters of water per day, around 8 trillion microbeads are released into waterways every day. This number does not account for the sewage sludge that is reused as fertilizer after the waste water treatment that has been known to still contain these microbeads.{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/acs.est.5b03909 |pmid=26334581 |title=Scientific Evidence Supports a Ban on Microbeads |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=49 |issue=18 |pages=10759–10761 |year=2015 |last1=Rochman |first1=Chelsea M. |last2=Kross |first2=Sara M. |last3=Armstrong |first3=Jonathan B. |last4=Bogan |first4=Michael T. |last5=Darling |first5=Emily S. |last6=Green |first6=Stephanie J. |last7=Smyth |first7=Ashley R. |last8=Veríssimo |first8=Diogo |bibcode=2015EnST...4910759R |doi-access=free}}

Although many companies have committed to phasing out the use of microbeads in their products, there are at least 80 different facial scrub products that are still being sold with microbeads as a main component.{{Failed verification|date=March 2024}} This contributes to the 80 metric tons of microbead discharge per year by the United Kingdom alone, which not only has a negative impact upon the wildlife and food chain, but also upon levels of toxicity, as microbeads have been proven to absorb dangerous chemicals such as pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The restriction proposal by the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) and reports by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and TAUW suggest that there are more than 500 microplastic ingredients that are widely used in cosmetics and personal care products.{{Cite web |title=Guide to Microplastics – Check Your Products |url=https://www.beatthemicrobead.org/guide-to-microplastics/ |access-date=12 August 2020 |website=Beat the Microbead |publisher=Plastic Soup Foundation |location=Amsterdam |archive-date=4 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804164812/https://www.beatthemicrobead.org/guide-to-microplastics/ |url-status=live}}

Even when microbeads are removed from cosmetic products, there are still harmful products being sold with plastics in them. For example, acrylate copolymers cause toxic effects for waterways and animals if they are polluted.{{Cite journal |last=Tikhomirov |first=Iu P. |date=1991 |title=Vliianie vybrosov proizvodstv akrilatov na okruzhaiushchuiu sredu i profilaktika ikh neblagopriiatnogo vozdeĭstviia |trans-title=Effect of acrylate industry wastes on the environment and the prevention of their harmful action |journal=Vestnik Akademii Meditsinskikh Nauk SSSR |issue=2 |pages=21–25 |pmid=1828644 |language=ru |oclc=120600446}} Acrylate copolymers also can emit styrene monomers when used in body products which increases a person's chances of cancer.{{Cite web |title=After 40 years in limbo: Styrene is probably carcinogenic |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/05/180530113105.htm |access-date=14 April 2021 |website=ScienceDaily |language=en |archive-date=15 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115230044/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/05/180530113105.htm |url-status=live}} Countries like New Zealand which have banned microbeads often pass over other polymers such as acrylate copolymers, which can be just as toxic to people and the environment.{{Cite web |date=11 June 2020 |title=Microbeads are banned, but plastic-filled products are everywhere |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/121791639/microbeads-are-banned-but-plasticfilled-products-are-everywhere |access-date=14 April 2021 |website=Stuff |language=en |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414023220/https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/121791639/microbeads-are-banned-but-plasticfilled-products-are-everywhere |url-status=live}}

After the Microbead-Free Waters Act of 2015, the use of microbeads in toothpaste and other rinse-off cosmetic products has been discontinued in the US,{{Cite web |title=What Are Microbeads In Toothpaste? |url=https://www.colgate.com/en-us/oral-health/brushing-and-flossing/what-are-microbeads-in-toothpaste |work=Colgate |date= |access-date=28 November 2022 |archive-date=27 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927080638/https://www.colgate.com/en-us/oral-health/brushing-and-flossing/what-are-microbeads-in-toothpaste |url-status=live }} however since 2015 many industries have instead shifted toward using FDA-approved "rinse-off" metallized-plastic glitter as their primary abrasive agent.{{Cite news |first=Caity |last=Weaver |title=What Is Glitter? A strange journey to the glitter factory. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/21/style/glitter-factory.html |work=The New York Times |date=21 December 2018 |access-date=28 November 2022 |archive-date=11 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211060608/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/21/style/glitter-factory.html |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |first=Trisha |last=Bartle |title=TikTok Is Going Deep On The Glitter Conspiracy Theories–Is It Toothpaste, Boats, Or Something Else? |url=https://collective.world/tiktok-is-going-deep-on-the-glitter-conspiracy-theories-is-it-toothpaste-boats-or-something-else/ |work=Collective World |date=17 October 2022 |access-date=28 November 2022 |archive-date=8 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208053622/https://collective.world/tiktok-is-going-deep-on-the-glitter-conspiracy-theories-is-it-toothpaste-boats-or-something-else/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |author=Dr. Beccy Corkill |title=The Glitter Conspiracy Theory: Who Is Taking All Of The Glitter? |url=https://www.iflscience.com/the-glitter-conspiracy-theory-who-is-taking-all-of-the-glitter-66761 |work=IFLScience |date=21 December 2022 |access-date=18 January 2023 |archive-date=10 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230110181249/https://www.iflscience.com/the-glitter-conspiracy-theory-who-is-taking-all-of-the-glitter-66761 |url-status=live }}

Recreational and commercial fishing, marine vessels, and marine industries are all sources of plastic that can directly enter the marine environment, posing a risk to biota both as macroplastics, and as secondary microplastics following long-term degradation. Marine debris observed on beaches also arises from beaching of materials carried on inshore and ocean currents. Fishing gear is a form of plastic debris with a marine source. Discarded or lost fishing gear, including plastic monofilament line and nylon netting (sometimes called ghost nets), is typically neutrally buoyant and can, therefore, drift at variable depths within the oceans. Various countries have reported that microplastics from the industry and other sources have been accumulating in different types of seafood. In Indonesia, 55% of all fish species had evidence of manufactured debris similar to America which reported 67%.{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/srep14340 |pmid=26399762 |pmc=4585829 |title=Anthropogenic debris in seafood: Plastic debris and fibers from textiles in fish and bivalves sold for human consumption |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=5 |page=14340 |year=2015 |last1=Rochman |first1=Chelsea M. |last2=Tahir |first2=Akbar |last3=Williams |first3=Susan L. |last4=Baxa |first4=Dolores V. |last5=Lam |first5=Rosalyn |last6=Miller |first6=Jeffrey T. |last7=Teh |first7=Foo-Ching |last8=Werorilangi |first8=Shinta |last9=Teh |first9=Swee J. |issue=1 |bibcode=2015NatSR...514340R}} However, the majority of debris in Indonesia was plastic, while in North America the majority was synthetic fibers found in clothing and some types of nets. The implication from the fact that fish are being contaminated with microplastic is that those plastics and their chemicals will bioaccumulate in the food chain.{{Cite journal |last1=Alberghini |first1=Leonardo |last2=Truant |first2=Alessandro |last3=Santonicola |first3=Serena |last4=Colavita |first4=Giampaolo |last5=Giaccone |first5=Valerio |date=2022-12-31 |title=Microplastics in Fish and Fishery Products and Risks for Human Health: A Review |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=789 |doi=10.3390/ijerph20010789 |doi-access=free |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=9819327 |pmid=36613111}}

One study analyzed the plastic-derived chemical called polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the stomachs of short-tailed shearwaters. It found that one-fourth of the birds had higher-brominated congeners that are not naturally found in their prey. However, the PBDE got into the birds' systems through plastic that was found in the stomachs of the birds. It is therefore not just the plastics that are being transferred through the food chain but the chemicals from the plastics as well.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2012.12.010 |pmid=23298431 |title=Accumulation of plastic-derived chemicals in tissues of seabirds ingesting marine plastics |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=69 |issue=1–2 |pages=219–222 |year=2013 |last1=Tanaka |first1=Kosuke |last2=Takada |first2=Hideshige |last3=Yamashita |first3=Rei |last4=Mizukawa |first4=Kaoruko |last5=Fukuwaka |first5=Masa-aki |last6=Watanuki |first6=Yutaka |bibcode=2013MarPB..69..219T}}

The manufacture of plastic products uses granules and small resin pellets as their raw material. In the United States, production increased from 2.9 million pellets in 1960 to 21.7 million pellets in 1987.{{cite journal |last1=Pruter |first1=A.T. |title=Sources, quantities and distribution of persistent plastics in the marine environment |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |date=June 1987 |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=305–310 |doi=10.1016/S0025-326X(87)80016-4 |bibcode=1987MarPB..18..305P |url=http://commons.wmu.se/lib_articles/153 |access-date=10 November 2021 |archive-date=10 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211110163633/https://commons.wmu.se/lib_articles/153/ |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }} In 2019, plastic world production was 368 million tonnes; 51% were produced in Asia. China, the world's largest producer, created 31% of the world total.{{Cite web |url=https://www.plasticseurope.org/application/files/8016/1125/2189/AF_Plastics_the_facts-WEB-2020-ING_FINAL.pdf |title=Plastics – the Facts 2020 |year=2020 |access-date=3 October 2021 |archive-date=1 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901235830/https://www.plasticseurope.org/application/files/8016/1125/2189/AF_Plastics_the_facts-WEB-2020-ING_FINAL.pdf |website=PlasticsEurope.org}} Through accidental spillage during land or sea transport, inappropriate use as packing materials, and direct outflow from processing plants, these raw materials can enter aquatic ecosystems. In an assessment of Swedish waters using an 80 μm mesh, KIMO Sweden found typical microplastic concentrations of 150–2,400 microplastics per m³; in a harbor adjacent to a plastic production facility, the concentration was 102,000 per m³.

Many industrial sites in which convenient raw plastics are frequently used are located near bodies of water. If spilled during production, these materials may enter the surrounding environment, polluting waterways. "More recently, Operation Cleansweep, a joint initiative of the American Chemistry Council and Society of the Plastics Industry, is aiming for industries to commit to zero pellet loss during their operations". Overall, there is a significant lack of research aimed at specific industries and companies that contribute to microplastics pollution.

Since the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, the usage of medical face masks has sharply increased to reach approximately 89 million masks each.{{Cite journal |last1=Saliu |first1=Francesco |last2=Veronelli |first2=Maurizio |last3=Raguso |first3=Clarissa |last4=Barana |first4=Davide |last5=Galli |first5=Paolo |last6=Lasagni |first6=Marina |date=July 2021 |title=The release process of microfibers: from surgical face masks into the marine environment |journal=Environmental Advances |language=en |volume=4 |page=100042 |doi=10.1016/j.envadv.2021.100042 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021EnvAd...400042S|hdl=10281/314511 |hdl-access=free }} Single use face masks are made from polymers, such as polypropylene, polyurethane, polyacrylonitrile, polystyrene, polycarbonate, polyethylene, or polyester. The increase in production, consumption, and littering of face masks was added to the list of environmental challenges, due to the addition of plastic particles waste in the environment. After degrading, disposable face masks could break down into smaller size particles (under 5mm) emerging a new source of microplastic. A single surgical weathered face mask may release up to 173,000 fibers/ day.

A report made in February 2020 by Oceans Asia, an organization committed to advocacy and research on marine pollution, confirms "the presence of face masks of different types and colors in an ocean in Hong Kong".{{cite journal |last1=Fadare |first1=Oluniyi O. |last2=Okoffo |first2=Elvis D. |title=Covid-19 face masks: A potential source of microplastic fibers in the environment |journal=Science of the Total Environment |year=2020 |volume=737 |page=140279 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140279 |pmid=32563114 |pmc=7297173 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.73730279F}}

Sewage treatment plants, also known as wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), remove contaminants from wastewater, primarily from household sewage, using various physical, chemical, and biological processes. Most plants in developed countries have both primary and secondary treatment stages. In the primary stage of treatment, physical processes are employed to remove oils, sand, and other large solids using conventional filters, clarifiers, and settling tanks.{{Cite report |year=1997 |title=Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Treatment |url=https://www.epa.ie/pubs/advice/water/wastewater/EPA_water__treatment_manual_primary_secondary_tertiary1.pdf |series=Wastewater Treatment Manuals |publisher=Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland |location=Wexford |access-date=15 August 2021 |archive-date=19 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719095826/https://www.epa.ie/publications/ |url-status=live}} Secondary treatment uses biological processes involving bacteria and protozoa to break down organic matter. Common secondary technologies are activated sludge systems, trickling filters, and constructed wetlands. The optional tertiary treatment stage may include processes for nutrient removal (nitrogen and phosphorus) and disinfection.

Microplastics have been detected in both the primary and secondary treatment stages of the plants. A groundbreaking 1998 study suggested that microplastic fibers would be a persistent indicator of sewage sludges and wastewater treatment plant outfalls.{{cite journal |last1=Habib |first1=Daniel |last2=Locke |first2=David C. |last3=Cannone |first3=Leonard J. |journal=Water, Air, and Soil Pollution |year=1998 |title=Synthetic Fibers as Indicators of Municipal Sewage Sludge, Sludge Products, and Sewage Treatment Plant Effluents |volume=103 |issue=1/4 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1023/A:1004908110793 |bibcode=1998WASP..103....1H}} A study estimated that about one particle per liter of microplastics are being released back into the environment, with a removal efficiency of about 99.9%.{{Cite journal |last1=Carr |first1=Steve A. |last2=Liu |first2=Jin |last3=Tesoro |first3=Arnold G. |year=2016 |title=Transport and fate of microplastic particles in wastewater treatment plants |journal=Water Research |volume=91 |pages=174–182 |doi=10.1016/j.watres.2016.01.002 |pmid=26795302 |bibcode=2016WatRe..91..174C}}{{cite journal |last1=Estahbanati |first1=Shirin |last2=Fahrenfeld |first2=N.L. |title=Influence of wastewater treatment plant discharges on microplastic concentrations in surface water |journal=Chemosphere |date=November 2016 |volume=162 |pages=277–284 |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.07.083 |pmid=27508863 |bibcode=2016Chmsp.162..277E}}{{Cite journal |last1=Mintenig |first1=S.M. |last2=Int-Veen |first2=I. |last3=Löder |first3=M.G.J. |last4=Primpke |first4=S. |last5=Gerdts |first5=G. |year=2017 |title=Identification of microplastic in effluents of waste water treatment plants using focal plane array-based micro-Fourier-transform infrared imaging |journal=Water Research |volume=108 |pages=365–72 |doi=10.1016/j.watres.2016.11.015 |pmid=27838027 |bibcode=2017WatRe.108..365M |doi-access=free}} A 2016 study showed that most microplastics are actually removed during the primary treatment stage where solid skimming and sludge settling are used. When these treatment facilities are functioning properly, the contribution of microplastics into oceans and surface water environments from WWTPs is not disproportionately large.{{Cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=Fionn |last2=Ewins |first2=Ciaran |last3=Carbonnier |first3=Frederic |last4=Quinn |first4=Brian |year=2016 |title=Wastewater Treatment Works (WwTW) as a Source of Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=50 |issue=11 |pages=5800–5808 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.5b05416 |pmid=27191224 |bibcode=2016EnST...50.5800M |url=https://myresearchspace.uws.ac.uk/ws/files/53640347/2016_05_06_Murphy_et_al_Wastewater_accepted.pdf }} Many studies show that while wastewater treatment plants certainly reduce the microplastic load on waterways, with current technological developments they are not able to clean the waters fully of this pollutant.{{Cite journal |last1=Pol |first1=Wojciech |last2=Żmijewska |first2=Angelika |last3=Stasińska |first3=Emilia |last4=Zieliński |first4=Piotr |date=11 April 2022 |title=Spatial–Temporal Distribution of Microplastics in Lowland Rivers Flowing Through Two Cities (NE Poland) |journal=Water, Air, & Soil Pollution |language=en |volume=233 |issue=4 |page=140 |doi=10.1007/s11270-022-05608-7 |bibcode=2022WASP..233..140P }}{{Cite journal |last1=Balla |first1=Alexia |last2=Mohsen |first2=Ahmed |last3=Gönczy |first3=Sándor |last4=Kiss |first4=Tímea |date=January 2022 |title=Spatial Variations in Microfiber Transport in a Transnational River Basin |journal=Applied Sciences |language=en |volume=12 |issue=21 |page=10852 |doi=10.3390/app122110852 |doi-access=free}}

Sewage sludge is used for soil fertilizer in some countries, which exposes plastics in the sludge to the weather, sunlight, and other biological factors, causing fragmentation. As a result, microplastics from these biosolids often end up in storm drains and eventually into bodies of water.{{Cite journal |last1=Weithmann |first1=Nicolas |last2=Möller |first2=Julia N. |last3=Löder |first3=Martin G. J. |last4=Piehl |first4=Sarah |last5=Laforsch |first5=Christian |last6=Freitag |first6=Ruth |year=2018 |title=Organic fertilizer as a vehicle for the entry of microplastic into the environment |journal=Science Advances |volume=4 |issue=4 |page=eaap8060 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aap8060 |pmc=5884690 |pmid=29632891 |bibcode=2018SciA....4.8060W}} In addition, some studies show that microplastics do pass through filtration processes at some WWTPs. According to a study from the UK, samples taken from sewage sludge disposal sites on the coasts of six continents contained an average one particle of microplastic per liter. A significant amount of these particles was of clothing fibers from washing machine effluent.

