Misanthropy

Misanthropy is traditionally defined as hatred or dislike of humankind.{{sfn|Merriam-Webster staff|2023}}{{sfn|AHD staff|2022a}} The word originated in the 17th century and has its roots in the Greek words μῖσος mīsos 'hatred' and ἄνθρωπος ānthropos 'man, human'.{{sfn|OED staff|2019}}{{sfn|Harper|2019}} In contemporary philosophy, the term is usually understood in a wider sense as a negative evaluation of humanity as a whole based on humanity's vices and flaws.{{sfn|Kidd|2020b}}{{sfn|Cooper|2018|p=7}} This negative evaluation can express itself in various forms, hatred being only one of them. In this sense, misanthropy has a cognitive component based on a negative assessment of humanity and is not just a blind rejection.{{sfn|Kidd|2020b}}{{sfn|Cooper|2018|p=7}}{{sfn|Edyvane|2013|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/EDYRSM 53–65]}} Misanthropy is usually contrasted with philanthropy, which refers to the love of humankind and is linked to efforts to increase human well-being, for example, through good will, charitable aid, and donations. Both terms have a range of meanings and do not necessarily contradict each other. In this regard, the same person may be a misanthrope in one sense and a philanthrope in another sense.{{sfn|AHD staff|2022}}{{sfn|Lim|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=h1BZWgpG-w0C&pg=PA167 167]}}{{sfn|Sawaya|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=198FBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA207 207]}}

One central aspect of all forms of misanthropy is that their target is not local but ubiquitous. This means that the negative attitude is not just directed at some individual persons or groups but at humanity as a whole.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Cooper|2018|pp=54–6}}{{sfn|Benatar|2015|pp=38, 41}} In this regard, misanthropy is different from other forms of negative discriminatory attitudes directed at a particular group of people. This distinguishes it from the intolerance exemplified by misogynists, misandrists, and racists, which hold a negative attitude toward women, men, or certain races.{{sfn|Edyvane|2013|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/EDYRSM 53–65]}}{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=190}}{{sfn|Gilmore|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=s83vH9PGVCcC&pg=PA12 12]}}{{sfn|Edyvane|2013|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/EDYRSM 53–65]}} According to literature theorist Andrew Gibson, misanthropy does not need to be universal in the sense that a person literally dislikes every human being. Instead, it depends on the person's horizon. For instance, a villager who loathes every other villager without exception is a misanthrope if their horizon is limited to only this village.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=145}}

Both misanthropes and their critics agree that negative features and failings are not equally distributed, i.e. that the vices and bad traits are exemplified much more strongly in some than in others. But for misanthropy, the negative assessment of humanity is not based on a few extreme and outstanding cases: it is a condemnation of humanity as a whole that is not just directed at exceptionally bad individuals but includes regular people as well.{{sfn|Kidd|2020b}}{{sfn|Cooper|2018|pp=54–6}} Because of this focus on the ordinary, it is sometimes held that these flaws are obvious and trivial but people may ignore them due to intellectual flaws. Some see the flaws as part of human nature as such.{{sfn|Harris|2022|p=118}}{{sfn|Kidd|2020|pp=66–72}}{{sfn|Kidd|2023}} Others also base their view on non-essential flaws, i.e. what humanity has come to be. This includes flaws seen as symptoms of modern civilization in general. Nevertheless, both groups agree that the relevant flaws are "entrenched". This means that there is either no or no easy way to rectify them and nothing short of a complete transformation of the dominant way of life would be required if that is possible at all.{{sfn|Cooper|2018|pp=7, 13, 54–8}}{{sfn|Kidd|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=--xZEAAAQBAJ 75–99]|loc=4. Misanthropy and the Hatred of Humanity}}