{{main|Rubber pollution}}

Wear and tear from tires significantly contributes to the flow of (micro-)plastics into the environment. Estimates of emissions of microplastics to the environment in Denmark are between orders of magnitude (mass)#106 to 1011 kg per year. Secondary microplastics (e.g. from car and truck tires or footwear) are more important than primary microplastics by two orders of magnitude. The formation of microplastics from the degradation of larger plastics in the environment is not accounted for in the study.{{cite report |url=http://www2.mst.dk/Udgiv/publications/2015/10/978-87-93352-80-3.pdf |title=Microplastics: Occurrence, effects and sources of releases to the environment in Denmark |publisher=Ministry of Environment and Food in Denmark, Danish Environmental Protection Agency |location=Copenhagen |page=14 |isbn=978-87-93352-80-3 |id=Environmental project No. 1793 |access-date=16 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613030419/http://www2.mst.dk/Udgiv/publications/2015/10/978-87-93352-80-3.pdf |archive-date=13 June 2017 |url-status=live |year=2015}}

The estimated per capita emission ranges from 0.23 to 4.7 kg/year, with a global average of 0.81 kg/year. The emissions from car tires (wear reaching 100%) are substantially higher than those of other sources of microplastics, e.g., airplane tires (2%), artificial turf (wear 12–50%), brakes (wear 8%), and road markings (wear 5%). In the case of road markings, recent field study indicated that they were protected by a layer of glass beads and their contribution was only between 0.1 and 4.3 g/person/year,{{Cite journal |last1=Burghardt |first1=Tomasz E. |last2=Pashkevich |first2=Anton |last3=Babić |first3=Darko |last4=Mosböck |first4=Harald |last5=Babić |first5=Dario |last6=Żakowska |first6=Lidia |date=1 January 2022 |title=Microplastics and road markings: the role of glass beads and loss estimation |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |volume=102 |page=103123 |bibcode=2022TRPD..10203123B |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2021.103123 |doi-access=free}} which would constitute approximately 0.7% of all of the secondary microplastics emissions; this value agrees with some emissions estimates.{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Teng |last2=Li |first2=Baojie |last3=Zou |first3=Xinqing |last4=Wang |first4=Ying |last5=Li |first5=Yali |last6=Xu |first6=Yongjiang |last7=Mao |first7=Longjiang |last8=Zhang |first8=Chuchu |last9=Yu |first9=Wenwen |title=Emission of primary microplastics in mainland China: Invisible but not negligible |journal=Water Research |date=October 2019 |volume=162 |pages=214–224 |bibcode=2019WatRe.162..214W |doi=10.1016/j.watres.2019.06.042 |pmid=31276985 }}Verschoor, A., van Herwijnen, R., Posthuma, C., Klesse, K., Werner, S., 2017. Assessment document of land-based inputs of microplastics in the marine environment. Publication 705/2017. OSPAR Commission: London, United Kingdom. Emissions and pathways depend on local factors like road type or sewage systems. The relative contribution of tire wear and tear to the total global amount of plastics ending up in our oceans is estimated to be 5–10%. In air, 3–7% of the particulate matter (PM_2.5) is estimated to consist of tire wear and tear, indicating that it may contribute to the global health burden of air pollution which has been projected by the World Health Organization at 3 million deaths in 2012. Pollution from tire wear and tear also enters the food chain, but further research is needed to assess human health risks.{{Cite journal |last1=Kole |first1=Pieter Jan |last2=Löhr |first2=Ansje J. |last3=Van Belleghem |first3=Frank |last4=Ragas |first4=Ad |last5=Kole |first5=Pieter Jan |last6=Löhr |first6=Ansje J. |last7=Van Belleghem |first7=Frank G. A. J. |last8=Ragas |first8=Ad M. J. |year=2017 |title=Wear and Tear of Tyres: A Stealthy Source of Microplastics in the Environment |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=14 |issue=10 |page=1265 |doi=10.3390/ijerph14101265 |pmc=5664766 |pmid=29053641 |doi-access=free}}

Shipping has significantly contributed to marine pollution. Some statistics indicate that in 1970, commercial shipping fleets around the world dumped over 23,000 tons of plastic waste into the marine environment. In 1988, an international agreement (MARPOL 73/78, Annex V) prohibited the dumping of waste from ships into the marine environment. In the United States, the Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act of 1987 prohibits discharge of plastics in the sea, including from naval vessels.{{cite journal |last1=Derraik |first1=José G.B. |year=2002 |title=The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=44 |issue=99 |pages=842–852 |bibcode=2002MarPB..44..842D |doi=10.1016/S0025-326X(02)00220-5 |pmid=12405208 |quote=In the USA, for instance, the Marine Plastics Pollution Research and Control Act of 1987 not only adopted Annex V, but also extended its application to US Navy vessels |doi-access=free}}{{cite web |last1=Craig S. Alig |last2=Larry Koss |last3=Tom Scarano |last4=Fred Chitty |year=1990 |title=Control of Plastic Wastes Aboard Naval Ships at Sea |url=https://swfsc.noaa.gov/publications/TM/SWFSC/NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-154_P879.PDF |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125203752/http://swfsc.noaa.gov/publications/TM/SWFSC/NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-154_P879.PDF |archive-date=25 January 2017 |access-date=20 December 2018 |website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |publisher=ProceedingsoftheSecondInternational Conference on Marine Debris, 2–7 April 1989, Honolulu, Hawaii |quote=The U.S. Navy is taking a proactive approach to comply with the prohibition on the at-sea discharge of plastics mandated by the Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act of 1987}} However, shipping remains a dominant source of plastic pollution, having contributed around 6.5 million tons of plastic in the early 1990s. Research has shown that approximately 10% of the plastic found on the beaches in Hawaii are nurdles.{{cite journal |last1=Thompson |first1=R. C. |last2=Moore |first2=C. J. |last3=Vom Saal |first3=F. S. |last4=Swan |first4=S. H. |year=2009 |title=Plastics, the environment and human health: Current consensus and future trends |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=364 |issue=1526 |pages=2153–2166 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2009.0053 |pmc=2873021 |pmid=19528062}} In one incident on 24 July 2012, 150 tonnes of nurdles and other raw plastic material spilled from a shipping vessel off the coast near Hong Kong after a major storm. This waste from the Chinese company Sinopec was reported to have piled up in large quantities on beaches. While this is a large incident of spillage, researchers speculate that smaller accidents also occur and further contribute to marine microplastic pollution.

Airborne microplastics have been detected in the atmosphere, as well as indoors and outdoors. Microplastic can be atmospherically transported to remote areas by the wind.{{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Steve |last2=Allen |first2=Deonie |last3=Phoenix |first3=Vernon R. |last4=Le Roux |first4=Gaël |last5=Durántez Jiménez |first5=Pilar |last6=Simonneau |first6=Anaëlle |last7=Binet |first7=Stéphane |last8=Galop |first8=Didier |year=2019 |title=Atmospheric transport and deposition of microplastics in a remote mountain catchment |journal=Nature Geoscience |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=339–344 |bibcode=2019NatGe..12..339A |doi=10.1038/s41561-019-0335-5 |url=https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/67580/1/Allen_etal_NG_2019_Atmospheric_transport_and_deposition_of_microplastics_in_a_remote.pdf }} A 2017 study found indoor airborne microfiber concentrations between 1.0 and 60.0 microfibers per cubic meter (33% of which were found to be microplastics).{{cite journal |last1=Gasperi |first1=Johnny |last2=Wright |first2=Stephanie L. |last3=Dris |first3=Rachid |last4=Collard |first4=France |last5=Mandin |first5=Corinne |last6=Guerrouache |first6=Mohamed |last7=Langlois |first7=Valérie |last8=Kelly |first8=Frank J. |last9=Tassin |first9=Bruno |year=2018 |title=Microplastics in air: Are we breathing it in? |journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health |volume=1 |pages=1–5 |doi=10.1016/j.coesh.2017.10.002 |bibcode=2018COESH...1....1G |url=https://enpc.hal.science/hal-01665768/file/Gasperi_Chapter_CurrentOpinion_VF.pdf }} Another study looked at microplastic in the street dust of Tehran and found 2,649 particles of microplastic within 10 samples of street dust, with ranging samples concentrations from 83 particle – 605 particles (±10) per 30.0 g of street dust.{{cite journal |last1=Dehghani |first1=Sharareh |last2=Moore |first2=Farid |last3=Akhbarizadeh |first3=Razegheh |year=2017 |title=Microplastic pollution in deposited urban dust, Tehran metropolis, Iran |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |volume=24 |issue=25 |pages=20360–20371 |doi=10.1007/s11356-017-9674-1 |pmid=28707239 |bibcode=2017ESPR...2420360D }} Microplastics and microfibers were also found in snow samples,{{cite journal |last1=Bergmann |first1=Melanie |last2=Mützel |first2=Sophia |last3=Primpke |first3=Sebastian |last4=Tekman |first4=Mine B. |last5=Trachsel |first5=Jürg |last6=Gerdts |first6=Gunnar |year=2019 |title=White and wonderful? Microplastics prevail in snow from the Alps to the Arctic |journal=Science Advances |volume=5 |issue=8 |page=eaax1157 |bibcode=2019SciA....5.1157B |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aax1157 |pmc=6693909 |pmid=31453336}} and high up in "clean" air in high mountains at vast distances from their source.{{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=S. |last2=Allen |first2=D. |last3=Baladima |first3=F. |last4=Phoenix |first4=V. R. |last5=Thomas |first5=J. L. |last6=Le Roux |first6=G. |last7=Sonke |first7=J. E. |date=21 December 2021 |title=Evidence of free tropospheric and long-range transport of microplastic at Pic du Midi Observatory |journal=Nature Communications |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=7242 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-27454-7 |pmid=34934062 |pmc=8692471 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.7242A }} Much like freshwater ecosystems and soil, more studies are needed to understand the full impact and significance of airborne microplastics.

{{excerpt|Plastic soup#Microplastics|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}}

Plastic pollution has previously been recorded in Antarctic surface waters and sediments as well as in the Arctic sea ice,{{cite journal |last1=Obbard |first1=Rachel W. |last2=Sadri |first2=Saeed |last3=Wong |first3=Ying Qi |last4=Khitun |first4=Alexandra A. |last5=Baker |first5=Ian |last6=Thompson |first6=Richard C. |title=Global warming releases microplastic legacy frozen in Arctic Sea ice |journal=Earth's Future |volume=2 |issue=6 |date=2014 |doi=10.1002/2014EF000240 |pages=315–320 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2014EaFut...2..315O}} but in 2009, for the first time, plastic was found in Antarctic sea ice, with 96 microplastic particles from 14 different types of polymers in an ice core sampled from east Antarctica.{{cite journal |last1=Kelly |first1=A. |last2=Lannuzel |first2=D. |last3=Rodemann |first3=T. |last4=Meiners |first4=K.M. |last5=Auman |first5=H.J. |title=Microplastic contamination in east Antarctic sea ice |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |date=2020 |volume=154 |page=111130 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111130 |pmid=32319937 |bibcode=2020MarPB.15411130K }} Relatively large particle sizes in Antarctic sea ice suggest local pollution sources.

Microplastics have been widely detected in the world's aquatic environments.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2016.06.074 |pmid=27431693 |title=Microplastics in aquatic environments: Implications for Canadian ecosystems |journal=Environmental Pollution |volume=218 |pages=269–280 |year=2016 |last1=Anderson |first1=Julie C. |last2=Park |first2=Bradley J. |last3=Palace |first3=Vince P. |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016EPoll.218..269A}} The first study on microplastics in freshwater ecosystems was published in 2011 that found an average of 37.8 fragments per square meter of Lake Huron sediment samples. Additionally, studies have found MP (microplastic) to be present in all of the Great Lakes with an average concentration of 43,000 MP particle km⁻².{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/anie.201606957 |pmid=27618688 |title=Microplastic in Aquatic Ecosystems |journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition |volume=56 |issue=7 |pages=1720–1739 |year=2017 |last1=Ivleva |first1=Natalia P. |last2=Wiesheu |first2=Alexandra C. |last3=Niessner |first3=Reinhard}} Microplastics have also been detected in freshwater ecosystems outside of the United States, for example in 2019 study conducted in Poland showed that microplastic was present in all 30 studied lakes of the Masurian Lakeland with density from 0.27 to 1.57 particles per liter.{{Cite journal |last1=Pol |first1=Wojciech |last2=Stasińska |first2=Emilia |last3=Żmijewska |first3=Angelika |last4=Więcko |first4=Adam |last5=Zieliński |first5=Piotr |date=10 July 2023 |title=Litter per liter – Lakes' morphology and shoreline urbanization index as factors of microplastic pollution: Study of 30 lakes in NE Poland |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=881 |page=163426 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163426 |pmid=37059153 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023ScTEn.88163426P }} In Canada, a three-year study found a mean microplastic concentration of 193,420 particles km⁻² in Lake Winnipeg. None of the microplastics detected were micro-pellets or beads and most were fibers resulting from the breakdown of larger particles, synthetic textiles, or atmospheric fallout.{{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Philip J. |last2=Warrack |first2=Sarah |last3=Langen |first3=Victoria |last4=Challis |first4=Jonathan K. |last5=Hanson |first5=Mark L. |last6=Rennie |first6=Michael D. |title=Microplastic contamination in Lake Winnipeg, Canada |journal=Environmental Pollution |date=June 2017 |volume=225 |pages=223–231 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2017.02.072 |pmid=28376390 |bibcode=2017EPoll.225..223A}} The highest concentration of microplastic ever discovered in a studied freshwater ecosystem was recorded in the Rhine river at 4000 MP particles kg⁻¹.{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/acs.est.7b05367 |pmid=29337537 |pmc=5822217 |title=Microplastic Effect Thresholds for Freshwater Benthic Macroinvertebrates |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=2278–2286 |year=2018 |last1=Redondo-Hasselerharm |first1=Paula E. |last2=Falahudin |first2=Dede |last3=Peeters |first3=Edwin T. H. M. |last4=Koelmans |first4=Albert A. |bibcode=2018EnST...52.2278R}}

Researchers from Western Carolina University, Highlands Biological Station, and Virginia Tech found microplastics in Richland Creek watershed in Western North Carolina. 90% of the microplastics were fibers, largely attributed to clothing, city runoff, and atmospheric deposition.{{Cite web |author=Julia Duvall |title=WCU microplastics study sheds light on huge pollution problem |url=https://www.wcu.edu/stories/posts/News/2023/10/wcu-microplastics-study-sheds-light-on-huge-pollution-problem.aspx |access-date=2025-01-26 |website=Western Carolina University |date=13 October 2023 |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Microplastics Found Even in Remote Areas of NC, in WCU Study – Clean Water for North Carolina |url=https://cwfnc.org/microplastics-found-even-in-remote-areas-of-nc-in-wcu-study/ |access-date=2025-01-26 |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |last=Atwater |first=Will |date=2024-12-11 |title=Nowhere to hide: Microplastics are polluting western North Carolina watersheds |url=https://www.northcarolinahealthnews.org/2024/12/11/nowhere-to-hide-microplastics-are-polluting-western-north-carolina-watersheds/ |access-date=2025-01-26 |website=North Carolina Health News |language=en-US}}

A substantial portion of microplastics are expected to end up in the world's soil, yet very little research has been conducted on microplastics in soil outside of aquatic environments.{{cite journal |doi=10.3389/fpls.2017.01805 |pmid=29093730 |pmc=5651362 |title=Microplastic Incorporation into Soil in Agroecosystems |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |volume=8 |page=1805 |year=2017 |last1=Rillig |first1=Matthias C. |last2=Ingraffia |first2=Rosolino |last3=De Souza Machado |first3=Anderson A. |doi-access=free}} In wetland environments microplastic concentrations have been found to exhibit a negative correlation with vegetation cover and stem density. There exists some speculation that fibrous secondary microplastics from washing machines could end up in soil through the failure of water treatment plants to completely filter out all of the microplastic fibers. Furthermore, geophagous soil fauna, such as earthworms, mites, and collembolans could contribute to the amount of secondary microplastic present in soil by converting consumed plastic debris into microplastic via digestive processes. Further research, however, is needed. There is concrete data linking the use of organic waste materials to synthetic fibers being found in the soil; but most studies on plastics in soil merely report its presence and do not mention origin or quantity.{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/es302011r |pmid=22676039 |title=Microplastic in Terrestrial Ecosystems and the Soil? |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=6453–6454 |year=2012 |last1=Rillig |first1=Matthias C. |bibcode=2012EnST...46.6453R}} Controlled studies on fiber-containing land-applied wastewater sludges (biosolids) applied to soil reported semiquantitative{{clarify|date=August 2019}} recoveries of the fibers a number of years after application.{{cite journal |last1=Zubris |first1=Kimberly Ann V. |last2=Richards |first2=Brian K. |title=Synthetic fibers as an indicator of land application of sludge |journal=Environmental Pollution |year=2005 |volume=138 |issue=2 |pages=201–211 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2005.04.013 |pmid=15967553 |bibcode=2005EPoll.138..201Z}}

A 2015 review of 15 brands of table salts commercially available in China found microplastics were much more prevalent in sea salts compared to lake, rock, or well salts, attributing this to sea salts being contaminated by ocean water pollution while the rock/well salts were more likely contaminated during the production stages of collecting, wind drying, and packaging.{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Dongqi |last2=Shi |first2=Huahong |last3=Li |first3=Lan |last4=Li |first4=Jiana |last5=Jabeen |first5=Khalida |last6=Kolandhasamy |first6=Prabhu |date=20 October 2015 |title=Microplastic Pollution in Table Salts from China |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=49 |issue=22 |pages=13622–13627 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.5b03163 |pmid=26486565 |bibcode=2015EnST...4913622Y }} According to a 2017 estimate, a person who consumes seafood will ingest 11,000 bits of microplastics per year. A 2019 study found a kilo of sugar had 440 microplastic particles, a kilo of salt contained 110 particles, and a litre of bottled water contained 94 particles.{{Cite web |website=European Investment Bank |date=27 February 2023 |title=Microplastics and Micropollutants in Water: Contaminants of Emerging Concern |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230042-microplastics-and-micropollutants-in-water |language=EN |access-date=17 March 2023 |archive-date=28 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328190059/http://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230042-microplastics-and-micropollutants-in-water |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=25 April 2022 |title=Microplastics are in our bodies. How much do they harm us? |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/microplastics-are-in-our-bodies-how-much-do-they-harm-us |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425201933/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/microplastics-are-in-our-bodies-how-much-do-they-harm-us |archive-date=25 April 2022 |access-date=17 March 2023 |website=Environment |language=en}}{{Cite journal |last1=Cox |first1=Kieran D. |last2=Covernton |first2=Garth A. |last3=Davies |first3=Hailey L. |last4=Dower |first4=John F. |last5=Juanes |first5=Francis |last6=Dudas |first6=Sarah E. |date=18 June 2019 |title=Human Consumption of Microplastics |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |language=en |volume=53 |issue=12 |pages=7068–7074 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.9b01517 |pmid=31184127 |bibcode=2019EnST...53.7068C }}

The composition of microplastics are complex. A study in 2023 tested some fish species and found that "about 80% of the MPs detected were fibrous in shape and were made of polyethylene (25%), polyester (20%), and polyamide (10%). Most microplastic particles observed were black (61%) or blue (27%) in color."{{cite journal | last1=Sarkar | first1=Sumon | last2=Diab | first2=Hanin | last3=Thompson | first3=Jonathan | title=Microplastic Pollution: Chemical Characterization and Impact on Wildlife | journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | publisher=MDPI AG | volume=20 | issue=3 | date=18 Jan 2023 | doi=10.3390/ijerph20031745 | doi-access=free | page=1745| pmid=36767120 | pmc=9914693 }}

Microplastics contain two different types of chemicals. The first are additives and polymeric raw materials such as monomers or oligomers. Additives are chemicals intentionally added during plastic production to give plastic qualities like color and transparency and to enhance the performance of plastic products to improve both the resistance to degradation by ozone, temperature, light radiation, mold, bacteria and humidity, and mechanical, thermal and electrical resistance. Examples of additives in microplastics are inert or reinforcing fillers, plasticizers, antioxidants, UV stabilizers, lubricants, dyes and flame-retardants {{Cite journal |last1=Hahladakis |first1=John N. |last2=Velis |first2=Costas A. |last3=Weber |first3=Roland |last4=Iacovidou |first4=Eleni |last5=Purnell |first5=Phil |date=February 2018 |title=An overview of chemical additives present in plastics: Migration, release, fate and environmental impact during their use, disposal and recycling |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials |language=en |volume=344 |pages=179–199 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.10.014 |pmid=29035713 |bibcode=2018JHzM..344..179H }} The second type of chemicals are ones absorbed from the surrounding environment.

In 2008, an International Research Workshop at the University of Washington at Tacoma concluded that microplastics were a problem in the marine environment, based on their documented occurrence, the long residence times of these particles, their likely buildup in the future, and their demonstrated ingestion by marine organisms.{{cite journal |editor1-last=Arthur |editor1-first=Courtney |editor2-last=Baker |editor2-first=Joel |editor3-last=Bamford |editor3-first=Holly |title=Proceedings of the International Research Workshop on the Occurrence, Effects, and Fate of Microplastic Marine Debris, September 9–11, 2008 |journal=Technical Memorandum NOS-OR&R-30 |year=2009 |page=49 |url=https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/file/2192/download?token=5dvqb-YY |access-date=13 April 2017 |archive-date=31 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331181521/https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/file/2192/download?token=5dvqb-YY |url-status=live}}

According to a comprehensive review of scientific evidence published by the European Union's Scientific Advice Mechanism in 2019, microplastics were present in every part of the environment. While there was no evidence of widespread ecological risk from microplastic pollution yet, risks were likely to become widespread within a century if pollution continued at its current rate.{{Cite book |title=A scientific perspective on microplastics in nature and society |publisher=Scientific Advice for Policy by European Academies |year=2019 |isbn=978-3-9820301-0-4 |url=https://www.sapea.info/topics/microplastics/ |access-date=22 January 2019 |archive-date=28 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328153346/https://www.sapea.info/topics/microplastics/ |url-status=live}}

As of 2020 microplastics had been detected in freshwater systems including marshes, streams, ponds, lakes, and rivers in Europe, North America, South America, Asia, and Australia.{{cite journal |last1=Helcoski |first1=Ryan |last2=Yonkos |first2=Lance T. |last3=Sanchez |first3=Alterra |last4=Baldwin |first4=Andrew H. |title=Wetland soil microplastics are negatively related to vegetation cover and stem density |journal=Environmental Pollution |year=2020 |volume=256 |page=113391 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113391 |pmid=31662247 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020EPoll.25613391H}}{{cite journal |last1=Eerkes-Medrano |first1=D. |last2=Thompson |first2=R.C. |last3=Aldridge |first3=D.C. |year=2015 |title=Microplastics in freshwater systems: A review of the emerging threats, identification of knowledge gaps and prioritisation of research needs |journal=Water Research |volume=75 |pages=63–82 |doi=10.1016/j.watres.2015.02.012 |pmid=25746963 |bibcode=2015WatRe..75...63E}} Samples collected across 29 Great Lakes tributaries from six states in the United States were found to contain plastic particles, 98% of which were microplastics ranging in size from 0.355mm to 4.75mm.{{cite journal |last1=Baldwin |first1=Austin K. |last2=Corsi |first2=Steven R. |last3=Mason |first3=Sherri A. |year=2016 |title=Plastic Debris in 29 Great Lakes Tributaries: Relations to Watershed Attributes and Hydrology |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=50 |issue=19 |pages=10377–85 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.6b02917 |pmid=27627676 |bibcode=2016EnST...5010377B |doi-access=free}} Likewise, they have been found in high mountains, at great distances from their source.{{Cite news |title=No mountain high enough: study finds plastic in 'clean' air |agency=AFP |newspaper=The Guardian |date=21 December 2021 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/dec/21/no-mountain-high-enough-study-finds-plastic-in-clean-air |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-date=14 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114062926/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/dec/21/no-mountain-high-enough-study-finds-plastic-in-clean-air |url-status=live}}

Deep layer ocean sediment surveys in China (2020) show the presence of plastics in deposition layers far older than the invention of plastics, leading to suspected underestimation of microplastics in surface sample ocean surveys.{{cite journal |vauthors=Xue B, Zhang L, Li R, Wang Y, Guo J, Yu K, Wang S |title=Underestimated Microplastic Pollution Derived from Fishery Activities and "Hidden" in Deep Sediment |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=2210–2217 |date=February 2020 |pmid=31994391 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.9b04850 |bibcode=2020EnST...54.2210X }}

• {{cite magazine |date=3 February 2020 |title=Microplastics From Ocean Fishing Can 'Hide' in Deep Sediments |magazine=ECO Magazine |url=https://www.ecomagazine.com/news/deep-sea/microplastics-from-ocean-fishing-can-hide-in-deep-sediments |access-date=15 May 2021 |archive-date=18 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118193554/https://www.ecomagazine.com/news/deep-sea/microplastics-from-ocean-fishing-can-hide-in-deep-sediments |url-status=live}}

In September 2021 Hurricane Larry deposited, during the storm peak, 113,000 particles/m²/day as it passed over Newfoundland, Canada. Back-trajectory modelling and polymer type analysis indicated that those microplastics may have been ocean-sourced as the hurricane traversed the North Atlantic garbage patch of the North Atlantic Gyre.{{cite journal |last1=Ryan |first1=Anna C. |last2=Allen |first2=Deonie |last3=Allen |first3=Steve |last4=Maselli |first4=Vittorio |last5=LeBlanc |first5=Amber |last6=Kelleher |first6=Liam |last7=Krause |first7=Stefan |last8=Walker |first8=Tony R. |last9=Cohen |first9=Mark |title=Transport and deposition of ocean-sourced microplastic particles by a North Atlantic hurricane |journal=Communications Earth & Environment |date=28 November 2023 |volume=4 |issue=1 |page=442 |doi=10.1038/s43247-023-01115-7 |bibcode=2023ComEE...4..442R }}

As of 2023 there was rapid growth of microplastic pollution research, with marine and estuarine environments most frequently studied. Researchers have called for better sharing of research data that might lead to effective solutions.{{cite report |last1=Jenkins |first1=Tia |last2=Persaud |first2=Bhaleka |last3=Cowger |first3=Win |last4=Szigeti |first4=Kathy |last5=Roche |first5=Dominique |last6=Clary |first6=Erin |last7=Slowinski |first7=Stephanie |last8=Lei |first8=Benjamin |last9=Abeynayaka |first9=Amila |last10=Nyadjro |first10=Ebenezer |last11=Maes |first11=Thomas |last12=Thornton Hampton |first12=Leah |last13=Bergmann |first13=Melanie |last14=Aherne |first14=Julian |last15=Mason |first15=Sherri |last16=Honek |first16=John |last17=Rezanezhad |first17=Fereidoun |last18=Lusher |first18=Amy |last19=Booth |first19=Andy |last20=Smith |first20=Rodney |last21=Van Cappellen |first21=Philippe |title=Evaluating the Current State of Findability and Accessibility of Microplastics Data |date=16 September 2022 |hdl=10012/19396 |hdl-access=free }}

A 2023 study formally identified plasticosis as a fibrotic disease caused by plastic ingestion, distinguishing it from general physical damage by detailing the chronic tissue remodeling and inflammation it induces in seabird digestive systems.{{cite journal |last1=Charlton-Howard |first1=Hayley S. |last2=Bond |first2=Alexander L. |last3=Rivers-Auty |first3=Jack |last4=Lavers |first4=Jennifer L. |title=Plasticosis: Characterising macro- and microplastic-associated fibrosis in seabird tissues |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials |date=2023 |volume=443 |pages=131293 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131293|doi-access=free }}

Consequences of plastic degradation and pollution release over long term have mostly been overlooked. The large amounts of plastic in the environment, exposed to degradation, with years of decay and release of toxic compounds to follow was referred to as toxicity debt.{{Cite journal |last1=Rillig |first1=Matthias C. |last2=Kim |first2=Shin Woong |last3=Kim |first3=Tae-Young |last4=Waldman |first4=Walter R. |date=2 March 2021 |title=The Global Plastic Toxicity Debt |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=2717–2719 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.0c07781 |pmc=7931444 |pmid=33596648 |bibcode=2021EnST...55.2717R }}

Microplastics are inconspicuous, being less than 5 mm. Particles of this size are available to every species, enter the food chain at the bottom, and become embedded in animal tissue.