Various types of misanthropy are distinguished in the academic literature. They are based on what attitude is involved, how it is expressed, and whether the misanthropes include themselves in their negative assessment.{{sfn|Tsakalakis|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u8P4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT144 144]}}{{sfn|Harris|2022|p=21}}{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=6–9}} The differences between them often matter for assessing the arguments for and against misanthropy.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=6, 9, 29}}{{sfn|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}} An early categorization suggested by Immanuel Kant distinguishes between positive and negative misanthropes. Positive misanthropes are active enemies of humanity. They wish harm to other people and undertake attempts to hurt them in one form or another. Negative misanthropy, by contrast, is a form of peaceful anthropophobia that leads people to isolate themselves. They may wish others well despite seeing serious flaws in them and prefer to not involve themselves in the social context of humanity. Kant associates negative misanthropy with moral disappointment due to previous negative experiences with others.{{sfn|Tsakalakis|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u8P4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT144 144]}}{{sfn|Wilford|Stoner|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KqMkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 42–3]}}

Another distinction focuses on whether the misanthropic condemnation of humanity is only directed at other people or at everyone including oneself. In this regard, self-inclusive misanthropes are consistent in their attitude by including themselves in their negative assessment. This type is contrasted with self-aggrandizing misanthropes, who either implicitly or explicitly exclude themselves from the general condemnation and see themselves instead as superior to everyone else.{{sfn|Harris|2022|p=21}}{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|p=8}} In this regard, it may be accompanied by an exaggerated sense of self-worth and self-importance.{{sfn|Harris|2022|p=22}} According to literature theorist Joseph Harris, the self-aggrandizing type is more common. He states that this outlook seems to undermine its own position by constituting a form of hypocrisy.{{sfn|Harris|2022|pp=20–22}} A closely related categorization developed by Irving Babbitt distinguishes misanthropes based on whether they allow exceptions in their negative assessment. In this regard, misanthropes of the naked intellect regard humanity as a whole as hopeless. Tender misanthropes exclude a few idealized people from their negative evaluation. Babbitt cites Rousseau and his fondness for natural uncivilized man as an example of tender misanthropy and contrasts it with Jonathan Swift's thorough dismissal of all of humanity.{{sfn|King|1993|pp=57–8}}{{sfn|Babbitt|2015|loc=[https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/50235/pg50235-images.html Chapter VII: Romantic Irony]}}

A further way to categorize forms of misanthropy is in relation to the type of attitude involved toward humanity. In this regard, philosopher Toby Svoboda distinguishes the attitudes of dislike, hate, contempt, and judgment. A misanthrope based on dislike harbors a distaste in the form of negative feelings toward other people.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=6–7}} Misanthropy focusing on hatred involves an intense form of dislike. It includes the additional component of wishing ill upon others and at times trying to realize this wish.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|p=7}} In the case of contempt, the attitude is not based on feelings and emotions but on a more theoretical outlook. It leads misanthropes to see other people as worthless and look down on them while excluding themselves from this assessment.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=7–8}} If the misanthropic attitude has its foundation in judgment, it is also theoretical but does not distinguish between self and others. It is the view that humanity is in general bad without implying that the misanthrope is in any way better than the rest.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=8–9}} According to Svoboda, only misanthropy based on judgment constitutes a serious philosophical position. He holds that misanthropy focusing on contempt is biased against other people while misanthropy in the form of dislike and hate is difficult to assess since these emotional attitudes often do not respond to objective evidence.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=8–9, 40}}

File:Pieter Bruegel d. Ä. 035.jpg by Pieter Bruegel the Elder.]]

Misanthropy is usually not restricted to a theoretical opinion but involves an evaluative attitude that calls for a practical response. It can express itself in different forms of life. They come with different dominant emotions and practical consequences for how to lead one's life.{{sfn|Kidd|2020b}}{{sfn|Cooper|2018|pp=110–1}} These responses to misanthropy are sometimes presented through simplified archetypes that may be too crude to accurately capture the mental life of any single person. Instead, they aim to portray common attitudes among groups of misanthropes. The two responses most commonly linked to misanthropy involve either destruction or fleeing from society. The destructive misanthrope is said to be driven by a hatred of humankind and aims at tearing it down, with violence if necessary.{{sfn|Kidd|2020b}}{{sfn|Cooper|2018|pp=115–6}} For the fugitive misanthrope, fear is the dominant emotion and leads the misanthrope to seek a secluded place in order to avoid the corrupting contact with civilization and humanity as much as possible.{{sfn|Kidd|2020b}}{{sfn|Edyvane|2013|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/EDYRSM 53–65]}}