Micro- and nanoplastics can become embedded in animals' tissue through ingestion or respiration. The initial demonstration of bioaccumulation of these particles in animals was conducted under controlled conditions by exposing them to high concentrations of microplastics over extended periods, accumulating these particles in their gut and gills due to ingestion and respiration, respectively. Various annelid species, such as deposit-feeding lugworms (Arenicola marina), have been shown to accumulate microplastics embedded in their gastrointestinal tract. Similarly, many crustaceans, like the shore crab Carcinus maenas, have been seen to integrate microplastics into both their respiratory and digestive tracts.{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/es501090e |pmid=24972075 |title=Uptake and Retention of Microplastics by the Shore Crab Carcinus maenas |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=48 |issue=15 |pages=8823–30 |year=2014 |last1=Watts |first1=Andrew J. R. |last2=Lewis |first2=Ceri |last3=Goodhead |first3=Rhys M. |last4=Beckett |first4=Stephen J. |last5=Moger |first5=Julian |last6=Tyler |first6=Charles R. |last7=Galloway |first7=Tamara S. |bibcode=2014EnST...48.8823W}}

• {{cite magazine |first=Nsikan |last=Akpan |date=8 July 2014 |title=Microplastics lodge in crab gills and guts |magazine=Science News |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/microplastics-lodge-crab-gills-and-guts |access-date=15 March 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402141423/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/microplastics-lodge-crab-gills-and-guts |url-status=live}}{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1094559 |pmid=15131299 |title=Lost at Sea: Where is All the Plastic? |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5672 |page=838 |year=2004 |last1=Thompson |first1=R. C. |last2=Olsen |first2=Y. |last3=Mitchell |first3=R. P. |last4=Davis |first4=A. |last5=Rowland |first5=S. J. |last6=John |first6=A. W. |last7=McGonigle |first7=D. |last8=Russell |first8=A. E. }} Plastic particles are often mistaken by fish for food, which can block their digestive tracts, sending incorrect feeding signals to the brains of the animals. However, research in 2021 revealed that fish ingest microplastics inadvertently rather than intentionally.{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Bowen |last2=Liang |first2=Weiwenhui |last3=Liu |first3=Quan-Xing |last4=Fu |first4=Shijian |last5=Ma |first5=Cuizhu |last6=Chen |first6=Qiqing |last7=Su |first7=Lei |last8=Craig |first8=Nicholas J. |last9=Shi |first9=Huahong |title=Fish Ingest Microplastics Unintentionally |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |date=3 August 2021 |volume=55 |issue=15 |pages=10471–10479 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.1c01753 |pmid=34297559 |bibcode=2021EnST...5510471L }} The first occurrence of bioaccumulation of micro and nanoplastics in wild animals was documented in the skin mucosa of salmon, and it was attributed to the resemblance between nanoplastics and the outer shell of the viruses that the mucosa traps.{{cite news |last1=Peeples |first1=Lynne |title=Surprise Finding Heightens Concern Over Tiny Bits Of Plastic Polluting Our Oceans |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/plastic-ocean-pollution-fish-health_n_6923872 |access-date=28 April 2024 |publisher=Huffpost |date=23 March 2015 |archive-date=28 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240428062754/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/plastic-ocean-pollution-fish-health_n_6923872 |url-status=live }} This discovery was entirely serendipitous, as the research team had developed a detailed molecular separation process for the components of fish skin with the primary objective of isolating chitin from a vertebrate for the first time.{{cite journal |last1=Tang |first1=Joyce |last2=Fernandez |first2=Javier |last3=Sohn |first3=Joel |last4=Amemiya |first4=Chris |title=Chitin Is Endogenously Produced in Vertebrates |journal=Current Biology |date=March 2015 |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=897–900 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2015.01.058|pmid=25772447 |bibcode=2015CBio...25..897T |pmc=4382437 }}

File:The breakdown of a plastic bottle into smaller fragments, eventually ending up as micro- and nano-plastics.png

A study done at the Argentinean coastline of the Rio de la Plata estuary, found the presence of microplastics in the guts of 11 species of coastal freshwater fish. These 11 species of fish represented four different feeding habits: detritivore, planktivore, omnivore and ichthyophagous.{{cite journal |last1=Pazos |first1=Rocío S. |last2=Maiztegui |first2=Tomás |last3=Colautti |first3=Darío C. |last4=Paracampo |first4=Ariel H. |last5=Gómez |first5=Nora |year=2017 |title=Microplastics in gut contents of coastal freshwater fish from Río de la Plata estuary |url=http://sedici.unlp.edu.ar/handle/10915/104819 |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=122 |issue=1–2 |pages=85–90 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.06.007 |pmid=28633946 |bibcode=2017MarPB.122...85P |access-date=30 September 2020 |archive-date=19 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719095830/http://sedici.unlp.edu.ar/handle/10915/104819 |url-status=live|hdl=11336/41910 |hdl-access=free }} This study is one of the few so far to show the ingestion of microplastics by freshwater organisms.

It can take up to 14 days for microplastics to pass through an animal (as compared to a normal digestion period of 2 days), but enmeshment of the particles in animals' gills can prevent elimination entirely. When microplastic-laden animals are consumed by predators, the microplastics are then incorporated into the bodies of higher trophic-level feeders. For example, scientists have reported plastic accumulation in the stomachs of lantern fish which are small filter feeders and are the main prey for commercial fish like tuna and swordfish.{{cite journal |last1=Cozar |first1=A. |last2=Echevarria |first2=F. |last3=Gonzalez-Gordillo |first3=J. I. |last4=Irigoien |first4=X. |last5=Ubeda |first5=B. |last6=Hernandez-Leon |first6=S. |last7=Palma |first7=A. T. |last8=Navarro |first8=S. |last9=Garcia-De-Lomas |first9=J.|last10=Ruiz|first10=A. |last11=Fernandez-De-Puelles |first11=M. L. |title=Plastic debris in the open ocean |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=111 |issue=28 |pages=10239–10244 |bibcode=2014PNAS..11110239C |doi=10.1073/pnas.1314705111 |pmc=4104848 |pmid=24982135 |date=2014 |last12=Duarte |first12=C. M. |doi-access=free}}

• {{cite magazine |first=Sam |last=Lemonick |date=1 July 2014 |title=Plastic goes missing at sea |magazine=Science News |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/plastic-goes-missing-sea |access-date=6 November 2018 |archive-date=2 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702233406/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/plastic-goes-missing-sea |url-status=live}}{{Cite journal |last1=Romeo |first1=Teresa |last2=Pietro |first2=Battaglia |last3=Pedà |first3=Cristina |last4=Consoli |first4=Pierpaolo |last5=Andaloro |first5=Franco |last6=Fossi |first6=Maria Cristina |date=June 2015 |title=First evidence of presence of plastic debris in stomach of large pelagic fish in the Mediterranean Sea |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=95 |issue=1 |pages=358–361 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.04.048 |pmid=25936574 |bibcode=2015MarPB..95..358R }} Microplastics also absorb chemical pollutants that can be transferred into the organism's tissues.{{cite journal |last1=Wardrop |first1=Peter |last2=Shimeta |first2=Jeff |last3=Nugegoda |first3=Dayanthi |last4=Morrison |first4=Paul D. |last5=Miranda |first5=Ana |last6=Tang |first6=Min |last7=Clarke |first7=Bradley O. |year=2016 |title=Chemical Pollutants Sorbed to Ingested Microbeads from Personal Care Products Accumulate in Fish |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=50 |issue=7 |pages=4037–4044 |bibcode=2016EnST...50.4037W |doi=10.1021/acs.est.5b06280 |pmid=26963589 |doi-access=free}} Small animals are at risk of reduced food intake due to false satiation and resulting starvation or other physical harm from the microplastics.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}

Zooplankton ingest microplastics beads (1.7–30.6 μm) and excrete fecal matter contaminated with microplastics. Along with ingestion, the microplastics stick to the appendages and exoskeleton of the zooplankton. Zooplankton, among other marine organisms, consume microplastics because they emit similar infochemicals, notably dimethyl sulfide, just as phytoplankton do.{{cite journal |last1=Savoca |first1=M. S. |last2=Wohlfeil |first2=M. E. |last3=Ebeler |first3=S. E. |last4=Nevitt |first4=G. A. |year=2016 |title=Marine plastic debris emits a keystone infochemical for olfactory foraging seabirds |journal=Science Advances |volume=2 |issue=11 |page=e1600395 |bibcode=2016SciA....2E0395S |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1600395 |pmc=5569953 |pmid=28861463}}{{Verify source|year=2018|date=March 2021}}{{cite journal |last1=Dacey |first1=J. W. H. |last2=Wakeham |first2=S. G. |year=1986 |title=Oceanic Dimethylsulfide: Production During Zooplankton Grazing on Phytoplankton |journal=Science |volume=233 |issue=4770 |pages=1314–1316 |bibcode=1986Sci...233.1314D |doi=10.1126/science.233.4770.1314 |pmid=17843360 }} Plastics such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), and polypropylene (PP) produce dimethyl sulfide odors. These types of plastics are commonly found in plastic bags, food storage containers, and bottle caps.{{Cite web |title=Plasticology 101 |url=https://www.containerandpackaging.com/info/plasticology.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116164229/https://www.containerandpackaging.com/info/plasticology.asp |archive-date=16 November 2016 |publisher=Container & Packaging Supply}} Green and red filaments of plastics are found in the planktonic organisms and in seaweeds.{{cite journal |last1=Saley |first1=A.M. |last2=Smart |first2=A.C. |last3=Bezerra |first3=M.F. |last4=Burnham |first4=T.L.U. |last5=Capece |first5=L.R. |last6=Lima |first6=L.F.O. |last7=Carsh |first7=A.C. |last8=Williams |first8=S.L. |last9=Morgan |first9=S.G. |title=Microplastic accumulation and biomagnification in a coastal marine reserve situated in a sparsely populated area |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |date=September 2019 |volume=146 |pages=54–59 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.05.065 |pmid=31426191 |bibcode=2019MarPB.146...54S |url=https://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/8w42s80j }}

Bottom feeders, such as benthic sea cucumbers, who are non-selective scavengers that feed on debris on the ocean floor, ingest large amounts of sediment. It has been shown that four species of sea cucumber (Thyonella gemmate, Holothuria floridana, H. grisea and Cucumaria frondosa) ingested between 2- and 20-fold more PVC fragments and between 2- and 138-fold more nylon line fragments (as much as 517 fibers per organism) based on plastic-to-sand grain ratios from each sediment treatment. These results suggest that individuals may be selectively ingesting plastic particles. This contradicts the accepted indiscriminate feeding strategy of sea cucumbers, and may occur in all presumed non-selective feeders when presented with microplastics.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2013.02.031 |pmid=23545014 |title=The physical impacts of microplastics on marine organisms: A review |journal=Environmental Pollution |volume=178 |pages=483–492 |year=2013 |last1=Wright |first1=Stephanie L. |last2=Thompson |first2=Richard C. |last3=Galloway |first3=Tamara S. |bibcode=2013EPoll.178..483W }}

Bivalves, important aquatic filter feeders, have also been shown to ingest microplastics and nanoplastics.{{cite journal |last1=Tallec |first1=Kevin |last2=Huvet |first2=Arnaud |last3=Di Poi |first3=Carole |last4=González-Fernández |first4=Carmen |last5=Lambert |first5=Christophe |last6=Petton |first6=Bruno |last7=Le Goïc |first7=Nelly |last8=Berchel |first8=Mathieu |last9=Soudant |first9=Philippe |last10=Paul-Pont |first10=Ika |title=Nanoplastics impaired oyster free living stages, gametes and embryos |journal=Environmental Pollution |date=November 2018 |volume=242 |issue=Pt B |pages=1226–1235 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2018.08.020 |pmid=30118910 |bibcode=2018EPoll.242.1226T |url=https://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00453/56419/ }} Upon exposure to microplastics, bivalve filtration ability decreases.{{Cite journal |last1=Oliveira |first1=Patrícia |last2=Barboza |first2=Luís Gabriel Antão |last3=Branco |first3=Vasco |last4=Figueiredo |first4=Neusa |last5=Carvalho |first5=Cristina |last6=Guilhermino |first6=Lúcia |year=2018 |title=Effects of microplastics and mercury in the freshwater bivalve Corbicula fluminea (Müller, 1774): Filtration rate, biochemical biomarkers and mercury bioconcentration |journal=Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety |volume=164 |pages=155–163 |doi=10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.07.062 |pmid=30107325 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018EcoES.164..155O}} Multiple cascading effects occur as a result, such as immunotoxicity and neurotoxicity.{{cite journal |last1=Tang |first1=Yu |last2=Rong |first2=Jiahuan |last3=Guan |first3=Xiaofan |last4=Zha |first4=Shanjie |last5=Shi |first5=Wei |last6=Han |first6=Yu |last7=Du |first7=Xueying |last8=Wu |first8=Fangzhu |last9=Huang |first9=Wei |last10=Liu |first10=Guangxu |title=Immunotoxicity of microplastics and two persistent organic pollutants alone or in combination to a bivalve species |journal=Environmental Pollution |date=March 2020 |volume=258 |page=113845 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113845 |pmid=31883493 |bibcode=2020EPoll.25813845T }}{{Cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=Shuge |last2=Shi |first2=Wei |last3=Tang |first3=Yu |last4=Han |first4=Yu |last5=Du |first5=Xueying |last6=Zhou |first6=Weishang |last7=Hu |first7=Yuan |last8=Zhou |first8=Chaosheng |last9=Liu |first9=Guangxu |year=2020 |title=Immunotoxicity of petroleum hydrocarbons and microplastics alone or in combination to a bivalve species: Synergic impacts and potential toxication mechanisms |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=728 |page=138852 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138852 |pmid=32570313 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.72838852S |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |last1=Tang |first1=Yu |last2=Zhou |first2=Weishang |last3=Sun |first3=Shuge |last4=Du |first4=Xueying |last5=Han |first5=Yu |last6=Shi |first6=Wei |last7=Liu |first7=Guangxu |title=Immunotoxicity and neurotoxicity of bisphenol A and microplastics alone or in combination to a bivalve species, Tegillarca granosa |journal=Environmental Pollution |date=October 2020 |volume=265 |issue=Pt A |page=115115 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115115 |pmid=32806413 |bibcode=2020EPoll.26515115T }} Decreased immune function occurs due to reduced phagocytosis and NF-κB gene activity. Impaired neurological function is a result of the inhibition of ChE and suppression of neurotransmitter regulatory enzymes. When exposed to microplastics, bivalves also experience oxidative stress, indicating an impaired ability to detoxify compounds within the body, which can ultimately damage DNA. Bivalve gametes and larvae are also impaired when exposed to microplastics. Rates of developmental arrest, and developmental malformities increase, while rates of fertilization decrease.{{Cite journal |last1=Bringer |first1=Arno |last2=Thomas |first2=Hélène |last3=Prunier |first3=Grégoire |last4=Dubillot |first4=Emmanuel |last5=Bossut |first5=Noémie |last6=Churlaud |first6=Carine |last7=Clérandeau |first7=Christelle |last8=Le Bihanic |first8=Florane |last9=Cachot |first9=Jérôme |year=2020 |title=High density polyethylene (HDPE) microplastics impair development and swimming activity of Pacific oyster D-larvae, Crassostrea gigas, depending on particle size |journal=Environmental Pollution |volume=260 |page=113978 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2020.113978 |pmid=31991353 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020EPoll.26013978B}} When bivalves have been exposed to microplastics as well as other pollutants such as POPs, mercury or hydrocarbons in lab settings, toxic effects were shown to be aggravated.

Not only fish and free-living organisms can ingest microplastics. Some corals such as Pocillopora verrucosa have also been found to ingest microplastics.{{cite journal |last1=Reichert |first1=Jessica |last2=Schellenberg |first2=Johannes |last3=Schubert |first3=Patrick |last4=Wilke |first4=Thomas |title=Responses of reef building corals to microplastic exposure |journal=Environmental Pollution |date=1 June 2018 |volume=237 |pages=955–960 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2017.11.006 |pmid=29146203 |bibcode=2018EPoll.237..955R }} Scleractinian corals, which are primary reef-builders, have been shown to ingest microplastics under laboratory conditions.{{Cite journal |first1=N.M. |last1=Hall |first2=K.L.E. |last2=Berry |first3=L. |last3=Rintoul |first4=M.O. |last4=Hoogenboom |year=2015 |title=Microplastic ingestion by scleractinian corals |journal=Marine Biology |doi=10.1007/s00227-015-2619-7 |volume=162 |issue=3 |pages=725–732 |bibcode=2015MarBi.162..725H}} Researchers from Japan and Thailand investigating microplastics in coral have found that all three parts of the coral anatomy (surface mucus, tissue, and skeleton) contain microplastics.{{cite web |last1= |date=September 20, 2024 |title=Microplastics found in coral skeletons |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/09/240920112714.htm |access-date=April 5, 2025 |website=Science Daily}} According to recent study, mall-polyp corals (P. cf. damicornis and P. lutea) demonstrated a higher degree of MP accumulation than the large-polyp corals.{{cite journal |last1=Mouchi |first1=Vincent |last2=Chapron |first2=Leila |last3=Peru |first3=Erwan |last4=Pruski |first4=Audrey M. |last5=Meistertzheim |first5=Anne-Leila |last6=Vétion |first6=Gilles |last7=Galand |first7=Pierre E. |last8=Lartaud |first8=Franck |title=Long-term aquaria study suggests species-specific responses of two cold-water corals to macro-and microplastics exposure |journal=Environmental Pollution |date=October 2019 |volume=253 |pages=322–329 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2019.07.024 |pmid=31323615 |bibcode=2019EPoll.253..322M }} The interplay of precipitation, wind patterns, and ocean currents considerably influences MP abundance in corals by increasing the exposure of corals to elevated MP concentrations. Additionally, since the reef site was situated near a large rock formation, it experienced strong water movements due to constant wave action. MPs deposited in skeletons are likely to be preserved on a millennium timescale, even if the corals die. Thus, given the extensive presence of coral reefs worldwide, corals can accumulate a considerable number of MPs, thereby acting as a sink for ocean plastics.{{cite journal |last1=Jandang |first1=Suppakarn |last2=Alfonso |first2=María Belén |last3=Nakano |first3=Haruka |last4=Phinchan |first4=Nopphawit |last5=Darumas |first5=Udomsak |last6=Viyakarn |first6=Voranop |last7=Chavanich |first7=Suchana |last8=Isobe |first8=Atsuhiko |title=Possible sink of missing ocean plastic: Accumulation patterns in reef-building corals in the Gulf of Thailand |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=December 2024 |volume=954 |pages=176210 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.176210 |pmid=39278501 |bibcode=2024ScTEn.95476210J |doi-access=free }}

While the effects of ingestion on these corals has not been studied, corals can easily become stressed and bleach. Microplastics have been shown to stick to the exterior of the corals after exposure in the laboratory. The adherence to the outside of corals can potentially be harmful, because corals cannot handle sediment or any particulate matter on their exterior and slough it off by secreting mucus, expending energy in the process, increasing the likelihood of mortality.{{Cite book |doi=10.1007/978-90-481-2639-2_25 |chapter=Impacts of Sediment on Coral Reefs |title=Encyclopedia of Modern Coral Reefs |pages=575–586 |series=Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series |year=2011 |last1=Risk |first1=Michael J. |last2=Edinger |first2=Evan |isbn=978-90-481-2638-5}} The thermodynamic properties, development, and nutrition of corals are thought to be negatively impacted by the engaged consumption and detached exterior bond strength of MPs. This could result in decreased feed intake, decreased photosynthetic efficiency, altered metabolic rates, decreased bone calcification, and even skin chlorination and necrotizing.{{cite journal |last1=Rahman |first1=Md. Naimur |last2=Shozib |first2=Sajjad Hossain |last3=Akter |first3=Mst. Yeasmin |last4=Islam |first4=Abu Reza Md. Towfiqul |last5=Islam |first5=Md. Saiful |last6=Sohel |first6=Md. Salman |last7=Kamaraj |first7=Chinnaperumal |last8=Rakib |first8=Md. Refat Jahan |last9=Idris |first9=Abubakr M. |last10=Sarker |first10=Aniruddha |last11=Malafaia |first11=Guilherme |title=Microplastic as an invisible threat to the coral reefs: Sources, toxicity mechanisms, policy intervention, and the way forward |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials |date=July 2023 |volume=454 |pages=131522 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131522 |pmid=37146332 |bibcode=2023JHzM..45431522R }}

Marine biologists in 2017 discovered that three-quarters of the underwater seagrass in the Turneffe Atoll off the coast of Belize had microplastic fibers, shards, and beads stuck to it. The plastic pieces had been overgrown by epibionts (organisms that naturally stick themselves to seagrass). Seagrass is part of the barrier reef ecosystem and is fed on by parrotfish, which in turn are eaten by humans. These findings, published in Marine Pollution Bulletin, may be "the first discovery of microplastics on aquatic vascular plants... [and] only the second discovery of microplastics on marine plant life anywhere in the world."{{Cite journal |last=McAlpine |first=Kat J. |year=2019 |title=Have Your Plastic and Eat It Too |journal=Bostonia (Boston University Alumni) |pages=36–37}}

Research published in 2023 demonstrated that microplastic exposure impaired the cognitive performance of hermit crabs, which could potentially impact their survivability.{{Cite web |last=Hedrih |first=Vladimir |date=17 June 2023 |title=Exposure to microplastics impairs cognition in hermit crabs, study finds |url=https://www.psypost.org/2023/06/exposure-to-microplastics-impairs-cognition-in-hermit-crabs-study-finds-165859 |access-date=17 June 2023 |website=PsyPost |language=en-US |archive-date=17 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230617145811/https://www.psypost.org/2023/06/exposure-to-microplastics-impairs-cognition-in-hermit-crabs-study-finds-165859 |url-status=live }}

Microplastics can affect the soil ecosystem and stunt the growth of terrestrial plants due to the increased uptake of toxic metals such as cadmium.{{cite journal |last1=Boots |first1=Bas |last2=Russell |first2=Connor William |last3=Green |first3=Danielle Senga |title=Effects of Microplastics in Soil Ecosystems: Above and Below Ground |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |year=2019 |volume=53 |issue=19 |pages=11496–11506 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.9b03304 |pmid=31509704 |bibcode=2019EnST...5311496B |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/23763378 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Fengyu |last2=Hu |first2=Jinzhao |last3=Chen |first3=Li |last4=Wang |first4=Zhe |last5=Sun |first5=Shiyong |last6=Zhang |first6=Wanming |last7=Jiang |first7=Hu |last8=Luo |first8=Ying |last9=Wang |first9=Lei |last10=Zeng |first10=Yi |last11=Fang |first11=Linchuan |date=2023 |title=Microplastics may increase the environmental risks of Cd via promoting Cd uptake by plants: A meta-analysis |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials |language=en |volume=448 |page=130887 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.130887 |pmid=36731321 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2023JHzM..44830887H }}{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Fangli |last2=Wang |first2=Xuexia |last3=Song |first3=Ningning |title=Polyethylene microplastics increase cadmium uptake in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) by altering the soil microenvironment |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=August 2021 |volume=784 |pages=147133 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147133 |pmid=33895518 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.78447133W }}{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Fayuan |last2=Feng |first2=Xueying |last3=Liu |first3=Yingying |last4=Adams |first4=Catharine A. |last5=Sun |first5=Yuhuan |last6=Zhang |first6=Shuwu |title=Micro(nano)plastics and terrestrial plants: Up-to-date knowledge on uptake, translocation, and phytotoxicity |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |date=October 2022 |volume=185 |pages=106503 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106503 |bibcode=2022RCR...18506503W }} Microplastics can reduce weight of earthworms.{{cite journal |last1=Boots |first1=Bas |last2=Russell |first2=Connor William |last3=Green |first3=Dannielle Senga |title=Effects of Microplastics in Soil Ecosystems: Above and Below Ground |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |date=September 11, 2019 |volume=53 |issue=19 |pages=11496–11506 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.9b03304 |pmid=31509704 |bibcode=2019EnST...5311496B |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/23763378 }}

Microbes also live on the surface of microplastics, and can form a biofilm which, according to a 2019 study,{{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Xiaojian |last2=Pan |first2=Jie |last3=Li |first3=Meng |last4=Li |first4=Yao |last5=Bartlam |first5=Mark |last6=Wang |first6=Yingying |title=Selective enrichment of bacterial pathogens by microplastic biofilm |journal=Water Research |year=2019 |volume=165 |page=114979 |doi=10.1016/j.watres.2019.114979 |pmid=31445309 |bibcode=2019WatRe.16514979W }} has a unique structure and possesses a special risk, because microplastic biofilms have been proven to provide a novel habitat for colonization that increases overlap between different species, thus spreading pathogens and antibiotic resistant genes through horizontal gene transfer. Then, due to rapid movement through waterways, these pathogens can be moved from their origin to another location where a specific pathogen may not be naturally present, spreading potential disease.

There is concern microplastic pollutants may act as a vector for antibiotic resistant genes and bacteria.{{cite journal |vauthors=Stapleton MJ, Hai FI |title=Microplastics as an emerging contaminant of concern to our environment: a brief overview of the sources and implications |journal=Bioengineered |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=2244754 |date=December 2023 |pmid=37553794 |pmc=10413915 |doi=10.1080/21655979.2023.2244754 |type=Review}} Clinically important bacterial genus like Eggerthella were more than three times enriched on riverine microplastics compared to water.{{Cite journal |last1=Guruge |first1=Keerthi S. |last2=Goswami |first2=Prasun |last3=Kanda |first3=Kazuki |last4=Abeynayaka |first4=Amila |last5=Kumagai |first5=Masahiko |last6=Watanabe |first6=Mafumi |last7=Tamamura-Andoh |first7=Yukino |date=2024 |title=Plastiome: Plastisphere-enriched mobile resistome in aquatic environments |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials |volume=471 |issue=134353 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134353 |doi-access=free |pmid=38678707 |bibcode=2024JHzM..47134353G }}

In 2019, the first European records of microplastic items in amphibians' stomach content was reported in specimens of the common European newt (Triturus carnifex). This also represented the first evidence for Caudata worldwide, highlighting that the emerging issue of plastics is a threat even in remote high-altitude environments.{{cite journal |last1=Iannella |first1=Mattia |last2=Console |first2=Giulia |last3=D'Alessandro |first3=Paola |year=2019 |title=Preliminary Analysis of the Diet of Triturus carnifex and Pollution in Mountain Karst Ponds in Central Apennines |journal=Water |volume=44 |issue=129 |pages=11496–11506 |doi=10.3390/w12010044 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2019Water..12...44I }} The microplastic has also been found in common blackbirds (Turdus merula) and song thrushes (Turdus philomelos) which shows a ubiquity of microplastics in terrestrial environments.{{Cite journal |last1=Deoniziak |first1=Krzysztof |last2=Cichowska |first2=Aleksandra |last3=Niedźwiecki |first3=Sławomir |last4=Pol |first4=Wojciech |date=20 December 2022 |title=Thrushes (Aves: Passeriformes) as indicators of microplastic pollution in terrestrial environments |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=853 |page=158621 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158621 |pmid=36084782 |bibcode=2022ScTEn.85358621D }}

In 2023, plasticosis, a new disease caused solely by plastics, was discovered in seabirds who had scarred digestive tracts from ingesting plastic waste.{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/mar/03/plasticosis-new-disease-caused-by-plastics-discovered-in-seabirds |title=New disease caused by plastics discovered in seabirds |date=3 March 2023 |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=4 March 2023 |archive-date=3 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230303212308/https://amp.theguardian.com/environment/2023/mar/03/plasticosis-new-disease-caused-by-plastics-discovered-in-seabirds |url-status=live }} "When birds ingest small pieces of plastic, [...]it inflames the digestive tract. Over time, the persistent inflammation causes tissues to become scarred and disfigured, affecting digestion, growth and survival."{{Cite web |url=https://www.nhm.ac.uk/press-office/press-releases/new-disease-caused-solely-by-plastics-discovered-in-seabirds-.html |title=New disease caused solely by plastics discovered in seabirds |date=3 March 2023 |publisher=Natural History Museum |access-date=4 March 2023 |archive-date=3 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230303113740/https://www.nhm.ac.uk/press-office/press-releases/new-disease-caused-solely-by-plastics-discovered-in-seabirds-.html |url-status=live }}

Plastic particles may highly concentrate and transport synthetic organic compounds (e.g. persistent organic pollutants and emerging organic contaminants), commonly present in the environment and ambient seawater, on their surface through adsorption.{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/es0010498 |title=Plastic Resin Pellets as a Transport Medium for Toxic Chemicals in the Marine Environment |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=318–324 |year=2001 |last1=Mato |first1=Yukie |last2=Isobe |first2=Tomohiko |last3=Takada |first3=Hideshige |last4=Kanehiro |first4=Haruyuki |last5=Ohtake |first5=Chiyoko |last6=Kaminuma |first6=Tsuguchika |pmid=11347604 |bibcode=2001EnST...35..318M}} Microplastics can act as carriers for the transfer of POPs from the environment to organisms, also termed as the Trojan Horse effect.{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Ming |last2=Xu |first2=Liheng |title=Transport of micro- and nanoplastics in the environment: Trojan-Horse effect for organic contaminants |journal=Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology |date=4 March 2022 |volume=52 |issue=5 |pages=810–846 |doi=10.1080/10643389.2020.1845531 |bibcode=2022CREST..52..810Z}}{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0025-326X(02)00220-5 |title=The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: A review |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=44 |issue=9 |pages=842–852 |year=2002 |last1=Derraik |first1=José G.B |pmid=12405208 |bibcode=2002MarPB..44..842D |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0284 |pmid=19528054 |pmc=2873017 |title=Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=364 |issue=1526 |pages=2027–2045 |year=2009 |last1=Teuten |first1=E. L. |last2=Saquing |first2=J. M. |last3=Knappe |first3=D. R. U. |last4=Barlaz |first4=M. A. |last5=Jonsson |first5=S. |last6=Bjorn |first6=A. |last7=Rowland |first7=S. J. |last8=Thompson |first8=R. C. |last9=Galloway |first9=T. S. |last10=Yamashita |first10=R. |last11=Ochi |first11=D. |last12=Watanuki |first12=Y. |last13=Moore |first13=C. |last14=Viet |first14=P. H. |last15=Tana |first15=T. S. |last16=Prudente |first16=M. |last17=Boonyatumanond |first17=R. |last18=Zakaria |first18=M. P. |last19=Akkhavong |first19=K. |last20=Ogata |first20=Y. |last21=Hirai |first21=H. |last22=Iwasa |first22=S. |last23=Mizukawa |first23=K. |last24=Hagino |first24=Y. |last25=Imamura |first25=A. |last26=Saha |first26=M. |last27=Takada |first27=H.}} Recent articles have also shown that microplastics can sorb emerging organic chemicals such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products.{{cite journal |last1=Arvaniti |first1=Olga S. |last2=Antonopoulou |first2=Georgia |last3=Gatidou |first3=Georgia |last4=Frontistis |first4=Zacharias |last5=Mantzavinos |first5=Dionissios |last6=Stasinakis |first6=Athanasios S. |title=Sorption of two common antihypertensive drugs onto polystyrene microplastics in water matrices |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=September 2022 |volume=837 |pages=155786 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155786 |pmid=35537511 |bibcode=2022ScTEn.83755786A }}{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Yandan |last2=Li |first2=Miao |last3=Li |first3=Zhen |last4=Yang |first4=Lei |last5=Liu |first5=Xiang |title=Effects of particle size and solution chemistry on Triclosan sorption on polystyrene microplastic |journal=Chemosphere |date=September 2019 |volume=231 |pages=308–314 |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.05.116 |pmid=31132537 |bibcode=2019Chmsp.231..308L }} The sorption potential is affected by water matrix, pH, ionic strength and aging of microparticles.