The contemporary misanthropic literature has also identified further less-known types of misanthropic lifestyles.{{sfn|Kidd|2020b}} The activist misanthrope is driven by hope despite their negative appraisal of humanity. This hope is a form of meliorism based on the idea that it is possible and feasible for humanity to transform itself and the activist tries to realize this ideal.{{sfn|Kidd|2020b}}{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=14, 115}} A weaker version of this approach is to try to improve the world incrementally to avoid some of the worst outcomes without the hope of fully solving the basic problem.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|p=14}} Activist misanthropes differ from quietist misanthropes, who take a pessimistic approach toward what the person can do for bringing about a transformation or significant improvements. In contrast to the more drastic reactions of the other responses mentioned, they resign themselves to quiet acceptance and small-scale avoidance.{{sfn|Cooper|2018|pp=118–9}}{{sfn|Kidd|2020b}} A further approach is focused on humor based on mockery and ridicule at the absurdity of the human condition. An example is that humans hurt each other and risk future self-destruction for trivial concerns like a marginal increase in profit. This way, humor can act both as a mirror to portray the terrible truth of the situation and as its palliative at the same time.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=117–8}}

A core aspect of misanthropy is that its negative attitude toward humanity is based on human flaws.{{sfn|Cooper|2018|pp=7, 47–8}}{{sfn|Kidd|2020b}} Various misanthropes have provided extensive lists of flaws, including cruelty, greed, selfishness, wastefulness, dogmatism, self-deception, and insensitivity to beauty.{{sfn|Cooper|2018|pp=3, 8, 48}}{{sfn|Benatar|2015|pp=39–42}}{{sfn|Kidd|2020b}} These flaws can be categorized in many ways. It is often held that moral flaws constitute the most serious case.{{sfn|Kidd|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=--xZEAAAQBAJ 75–99]|loc=4. Misanthropy and the Hatred of Humanity}}{{sfn|Benatar|2015|pp=34–36, 55}} Other flaws discussed in the contemporary literature include intellectual flaws, aesthetic flaws, and spiritual flaws.{{sfn|Cooper|2018|pp=7, 13, 48}}{{sfn|Kidd|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=--xZEAAAQBAJ 75–99]|loc=4. Misanthropy and the Hatred of Humanity}}

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Moral flaws are usually understood as tendencies to violate moral norms or as mistaken attitudes toward what is the good.{{sfn|Hurka|2020|loc=[https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/virtues-and-vices/v-2 Virtues and vices]}}{{sfn|Hurka|2001|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/THOVAH 195–212]}} They include cruelty, indifference to the suffering of others, selfishness, moral laziness, cowardice, injustice, greed, and ingratitude. The harm done because of these flaws can be divided into three categories: harm done directly to humans, harm done directly to other animals, and harm done indirectly to both humans and other animals by harming the environment. Examples of these categories include the Holocaust, factory farming of livestock, and pollution causing climate change.{{sfn|Benatar|2015|pp=39–48}}{{sfn|Kidd|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=--xZEAAAQBAJ 75–99]|loc=4. Misanthropy and the Hatred of Humanity}}{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=4–5}} In this regard, it is not just relevant that human beings cause these forms of harm but also that they are morally responsible for them. This is based on the idea that they can understand the consequences of their actions and could act differently. However, they decide not to, for example, because they ignore the long-term well-being of others in order to get short-term personal benefits.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=3, 5}}

Intellectual flaws concern cognitive capacities. They can be defined as what leads to false beliefs, what obstructs knowledge, or what violates the demands of rationality. They include intellectual vices, like arrogance, wishful thinking, and dogmatism. Further examples are stupidity, gullibility, and cognitive biases, like the confirmation bias, the self-serving bias, the hindsight bias, and the anchoring bias.{{sfn|Madison|2017|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/MADOTN 1–6]}}{{sfn|Litvak|Lerner|2009|pp=89–90|loc=cognitive bias}}{{sfn|Hurka|2020|loc=[https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/virtues-and-vices/v-2 Virtues and vices]}} Intellectual flaws can work in tandem with all kinds of vices: they may deceive someone about having a vice. This prevents the affected person from addressing it and improving themselves, for instance, by being mindless and failing to recognize it. They also include forms of self-deceit, wilful ignorance, and being in denial about something.{{sfn|Cooper|2018|pp=50–51}}{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|p=18}} Similar considerations have prompted some traditions to see intellectual failings, like ignorance, as the root of all evil.{{sfn|Hackforth|1946|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/HACMEA 118–]}}{{sfn|Menon|2023}}{{sfn|Mahathera|1964|loc=[https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/nyanatiloka/wheel394.html#ch2 II. Kamma and Rebirth]}}