Additives added to plastics during manufacture may leach out upon ingestion, potentially causing serious harm to the organism. Endocrine disruption by plastic additives may affect the reproductive health of humans and wildlife alike.

Microplastics can increase the stability of breaking waves or sea foam, potentially affecting sea albedo or atmosphere-ocean gas exchange.{{cite journal |last1=Bergfreund |first1=Jotam |last2=Wobill |first2=Ciatta |last3=Evers |first3=Frederic M. |last4=Hohermuth |first4=Benjamin |last5=Bertsch |first5=Pascal |last6=Lebreton |first6=Laurent |last7=Windhab |first7=Erich J. |last8=Fischer |first8=Peter |title=Impact of microplastic pollution on breaking waves |journal=Physics of Fluids |date=1 July 2024 |volume=36 |issue=7 |doi=10.1063/5.0208507 |bibcode=2024PhFl...36g2108B |hdl=20.500.11850/685523 |url=https://pubs.aip.org/aip/pof/article/36/7/072108/3303389/Impact-of-microplastic-pollution-on-breaking-waves|hdl-access=free }} Microplastics in the ocean may re-enter the atmosphere via sea spray.{{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Steve |last2=Allen |first2=Deonie |last3=Moss |first3=Kerry |last4=Le Roux |first4=Gaël |last5=Phoenix |first5=Vernon R. |last6=Sonke |first6=Jeroen E. |title=Examination of the ocean as a source for atmospheric microplastics |journal=PLOS ONE |date=12 May 2020 |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=e0232746 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0232746 |doi-access=free |pmid=32396561 |bibcode=2020PLoSO..1532746A |pmc=7217454 }}

{{Further|Microplastics effects on human health}}

Although the impacts of microplastics on human health are still being tested, their possible effects can be studied through human absorption models of nanomaterials that are produced by various industrial production processes.{{Cite journal |last1=Campanale |first1=Claudia |last2=Massarelli |first2=Carmine |last3=Savino |first3=Ilaria |last4=Locaputo |first4=Vito |last5=Uricchio |first5=Vito Felice |date=2020-02-13 |title=A Detailed Review Study on Potential Effects of Microplastics and Additives of Concern on Human Health |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=1212 |doi=10.3390/ijerph17041212 |doi-access=free |pmc=7068600 |pmid=32069998}} Several in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that micro- and nanoplastics were able to cause serious impacts on the human body, including physical stress and damage, apoptosis, necrosis, inflammation, oxidative stress and immune responses.{{Cite journal |last1=Syberg |first1=Kristian |last2=Nielsen |first2=Maria Bille |last3=Westergaard Clausen |first3=Lauge Peter |last4=van Calster |first4=Geert |last5=van Wezel |first5=Annemarie |last6=Rochman |first6=Chelsea |last7=Koelmans |first7=Albert A. |last8=Cronin |first8=Richard |last9=Pahl |first9=Sabine |last10=Hansen |first10=Steffen Foss |date=June 2021 |title=Regulation of plastic from a circular economy perspective |journal=Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry |volume=29 |pages=100462 |doi=10.1016/j.cogsc.2021.100462 |bibcode=2021COGSC..2900462S }} Microplastic pollution has been associated with various adverse human health conditions, including respiratory disease and inflammation, but it was not known whether this was a causative effect.{{cite journal |vauthors=Blackburn K, Green D |date=March 2022 |title=The potential effects of microplastics on human health: What is known and what is unknown |journal=Ambio |type=Review |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=518–530 |bibcode=2022Ambio..51..518B |doi=10.1007/s13280-021-01589-9 |pmc=8800959 |pmid=34185251}}

Microplastics often contain chemical additives like phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA), which are known endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Microplastics and their additives can disrupt the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, a critical regulator of male reproductive function{{cite journal |last1=Ullah |first1=Sana |title=A Review of the Endocrine Disrupting Effects of Micro and Nano Plastic and Their Associated Chemicals in Mammals |journal=Frontiers in Endocrinology |date=2022 |volume=13}}

A study from Harvard found that microplastics have been linked to "inflammation, cell death, lung and liver effects, changes in the gut microbiome, and altered lipid and hormone metabolism."{{Cite web |title=Microplastics Everywhere {{!}} Harvard Medicine Magazine |url=https://magazine.hms.harvard.edu/articles/microplastics-everywhere |access-date=2025-05-09 |website=magazine.hms.harvard.edu |language=en}}

A number of studies have concluded that microplastics create inflammatory effects in the human body. An in vitro study found that ultrafine particles composed of low-toxicity material, such as polystyrene, have proinflammatory activity as a consequence of their large surface area.{{Cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=D.M. |last2=Wilson |first2=M.R. |last3=MacNee |first3=W. |last4=Stone |first4=V. |last5=Donaldson |first5=K. |date=September 2001 |title=Size-Dependent Proinflammatory Effects of Ultrafine Polystyrene Particles: A Role for Surface Area and Oxidative Stress in the Enhanced Activity of Ultrafines |journal=Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology |volume=175 |issue=3 |pages=191–199 |doi=10.1006/taap.2001.9240 |pmid=11559017 |bibcode=2001ToxAP.175..191B }} Another study found pro-inflammatory factors and debris in human joints from polyethylene components used as prostheses, for example knee and hip replacements.{{Cite journal |last1=Nich |first1=Christophe |last2=Goodman |first2=Stuart B. |date=2014 |title=Role of Macrophages in the Biological Reaction to Wear Debris from Joint Replacements |journal=Journal of Long-Term Effects of Medical Implants |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=259–265 |doi=10.1615/jlongtermeffmedimplants.2014010562 |pmid=25747029 |pmc=4366682 }}

In vitro studies have also shown that different polystyrene nanoparticles can induce oxidative stress, apoptosis and autophagic cell death in cell context-dependent manner.{{Cite journal |last1=Yee |first1=Maxine Swee-Li |last2=Hii |first2=Ling-Wei |last3=Looi |first3=Chin King |last4=Lim |first4=Wei-Meng |last5=Wong |first5=Shew-Fung |last6=Kok |first6=Yih-Yih |last7=Tan |first7=Boon-Keat |last8=Wong |first8=Chiew-Yen |last9=Leong |first9=Chee-Onn |date=2021-02-16 |title=Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Human Health |journal=Nanomaterials |language=en |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=496 |doi=10.3390/nano11020496 |doi-access=free |pmc=7920297 |pmid=33669327}} Despite these toxic effects, no obvious severe toxicity was observed in liver, duodenum, ileum, jejunum, large intestine, testes, lungs, heart, spleen, and kidneys of mice following oral exposure of a mixture of microplastics.{{Cite journal |last1=Stock |first1=Valerie |last2=Böhmert |first2=Linda |last3=Lisicki |first3=Elisa |last4=Block |first4=Rafael |last5=Cara-Carmona |first5=Julia |last6=Pack |first6=Laura Kim |last7=Selb |first7=Regina |last8=Lichtenstein |first8=Dajana |last9=Voss |first9=Linn |last10=Henderson |first10=Colin J. |last11=Zabinsky |first11=Elke |last12=Sieg |first12=Holger |last13=Braeuning |first13=Albert |last14=Lampen |first14=Alfonso |date=2019-05-28 |title=Uptake and effects of orally ingested polystyrene microplastic particles in vitro and in vivo |journal=Archives of Toxicology |volume=93 |issue=7 |pages=1817–1833 |doi=10.1007/s00204-019-02478-7 |pmid=31139862 |bibcode=2019ArTox..93.1817S |url=https://discovery.dundee.ac.uk/en/publications/bd354a20-61ad-4505-bfd1-d71686c955b1 }}

Recent studies have revealed that microplastics and nanoplastics can impair cellular metabolism in both in vitro and in vivo models. After exposure to negatively charged carboxylated polystyrene nanoparticles measuring 20 nm, basolateral K+ ion channels were found to be activated in human lung cells. The nanoplastic particles caused persistent and concentration-dependent increases in short-circuit currents by the activation of the ion channels and the stimulation of Cl− and HCO3− ion efflux.{{Cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=Joanna |last2=Gong |last3=Nahirney |last4=Duszyk |last5=Radomski |date=June 2011 |title=Polystyrene nanoparticles activate ion transport in human airway epithelial cells |journal=International Journal of Nanomedicine |volume=6 |pages=1343–1356 |doi=10.2147/ijn.s21145 |doi-access=free |pmid=21760729 |pmc=3133525 }} Furthermore, 30 nm polystyrene nanoparticles induced large vesicle-like structures in the endocytic route in macrophages and human cancer cell lines A549, HepG-2, and HCT116. As a result, vesicle transport and the distribution of proteins involved in cytokinesis are blocked, thus stimulating the formation of binucleated cells.{{Cite journal |last1=Xia |first1=Lin |last2=Gu |first2=Weihong |last3=Zhang |first3=Mingyi |last4=Chang |first4=Ya-Nan |last5=Chen |first5=Kui |last6=Bai |first6=Xue |last7=Yu |first7=Lai |last8=Li |first8=Juan |last9=Li |first9=Shan |last10=Xing |first10=Gengmei |date=2016-11-29 |title=Endocytosed nanoparticles hold endosomes and stimulate binucleated cells formation |journal=Particle and Fibre Toxicology |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=63 |doi=10.1186/s12989-016-0173-1 |doi-access=free |pmid=27899122 |pmc=5127043 |bibcode=2016PFTox..13...63X }}

{{see also|Microplastic remediation}}

{{expand section|date=October 2024}}

Some of the suggested dust control measures include "lining cutting areas with tarps, cutting inside a protective tent, and using vacuum bags on power tool" when cutting materials like Trex and Azek. The cost of these measures is low." Street sweeping may also inhibited the spread of pollutants by gathering significant amounts of dirty materials from the extensive construction, renovation and reconstruction projects of road tunnels, bridges, roads and buildings.

Some researchers have proposed incinerating plastics to use as energy, which is known as energy recovery. As opposed to losing the energy from plastics into the atmosphere in landfills, this process turns some of the plastics back into energy that can be used. However, as opposed to recycling, this method does not diminish the amount of plastic material that is produced. Therefore, recycling plastics is considered a more efficient solution.

Biodegradation is another possible solution to large amounts of microplastic waste. In this process, microorganisms consume and decompose synthetic polymers by means of enzymes.{{Cite journal |last1=Auta |first1=H.S. |last2=Emenike |first2=C.U |last3=Fauziah |first3=S.H |year=2017 |title=Distribution and importance of microplastics in the marine environment: A review of the sources, fate, effects, and potential solutions |journal=Environment International |volume=102 |pages=165–176 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2017.02.013 |pmid=28284818 |bibcode=2017EnInt.102..165A}} These plastics can then be used in the form of energy and as a source of carbon once broken down. The microbes could potentially be used to treat sewage wastewater, which would decrease the amount of microplastics that pass through into the surrounding environments.

Efficient removal of microplastics via waste water treatment plants is critical to prevent the transfer of microplastics from society to natural water systems. The captured microplastics in the treatment plants become part of the sludge produced by the plants. The problem is that this sludge is often used as farm fertilizer meaning the plastics enter waterways through runoff.

Fionn Ferreira, winner of the 2019 Google Science Fair, is developing a device for the removal of microplastic particles from water using a ferrofluid.{{Cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/trevornace/2019/07/30/irish-teen-wins-2019-google-science-fair-for-removing-microplastics-from-water/?sh=15b0e071373f |title=Irish Teen Wins 2019 Google Science Fair for Removing Microplastics from Water |website=Forbes |access-date=9 January 2021 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531162416/https://www.forbes.com/sites/trevornace/2019/07/30/irish-teen-wins-2019-google-science-fair-for-removing-microplastics-from-water/?sh=15b0e071373f |url-status=live}}

The Ocean Cleanup, a Dutch foundation, has developed various proposals, with the stated aim of "clearing 90% of the ocean's microplastics".{{cite news |last=Connor |first=Steve |date=19 January 2016 |title=How scientists plan to clean up plastic waste in the oceans |work=The Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/how-scientists-plan-to-clean-up-the-plastic-waste-threatening-marine-life-a6820276.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220514/https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/how-scientists-plan-to-clean-up-the-plastic-waste-threatening-marine-life-a6820276.html |archive-date=14 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live}}{{Cite news |last=www.theoceancleanup.com |first=The Ocean Cleanup |title=System 001 has launched into the Pacific |work=The Ocean Cleanup |url=https://www.theoceancleanup.com/updates/system-001-has-launched-into-the-pacific/ |access-date=25 September 2018 |archive-date=25 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925065302/https://www.theoceancleanup.com/updates/system-001-has-launched-into-the-pacific/ |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |last=www.theoceancleanup.com |first=The Ocean Cleanup |title=The Ocean Cleanup Technology |url=https://www.theoceancleanup.com/technology/ |access-date=25 September 2018 |website=The Ocean Cleanup |archive-date=10 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210053637/https://www.theoceancleanup.com/technology/ |url-status=live}} The project has been met with widespread criticism from oceanographers and plastic pollution experts, despite positive news articles.{{Cite web |last1=Martini |first1=Kim |last2=Goldstein |first2=Miriam |date=14 July 2014 |title=The Ocean Cleanup, Part 2: Technical review of the feasibility study |url=https://www.deepseanews.com/2014/07/the-ocean-cleanup-part-2-technical-review-of-the-feasibility-study/ |website=Deep Sea News |access-date=25 October 2018 |archive-date=21 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200121065849/http://www.deepseanews.com/2014/07/the-ocean-cleanup-part-2-technical-review-of-the-feasibility-study/ |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |last=Shiffman |first=David |date=13 June 2018 |title=I asked 15 ocean plastic pollution experts about the Ocean Cleanup project, and they have concerns |url=http://www.southernfriedscience.com/i-asked-15-ocean-plastic-pollution-experts-about-the-ocean-cleanup-project-and-they-have-concerns/ |website=Southern Fried Science |access-date=25 October 2018 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126170652/http://www.southernfriedscience.com/i-asked-15-ocean-plastic-pollution-experts-about-the-ocean-cleanup-project-and-they-have-concerns |url-status=live}}{{Cite news |last=Kratochwill |first=Lindsey |date=26 March 2016 |title=Too good to be true? The Ocean Cleanup Project faces feasibility questions |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/mar/26/ocean-cleanup-project-environment-pollution-boyan-slat |access-date=25 October 2018 |archive-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024102620/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/mar/26/ocean-cleanup-project-environment-pollution-boyan-slat |url-status=live}} It has been dismissed by almost all microplastics experts as unlikely to have any impact on the microplastics issue. Some of the reasons for this are it only targets plastics larger than 2 cm (this is larger than the criteria for a microplastic), is infeasible from an engineering standpoint and likely to fail rapidly, and it only captures plastic from the top 3m of depth (most plastic circulates much deeper than this.