Aesthetic flaws are usually not given the same importance as moral and intellectual flaws, but they also carry some weight for misanthropic considerations. These flaws relate to beauty and ugliness. They concern ugly aspects of human life itself, like defecation and aging. Other examples are ugliness caused by human activities, like pollution and litter, and inappropriate attitudes toward aesthetic aspects, like being insensitive to beauty.{{sfn|Benatar|2015|pp=56–58}}{{sfn|Cooper|2018|pp=7, 48}}{{sfn|Kidd|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=--xZEAAAQBAJ 75–99]|loc=4. Misanthropy and the Hatred of Humanity}}

Various psychological and social factors have been identified in the academic literature as possible causes of misanthropic sentiments. The individual factors by themselves may not be able to fully explain misanthropy but can show instead how it becomes more likely.{{sfn|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}} For example, disappointments and disillusionments in life can cause a person to adopt a misanthropic outlook.{{sfn|Harris|2022|p=195}}{{sfn|Chambers|1847|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6YNKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA191 191]}} In this regard, the more idealistic and optimistic the person initially was, the stronger this reversal and the following negative outlook tend to be.{{sfn|Harris|2022|p=195}} This type of psychological explanation is found as early as Plato's Phaedo. In it, Socrates considers a person who trusts and admires someone without knowing them sufficiently well. He argues that misanthropy may arise if it is discovered later that the admired person has serious flaws. In this case, the initial attitude is reversed and universalized to apply to all others, leading to general distrust and contempt toward other humans. Socrates argues that this becomes more likely if the admired person is a close friend and if it happens more than once.{{sfn|Shakespeare|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mcQ0AAAAQBAJ&pg=PT208 208]}}{{sfn|White|1989|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nsdfdzRSLYAC&pg=PA134 134]}} This form of misanthropy may be accompanied by a feeling of moral superiority in which the misanthrope considers themselves to be better than everyone else.{{sfn|Harris|2022|p=195}}

Other types of negative personal experiences in life may have a similar effect. Andrew Gibson uses this line of thought to explain why some philosophers became misanthropes. He uses the example of Thomas Hobbes to explain how a politically unstable environment and the frequent wars can foster a misanthropic attitude. Regarding Arthur Schopenhauer, he states that being forced to flee one's home at an early age and never finding a place to call home afterward can have a similar effect.{{sfn|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}}{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=98–9, 107–8}} Another psychological factor concerns negative attitudes toward the human body, especially in the form of general revulsion from sexuality.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=13, 119, 207}}{{sfn|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}}

Besides the psychological causes, some wider social circumstances may also play a role. Generally speaking, the more negative the circumstances are, the more likely misanthropy becomes.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=119}}{{sfn|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}} For instance, according to political scientist Eric M. Uslaner, socio-economic inequality in the form of unfair distribution of wealth increases the tendency to adopt a misanthropic perspective. This has to do with the fact that inequality tends to undermine trust in the government and others. Uslaner suggests that it may be possible to overcome or reduce this source of misanthropy by implementing policies that build trust and promote a more equal distribution of wealth.{{sfn|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}}{{sfn|Hooghe|Stolle|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lR3GAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA185 185]}} The political regime is another relevant factor. This specifically concerns authoritarian regimes using all means available to repress their population and stay in power.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=13, 62, 207}}{{sfn|Tsakalakis|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u8P4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT142 142]}} For example, it has been argued that the severe forms of repression of the Ancien Régime in the late 17th century made it more likely for people to adopt a misanthropic outlook because their freedom was denied.{{sfn|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}}{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=61, 207}} Democracy may have the opposite effect since it allows more personal freedom due to its more optimistic outlook on human nature.{{Sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=13, 62, 207}}{{sfn|Tsakalakis|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u8P4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT142 142]}}

Empirical studies often use questions related to trust in other people to measure misanthropy. This concerns specifically whether the person believes that others would be fair and helpful.{{sfn|Smith|1997|pp=170–196}}{{sfn|Rosenberg|1956|pp=690–695}} In an empirical study on misanthropy in American society, Tom W. Smith concludes that factors responsible for an increased misanthropic outlook are low socioeconomic status, being from racial and ethnic minorities, and having experienced recent negative events in one's life. In regard to religion, misanthropy is higher for people who do not attend church and for fundamentalists. Some factors seem to play no significant role, like gender, having undergone a divorce, and never having been married.{{sfn|Smith|1997|pp=170–196}} Another study by Morris Rosenberg finds that misanthropy is linked to certain political outlooks. They include being skeptical about free speech and a tendency to support authoritarian policies. This concerns, for example, tendencies to suppress political and religious liberties.{{sfn|Smith|1997|pp=170–196}}{{sfn|Rosenberg|1956|pp=690–695}}

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Various discussions in the academic literature concern the question of whether misanthropy is an accurate assessment of humanity and what the consequences of adopting it are. Many proponents of misanthropy focus on human flaws together with examples of when they exercise their negative influences. They argue that these flaws are so severe that misanthropy is an appropriate response.{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Cooper|2018|pp=4, 7, 54}} |2={{harvnb|Benatar|2015|p=55}} |3={{harvnb|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}} |4={{harvnb|Gibson|2017|p=13}} }}

Special importance in this regard is usually given to moral faults.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=3, 13}}{{sfn|Benatar|2015|p=55}}{{sfn|Kidd|2020b}} This is based on the idea that humans do not merely cause a great deal of suffering and destruction but are also morally responsible for them. The reason is that they are intelligent enough to understand the consequences of their actions and could potentially make balanced long-term decisions instead of focusing on personal short-term gains.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=3, 5}}

Proponents of misanthropy sometimes focus on extreme individual manifestations of human flaws, like mass killings ordered by dictators. Others emphasize that the problem is not limited to a few cases, for example, that many ordinary people are complicit in their manifestation by supporting the political leaders committing them.{{sfn|Benatar|2015|pp=37, 41–42}} A closely related argument is to claim that the underlying flaws are there in everyone, even if they reach their most extreme manifestation only in a few.{{sfn|Kidd|2020b}} Another approach is to focus not on the grand extreme cases but on the ordinary small-scale manifestations of human flaws in everyday life, such as lying, cheating, breaking promises, and being ungrateful.{{sfn|Benatar|2015|p=43}}{{sfn|Kidd|2020a|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/KIDHHN 505–508]}}

Some arguments for misanthropy focus not only on general tendencies but on actual damage caused by humans in the past.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=4–5}}{{sfn|Cooper|2018|p=80}}{{sfn|Benatar|2015|pp=38–9}} This concerns, for instance, damages done to the ecosystem, like ecological catastrophes resulting in mass extinctions.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=1, 5}}

Various theorists have criticized misanthropy. Some opponents acknowledge that there are extreme individual manifestations of human flaws, like mentally ill perpetrators, but claim that these cases do not reflect humanity at large and cannot justify the misanthropic attitude. For instance, while there are cases of extreme human brutality, like the mass killings committed by dictators and their forces, listing such cases is not sufficient for condemning humanity at large.{{sfn|Kidd|2020b}}{{sfn|Benatar|2015|pp=39–41}}

Some critics of misanthropy acknowledge that humans have various flaws but state that they present just one side of humanity while evaluative attitudes should take all sides into account. This line of thought is based on the idea that humans possess equally important virtues that make up for their shortcomings.{{sfn|Benatar|2015|pp=51–52}} For example, accounts that focus only on the great wars, cruelties, and tragedies in human history ignore its positive achievements in the sciences, arts, and humanities.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=64}}