In addition, some bacteria have adapted to eat plastic, and some bacteria species have been genetically modified to eat (certain types of) plastics.{{cite web |date=23 January 2017 |title=Eating Away the World's Plastic Waste Problem |url=https://aabgu.org/eating-away-the-worlds-plastic-waste-problem/ |website=News; Natural Sciences |publisher=American Associates, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev |location=New York |access-date=9 April 2018 |archive-date=2 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202151553/https://aabgu.org/eating-away-the-worlds-plastic-waste-problem/ |url-status=live}}

Other than degrading microplastics, microbes had been engineered in a novel way to capture microplastics in their biofilm matrix from polluted samples for easier removal of such pollutants.{{Cite journal |last1=Chan |first1=Shepherd Yuen |last2=Wong |first2=Max Wang-Tang |last3=Kwan |first3=Bonnie Tsz Ching |last4=Fang |first4=James Kar-Hei |last5=Chua |first5=Song Lin |date=12 October 2022 |title=Microbial–Enzymatic Combinatorial Approach to Capture and Release Microplastics |journal=Environmental Science & Technology Letters |volume=9 |issue=11 |pages=975–982 |doi=10.1021/acs.estlett.2c00558 |bibcode=2022EnSTL...9..975C }} The microplastics in the biofilms can then be released with an engineered 'release' mechanism via biofilm dispersal to facilitate with microplastics recovery.{{cite journal |last1=Yang Liu |first1=Sylvia |last2=Ming-Lok Leung |first2=Matthew |last3=Kar-Hei Fang |first3=James |last4=Lin Chua |first4=Song |year=2020 |title=Engineering a microbial 'trap and release' mechanism for microplastics removal |journal=Chemical Engineering Journal |volume=404 |page=127079 |doi=10.1016/j.cej.2020.127079 |hdl=10397/88307 |hdl-access=free}}

Absorption devices include sponges made of cotton and squid bones, which may be scalable for water remediation projects.{{cite news |last1=Perkins |first1=Tom |title=Cotton-and-squid-bone sponge can soak up 99.9% of microplastics, scientists say |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/dec/10/microplastics-pollution-sponge-cotton-squid-bone |work=The Guardian |date=10 December 2024 }}

Increasing education through recycling campaigns is another proposed solution for microplastic contamination. While this would be a smaller-scale solution, education has been shown to reduce littering, especially in urban environments where there are often large concentrations of plastic waste. If recycling efforts are increased, a cycle of plastic use and reuse would be created to decrease our waste output and production of new raw materials. In order to achieve this, states would need to employ stronger infrastructure and investment around recycling.{{Cite journal |last=Kershaw |first=Peter J. |year=2016 |title=Marine Plastic Debris and Microplastics |url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/marine/good-environmental-status/descriptor-10/pdf/Marine_plastic_debris_and_microplastic_technical_report_advance_copy.pdf |url-status=live |journal=United Nations Environment Programme |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011052123/http://ec.europa.eu/environment/marine/good-environmental-status/descriptor-10/pdf/Marine_plastic_debris_and_microplastic_technical_report_advance_copy.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2017}} Some advocate for improving recycling technology to be able to recycle smaller plastics to reduce the need for production of new plastics.

File:Nurdle signboard.jpg

In April 2013, Italian artist Maria Cristina Finucci founded The Garbage Patch State in order to create awareness,{{cite web |date=22 May 2019 |title=The garbage patch territory turns into a new state |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/venice/about-this-office/single-view/news/the_garbage_patch_territory_turns_into_a_new_state/#.U71u8fl_u9U |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |access-date=27 April 2015 |archive-date=11 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911135638/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/venice/about-this-office/single-view/news/the_garbage_patch_territory_turns_into_a_new_state/#.U71u8fl_u9U |url-status=live}} under the patronage of UNESCO and the Italian Ministry of the Environment.{{cite web |title=Rifiuti diventano stato, Unesco riconosce 'Garbage Patch' |url=http://www.rivistasitiunesco.it/articolo.php?id_articolo=2073 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714144707/http://www.rivistasitiunesco.it/articolo.php?id_articolo=2073 |archive-date=14 July 2014 |language=it}}

In February 2013 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) launched its "Trash-Free Waters" initiative to prevent single-use plastic wastes from ending up in waterways and ultimately the ocean.{{cite web |last1=Benson |first1=Bob |last2=Weiler |first2=Katherine |last3=Crawford |first3=Cara |date=27 February 2013 |title=EPA National Trash Free Waters Program |url=http://www.deq.virginia.gov/Portals/0/DEQ/CoastalZoneManagement/EPA_Trash_Free_Waters_Program_Virginia_Marine_Debris_Summit_2013.pdf |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) |location=Washington, D.C. |id=Presentation at Virginia Marine Debris Summit, 2013 |access-date=28 April 2018 |archive-date=25 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200825030106/https://www.deq.virginia.gov/Portals/0/DEQ/CoastalZoneManagement/EPA_Trash_Free_Waters_Program_Virginia_Marine_Debris_Summit_2013.pdf }} As of 2018, EPA collaborated with the United Nations Environment Programme–Caribbean Environment Programme (UNEP-CEP) and the Peace Corps to reduce and remove trash in the Caribbean Sea.{{cite web |date=18 April 2018 |title=International Initiatives to Address Marine Debris |url=https://www.epa.gov/trash-free-waters/international-initiatives-address-marine-debris |website=Trash-Free Waters |publisher=EPA |access-date=22 April 2018 |archive-date=24 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424230933/https://www.epa.gov/trash-free-waters/international-initiatives-address-marine-debris |url-status=live}} EPA also funded various projects in the San Francisco Bay Area including one that is aimed at reducing the use of single-use plastics such as disposable cups, spoons and straws, from three University of California campuses.{{cite web |date=27 September 2017 |title=Trash-Free Waters Projects |url=https://www.epa.gov/trash-free-waters/trash-free-waters-projects |publisher=EPA |access-date=22 April 2018 |archive-date=22 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422132804/https://www.epa.gov/trash-free-waters/trash-free-waters-projects |url-status=live}}

The Florida Microplastic Awareness Project (FMAP), a group of volunteers who search for microplastics in coastal water samples Many organizations advocate action to counter microplastic, spreading microplastic awareness.{{Cite web |last=Communications |first=IFAS |title=Microplastics – UF/IFAS Extension |url=http://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/flagler/marine-and-coastal/microplastics/ |access-date=25 September 2018 |website=sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu |archive-date=25 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925065549/http://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/flagler/marine-and-coastal/microplastics/ }} Global advocacy aimed at achieving the target of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14 hopes to prevent and significantly reduce all forms of marine pollution by 2025.{{Cite web |title=Goal 14 targets |url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-14-life-below-water/targets.html |access-date=24 September 2020 |website=UNDP |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930060036/https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-14-life-below-water/targets.html |url-status=live}}

The Clean Oceans Initiative is a project launched in 2018 by the public institutions European Investment Bank, Agence Française de Développement and KfW Entwicklungsbank. Their goal was to provide up to €2 billion in lending, grants and technical assistance until 2023 to develop projects that removed pollution from waterways (with a focus on macroplastics and microplastics) before it reached the oceans. The effort focuses on initiatives that demonstrate efficient methods of minimising plastic waste and microplastics output, emphasising on riverine and coastal areas.{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=4 February 2022 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=23 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423154334/https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |url-status=live}} Cassa Depositi e Prestiti (CDP), the Italian national promotional institution and financial institution for development cooperation, and the Instituto de Crédito Oficial (ICO), the Spanish promotional bank, became new partners in October 2020.{{Cite journal |last=Bank |first=European Investment |date=23 February 2023 |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |journal=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230014-the-clean-oceans-initiative |language=EN |access-date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223145820/https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230014-the-clean-oceans-initiative |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Clean Oceans Initiative |url=https://www.oneplanetsummit.fr/en/coalitions-82/clean-oceans-initiative-223 |access-date=23 February 2023 |website=www.oneplanetsummit.fr |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223145816/https://www.oneplanetsummit.fr/en/coalitions-82/clean-oceans-initiative-223 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Clean Oceans Initiative - AFD, EIB, KfW, CDP, ICO {{!}} Finance in common |url=https://financeincommon.org/clean-oceans-initiative-afd-eib-kfw-cdp-ico |access-date=23 February 2023 |website=financeincommon.org |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223145816/https://financeincommon.org/clean-oceans-initiative-afd-eib-kfw-cdp-ico |url-status=live }} As of December 2023, The Clean Oceans Initiative had funded almost €3.2 billion, exceeding 80% of its €4 billion objective. Over 20 million people were supposed to benefit from the signed project proposals, which include better wastewater treatment in Sri Lanka, China, Egypt, and South Africa, solid waste management in Togo and Senegal, and stormwater management and flood protection in Benin, Morocco, and Ecuador.{{Cite web |date=26 October 2021 |title=Ocean economy offers a $2.5 trillion export opportunity: UNCTAD report {{!}} UNCTAD |url=https://unctad.org/news/ocean-economy-offers-25-trillion-export-opportunity-unctad-report |access-date=23 February 2023 |website=unctad.org |language=en |archive-date=24 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230224081008/https://unctad.org/news/ocean-economy-offers-25-trillion-export-opportunity-unctad-report |url-status=live }}{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20240073-clean-oceans-and-the-blue-economy-overview-2024 |title=Clean oceans and the blue economy Overview 2024 |date=25 April 2024 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5754-7 |language=EN |access-date=30 April 2024 |archive-date=30 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240430123814/https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20240073-clean-oceans-and-the-blue-economy-overview-2024 |url-status=live }}

In February 2022, the initiative stated that it would increase its financing aim to €4 billion by the end of 2025. At the same time, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) became the Clean Oceans Initiative's sixth member. By February 2023, the program had met 65% of its goal, with €2.6 billion spent in 60 projects benefiting more than 20 million people across Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Europe.{{Cite web |last=Anyiego |first=Beldine |date=15 August 2022 |title=AFRICA: The Clean Oceans initiative will fund twice as many projects as expected? |url=https://www.copip.eu/news/africa-the-clean-oceans-initiative-will-fund-twice-as-many-projects-as-expected/ |access-date=23 February 2023 |website=COPIP |archive-date=31 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131192553/https://www.copip.eu/news/africa-the-clean-oceans-initiative-will-fund-twice-as-many-projects-as-expected/ |url-status=live }} By the beginning of 2022, more than 80% of this target was achieved, with €1.6 billion being used in long-term financing for public and private sector initiatives that minimise the discharge of plastics, microplastics, and other pollutants through enhanced solid waste, wastewater, and storm water management.

In January 2021, the European Investment Bank and the Asian Development Bank had formed the Clean and Sustainable Ocean Partnership to promote cooperative projects for a clean and sustainable ocean and blue economy in the Asia-Pacific region.{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20220311-clean-oceans-and-the-blue-economy-overview-2023 |title=Clean oceans and the blue economy Overview 2023 |date=17 August 2023 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5518-5 |language=EN |access-date=24 August 2023 |archive-date=27 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227231954/https://www01.eib.org/en/publications/20220311-clean-oceans-and-the-blue-economy-overview-2023 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=breezy |date=20 January 2023 |title=Healthy Oceans and Sustainable Blue Economies |url=https://www.adb.org/what-we-do/topics/environment/healthy-oceans-sustainable-blue-economies |access-date=24 August 2023 |website=Asian Development Bank |language=en |archive-date=24 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824104943/https://www.adb.org/what-we-do/topics/environment/healthy-oceans-sustainable-blue-economies |url-status=live }}

With increasing awareness of the detrimental effects of microplastics on the environment, groups are now advocating for the removal and ban of microplastics from various products.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.10.001 |pmid=30503422 |title=Reducing marine pollution from single-use plastics (SUPs): A review |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=137 |pages=157–171 |year=2018 |last1=Schnurr |first1=Riley E.J. |last2=Alboiu |first2=Vanessa |last3=Chaudhary |first3=Meenakshi |last4=Corbett |first4=Roan A. |last5=Quanz |first5=Meaghan E. |last6=Sankar |first6=Karthikeshwar |last7=Srain |first7=Harveer S. |last8=Thavarajah |first8=Venukasan |last9=Xanthos |first9=Dirk |last10=Walker |first10=Tony R. |bibcode=2018MarPB.137..157S }} One such campaign is "Beat the Microbead", which focuses on removing plastics from personal care products. The Adventurers and Scientists for Conservation run the Global Microplastics Initiative, a project to collect water samples to provide scientists with better data about microplastic dispersion in the environment.{{cite web |title=Global Microplastics Initiative |url=http://www.adventurescientists.org/microplastics.html |publisher=Adventure Scientists |access-date=28 April 2018 |archive-date=8 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180508223444/http://www.adventurescientists.org/microplastics.html |url-status=live}} UNESCO has sponsored research and global assessment programs due to the trans-boundary issue that microplastic pollution constitutes.Morris and Chapman: "Marine Litter", "Green Facts: Facts on Health and the Environment", 2001–2015 These environmental groups will keep pressuring companies to remove plastics from their products in order to maintain healthy ecosystems.{{cite news |last1=Ross |first1=Philip |title='Microplastics' Threaten Life On Great Lakes |url=https://www.ibtimes.com/microplastics-great-lakes-pose-very-real-threat-humans-animals-1446804 |work=International Business Times |date=29 October 2013 }}

In 2018, China banned the import of recyclables from other countries, forcing those other countries to re-examine their recycling schemes.{{Cite web |title=World Oceans Day: Is the planet overdosing on the "miracle" product? |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/eastasiapacific/world-oceans-day-planet-overdosing-miracle-product |access-date=3 August 2021 |website=blogs.worldbank.org |date=7 June 2019 |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210803065756/https://blogs.worldbank.org/eastasiapacific/world-oceans-day-planet-overdosing-miracle-product |url-status=live}} The Yangtze River in China contributes 55% of all plastic waste going to the seas. Including microplastics, the Yangtze bears an average of 500,000 pieces of plastic per square kilometer.{{cite news |last1=Grace Dobush |title=Microplastic Polluting Rivers and Seas Across the Globe, Says New Research |url=https://fortune.com/2019/03/07/microplastic-pollution-global-problem/ |access-date=31 July 2019 |work=Fortune |date=7 March 2019 |archive-date=31 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731105844/https://fortune.com/2019/03/07/microplastic-pollution-global-problem/ |url-status=live}} Scientific American reported that China dumps 30% of all plastics in the ocean.{{cite news |last1=Will Dunham |title=World's Oceans Clogged by Millions of Tons of Plastic Trash |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/world-s-oceans-clogged-by-millions-of-tons-of-plastic-trash/ |access-date=31 July 2019 |work=Scientific American |date=12 February 2019 |quote=China was responsible for the most ocean plastic pollution per year with an estimated 2.4 million tons, about 30 percent of the global total, followed by Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Egypt, Malaysia, Nigeria and Bangladesh. |archive-date=16 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191116021052/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/world-s-oceans-clogged-by-millions-of-tons-of-plastic-trash/ |url-status=live}}

In 2024, the Hong Kong government implemented the first phase of its plastic restriction regulation. Promotional videos have also been produced to encourage citizens to bring their own utensils when dining out, to refrain from using disposable utensils, and to bring their own shopping bags when shopping. Merchants are prohibited from providing related plastic products to customers.{{Cite web |title=谢展寰：大型食肆已作好走塑准备 |url=https://sc.news.gov.hk/TuniS/www.news.gov.hk/chi/2024/04/20240421/20240421_105049_478.html |access-date=2024-11-24 |website=Hong Kong's Information Services Department |language=zh-hk}}{{Cite web |title=香港首階段限塑令4月實施 官員指對市民影響有限 {{!}} 電訊 - 香港中通社 |url=http://www.hkcna.hk/docDetail.jsp?id=100596629&channel=2813 |access-date=2024-11-24 |website=www.hkcna.hk}}{{cite web | url=https://www.news.gov.hk/eng/2023/10/20231018/20231018_180652_928.html | title=Plastic products bill passed }}

{{expand section|1=E.g., [https://archive.today/20241003113254/https://pressofatlanticcity.com/news/local/government-politics/microplastics-construction-ordinance-resolution/article_2b0b0520-7f7a-11ef-b97b-0309292ceec9.html South Jersey towns take action to limit microplastics from construction]|date=October 2024}}

In the US, some states have taken action to mitigate the negative environmental effects of microplastics.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.02.048 |pmid=28238328 |title=International policies to reduce plastic marine pollution from single-use plastics (plastic bags and microbeads): A review |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=118 |issue=1–2 |pages=17–26 |year=2017 |last1=Xanthos |first1=Dirk |last2=Walker |first2=Tony R. |bibcode=2017MarPB.118...17X}} Illinois was the first US state to ban cosmetics containing microplastics. At the federal level, the Microbead-Free Waters Act 2015 was enacted after being signed by President Barack Obama on 28 December 2015. The law bans "rinse-off" cosmetic products that perform an exfoliating function, such as toothpaste or face wash. It does not apply to other products such as household cleaners. The act took effect on 1 July 2017, with respect to manufacturing, and 1 July 2018, with respect to introduction or delivery for introduction into interstate commerce.United States. Microbead-Free Waters Act of 2015. {{uspl|114|114}}. Approved 28 December 2015. On 16 June 2020, California adopted a definition of 'microplastics in drinking water', setting the foundation for a long-term approach to studying their contamination and human health effects.{{cite web |url=https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/press_room/press_releases/2020/pr06162020_microplastics.pdf |title=State Water Board addresses microplastics in drinking water to encourage public water system awareness |type=Media release |publisher=SWRCB |website=waterboards.ca.gov |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622152157/https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/press_room/press_releases/2020/pr06162020_microplastics.pdf |archive-date=22 June 2020 |date=16 June 2020}}

On 25 July 2018, a microplastic reduction amendment was passed by the U.S. House of Representatives.{{Cite web |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate-bill/756/text |title=Text – S.756 – 115th Congress (2017–2018): Save Our Seas Act of 2018 |last=Dan |first=Sullivan |date=26 July 2018 |website=www.congress.gov |access-date=25 September 2018 |archive-date=26 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926052051/https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate-bill/756/text |url-status=live}} The legislation, as part of the Save Our Seas Act designed to combat marine pollution, aims to support the NOAA's Marine Debris Program. In particular, the amendment is geared towards promoting NOAA's Great Lakes Land-Based Marine Debris Action Plan to increase testing, cleanup, and education around plastic pollution in the Great Lakes. President Donald Trump signed the re-authorization and amendment bill into effect on 11 October 2018.

On 15 June 2018, the Japanese government passed a bill with the goal of reducing microplastic production and pollution, especially in aquatic environments.{{Cite news |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/06/15/national/bill-reduce-microplastics-released-environment-passed-japans-upper-house/ |title=Bill to reduce microplastics released into the environment passed by Japan's Upper House |date=15 June 2018 |work=The Japan Times |access-date=25 September 2018 |archive-date=26 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926051850/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/06/15/national/bill-reduce-microplastics-released-environment-passed-japans-upper-house/ |url-status=live}} Proposed by the Environment Ministry and passed unanimously by the Upper House, this is also the first bill to pass in Japan that is specifically targeted at reducing microplastic production, specifically in the personal care industry with products such as face wash and toothpaste. This law is revised from previous legislation, which focused on removing plastic marine debris. It also focuses on increasing education and public awareness surrounding recycling and plastic waste. The Environment Ministry has also proposed a number of recommendations for methods to monitor microplastic quantities in the ocean (Recommendations, 2018).{{Cite journal |year=2018 |title=Recommendations by Experts on the Required Parameters for Microplastics Monitoring in the Ocean |url=http://www.env.go.jp/en/water/marine_litter/pdf/recommendation.pdf |journal=Ministry of Environment, Japan |access-date=26 September 2018 |archive-date=26 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926051924/http://www.env.go.jp/en/water/marine_litter/pdf/recommendation.pdf |url-status=live}} However, the legislation does not specify any penalties for those who continue manufacturing products with microplastics.

The European Commission has noted the increased concern about the impact of microplastics on the environment.{{Cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/research/sam/index.cfm?pg=pollution |title=Microplastic Pollution {{!}} SAM – Research and Innovation – European Commission |website=ec.europa.eu |access-date=22 January 2019 |archive-date=22 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122195529/http://ec.europa.eu/research/sam/index.cfm?pg=pollution |url-status=live}} In April 2018, the European Commission's Group of Chief Scientific Advisors commissioned a comprehensive review of the scientific evidence on microplastic pollution through the EU's Scientific Advice Mechanism. The evidence review was conducted by a working group nominated by European academies and delivered in January 2019.{{Cite web |url=https://www.sapea.info/topics/microplastics/ |title=A scientific perspective on microplastics in nature and society |website=www.sapea.info |access-date=22 January 2019 |archive-date=28 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328153346/https://www.sapea.info/topics/microplastics/ |url-status=live}} A Scientific Opinion based on the SAPEA report was presented to the Commission in 2019, on the basis of which the commission will consider whether policy changes should be proposed at a European level to curb microplastic pollution.{{Cite web |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/publications/environmental-and-health-risks-microplastic-pollution_en |title=Environmental and Health Risks of Microplastic Pollution |website=ec.europa.eu |access-date=11 May 2019 |archive-date=9 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190509001221/https://ec.europa.eu/info/publications/environmental-and-health-risks-microplastic-pollution_en |url-status=live}}

In January 2019, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) proposed to restrict intentionally added microplastics.{{Cite web |url=https://echa.europa.eu/-/echa-proposes-to-restrict-intentionally-added-microplastics |title=ECHA proposes to restrict intentionally added microplastics |website=echa.europa.eu |date=30 January 2019 |access-date=3 February 2019 |archive-date=2 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202095255/https://echa.europa.eu/-/echa-proposes-to-restrict-intentionally-added-microplastics |url-status=live}}

The European Union participates with 10% of the global total, around 150 000 tonnes of microplastics each year. This is 200 grams per person per year, with significant regional variance in per-capita microplastic creation.{{Cite web |title=Microplastics - ECHA |url=https://echa.europa.eu/hot-topics/microplastics |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=echa.europa.eu |language=en-GB |archive-date=17 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317122605/https://echa.europa.eu/hot-topics/microplastics |url-status=live }}

The European Commission's Circular Economy Action Plan sets out mandatory requirements for the recycling and waste reduction of key products e.g. plastic packaging. The plan starts the process to restrict addition of microplastics in products. It mandates measures for capturing more microplastics at all stages of the lifecycle of a product. E.g. the plan would examine different policies which aim to reduce release of secondary microplastics from tires and textiles.{{Cite web |title=New Circular Economy Strategy – Environment – European Commission |url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/circular-economy/ |access-date=19 August 2020 |website=ec.europa.eu |archive-date=13 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813223529/https://ec.europa.eu/environment//circular-economy/ |url-status=live}} The European Commission plans to update the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive to further address microplastic waste and other pollution. They aim to protect the environment from industrial and urban waste water discharge. A revision to the EU Drinking Water Directive was provisionally approved to ensure microplastics are regularly monitored in drinking water. It would require countries must propose solutions if a problem is found.

The REACH restriction on synthetic polymer microparticles entered into force on 17 October 2023.{{cite web |title=Restriction of microplastics in the EU from 17 October 2023 |url=https://trade.ec.europa.eu/access-to-markets/en/news/restriction-microplastics-eu-17-october-2023 |website=Access2Markets |publisher=European Commission |access-date=13 September 2024 |date=17 October 2023}}{{Cite web |title=Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/2055 of 25 September 2023 amending Annex XVII to Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) as regards synthetic polymer microparticles |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2023/2055/oj |access-date=20 November 2023 |website=eur-lex.europa.eu |language=en |archive-date=20 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120171607/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2023/2055/oj |url-status=live }}

The Environmental Protection (Microbeads) (England) Regulations 2017 ban the production of any rinse-off personal care products (such as exfoliants) containing microbeads.{{Cite journal |year=2017 |title=The Environmental Protection (Microbeads) (England) Regulations 2017 |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2017/1312/pdfs/uksi_20171312_en.pdf |journal=Cabinet of the United Kingdom |access-date=19 July 2022 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331230724/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2017/1312/pdfs/uksi_20171312_en.pdf |url-status=live}} This particular law denotes specific penalties when it is not obeyed. Those who do not comply are required to pay a fine. In the event that a fine is not paid, product manufacturers may receive a stop notice, which prevents the manufacturer from continuing production until they have followed regulation preventing the use of microbeads. Criminal proceedings may occur if the stop notice is ignored.

{{Unreliable sources section

| date = May 2024

}}

Haiti has no collective system for waste collection and treatment,{{Citation |last1=Balthazard-Accou |first1=Ketty |title=Vector-Borne Diseases and Climate Change in the Environmental Context in Haiti |date=2021-04-19 |work=Environmental Health |url=https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/76323 |access-date=2024-05-04 |publisher=IntechOpen |language=en |doi=10.5772/intechopen.96037 |isbn=978-1-83968-721-1 |last2=Millien |first2=Max François |last3=Michel |first3=Daphnée |last4=Jean |first4=Gaston |last5=Telcy |first5=David |last6=Emmanuel |first6=Evens}} and thus plastic is often disposed of in urban water evacuation canals, which then degrade to form microplastics. Due to tropical temperatures and {{clarify span|average daily duration of 12 hours,|Of sun? Or something else?|date=May 2024}} the plastics present in urban waterways could degrade more rapidly. Their discharge into Port-au-Prince Bay exposes this ecosystem to a number of environmental hazards pollutants contained in the waste, and to climatic hazards, particularly ocean acidification.{{cite book |doi=10.5772/intechopen.98371 |chapter=Microplastics and Environmental Health: Assessing Environmental Hazards in Haiti |title=Environmental Health |date=2021 |last1=St. Louis |first1=Daphenide |last2=Apply |first2=Ammcise |last3=Michel |first3=Daphnée |last4=Emmanuel |first4=Evens |isbn=978-1-83968-720-4 }}

On August 9, 2012, the Haitian government published a decree prohibiting the production, importation, marketing and use, of polyethylene bags and expanded polystyrene objects for foodstuffs. However, 14 Caribbean countries (more than a third) have banned single-use plastic bags and/or polystyrene containers.

On July 10, 2013, a second decree was published to once again prohibit "the importation, production or sale of expanded polystyrene articles for food use". In support of the second decree, the ministries of the Environment, Justice and Public Security, Trade and Industry as well as the Economy and Finance announced in a note published in January 2018 that specialists from the brigade will be deployed on the territory to force the application of the said decree.

• Citizen Science, cleanup projects that people can take part in.
• Microbead (research)
• Microspheres
• Tea bag plastics
• Plastic bans
• Plastic pollution in the Mediterranean sea

{{Reflist}}

• {{Free-content attribution

| title = Drowning in Plastics – Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics

| publisher = United Nations Environment Programme

| documentURL = https://www.unep.org/resources/report/drowning-plastics-marine-litter-and-plastic-waste-vital-graphics

| license statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_Nations_Environment_Programme_Drowning_in_Plastics_%E2%80%93_Marine_Litter_and_Plastic_Waste_Vital_Graphics.pdf

| license = Cc BY-SA 3.0 IGO

}}

• {{anchor|{{harvid|Howell et al.|2012}}}}Howell N., Lavers J., Paterson D., Garrett R. & Banati R. 2012, [http://www.ansto.gov.au/AboutANSTO/MediaCentre/News/ACS013097#sthash.wIvPum6r.dpuf Trace metal distribution in feathers from migratory, pelagic birds], Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, accessed 3 May 2014.
• {{anchor|{{harvid|Emsley|2011}}}}Emsley J. 2011, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2EfYXzwPo3UC&q=Emsley+%22Nature%27s+Building+Blocks%22 Nature's Building Blocks], new edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, {{ISBN|978-0-19-960563-7}}.

• {{cite web | publisher=EPA (Ireland) | title=Sources, Pathways and Environmental Fate of Microplastics| url=https://www.epa.ie/publications/research/environment--health/Research_Report-430.pdf | date=March 2023 | access-date=22 Dec 2024}}

• [https://www.infoterio.com/2022/04/Se-hallo-evidencia-de-microplasticos-en-nuestros-pulmones.html/ Evidence for microplastics in human lungs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230118013310/https://www.infoterio.com/2022/04/Se-hallo-evidencia-de-microplasticos-en-nuestros-pulmones.html |date=18 January 2023 }}
• [https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/ NOAA Marine Debris Program]
• {{Skeptoid | id=4806 | number=806 | date=16 November 2021 | title=Environmental Microplastics| access-date=28 June 2022}}
• [https://ecopicko.com/microplastics-in-our-food-and-water-shocking-truth-revealed/od,%20water%20and%20air%20study Microplastic in food, water, and air study]. 2024
• [http://www.greenpeace.org/campaigns/oceans/plastic/ Greenpeace plastic campaign]

{{Plastics}}

{{Portal bar|Environment|Water}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:2004 neologisms

Category:Plastics and the environment

Category:Environmental impact of products

Category:Water pollution

Category:Clothing and the environment

Category:Articles containing video clips