Another explanation given by critics is that the negative assessment should not be directed at humanity but at some social forces. These forces can include capitalism, communism, patriarchy, racism, religious fundamentalism, or imperialism.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=13, 69}} Supporters of this argument would adopt an opposition to one of these social forces rather than a misanthropic opposition to humanity.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=69–70}}

Some objections to misanthropy are based not on whether this attitude appropriately reflects the negative value of humanity but on the costs of accepting such a position. The costs can affect both the individual misanthrope and the society at large. This is especially relevant if misanthropy is linked to hatred, which may turn easily into violence against social institutions and other humans and may result in harm.{{sfn|McGraw|2014|pp=[https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/48504306.pdf 1–2]|loc=1. Introduction}} Misanthropy may also deprive the person of most pleasures by making them miserable and friendless.{{sfn|Shklar|1984|loc=5. Misanthropy (p. 192)}}

Another form of criticism focuses more on the theoretical level and claims that misanthropy is an inconsistent and self-contradictory position.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=4–5}}{{sfn|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}} An example of this inconsistency is the misanthrope's tendency to denounce the social world while still being engaged in it and being unable to fully leave it behind.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=4, 60}} This criticism applies specifically to misanthropes who exclude themselves from the negative evaluation and look down on others with contempt from an arrogant position of inflated ego but it may not apply to all types of misanthropy.{{sfn|Harris|2022|pp=202–2}}{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=63}}{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|p=8}} A closely related objection is based on the claim that misanthropy is an unnatural attitude and should therefore be seen as an aberration or a pathological case.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=65}}

Misanthropy has been discussed and exemplified by philosophers throughout history. One of the earliest cases was the pre-Socratic philosopher Heraclitus. He is often characterized as a solitary person who is not fond of social interactions with others. A central factor to his negative outlook on human beings was their lack of comprehension of the true nature of reality. This concerns especially cases in which they remain in a state of ignorance despite having received a thorough explanation of the issue in question.{{sfn|Moyal|1989|pp=[http://www.jstor.org/stable/24353851 131–148]}}{{sfn|Mark|2010}}{{sfn|Ava|2004|p=80}} Another early discussion is found in Plato's Phaedo, where misanthropy is characterized as the result of frustrated expectations and excessively naïve optimism.{{sfn|Stern|1993|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nJAFnvm2fg4C 95]}}{{sfn|Shakespeare|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mcQ0AAAAQBAJ&pg=PT208 208]}}{{sfn|White|1989|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nsdfdzRSLYAC&pg=PA134 134]}}

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Various reflections on misanthropy are also found in the cynic school of philosophy. There it is argued, for instance, that humans keep on reproducing and multiplying the evils they are attempting to flee. An example given by the first-century philosopher Dio Chrysostom is that humans move to cities to defend themselves against outsiders but this process thwarts their initial goal by leading to even more violence due to high crime rates within the city. Diogenes is a well-known cynic misanthrope. He saw other people as hypocritical and superficial. He openly rejected all kinds of societal norms and values, often provoking others by consciously breaking conventions and behaving rudely.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=14–6}}{{sfn|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}}{{sfn|Arruzza|Nikulin|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yLWPDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA119 119]}}

Thomas Hobbes is an example of misanthropy in early modern philosophy. His negative outlook on humanity is reflected in many of his works. For him, humans are egoistic and violent: they act according to their self-interest and are willing to pursue their goals at the expense of others. In their natural state, this leads to a never-ending war in which "every man to every man ... is an enemy". He saw the establishment of an authoritative state characterized by the strict enforcement of laws to maintain order as the only way to tame the violent human nature and avoid perpetual war.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=93, 95, 98}}{{sfn|Williams|2023}}{{sfn|Byrne|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FcEy8SF63TgC&pg=PA112 112]}}

A further type of misanthropy is found in Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He idealizes the harmony and simplicity found in nature and contrasts them with the confusion and disorder found in humanity, especially in the form of society and institutions.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=110–1}}{{sfn|Cooper|2018|p=19}}{{sfn|King|1993|pp=58–9}} For instance, he claims that "Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains".{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=112}}{{sfn|Williams|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nsRrONAvdnYC&pg=PA147 147]}} This negative outlook was also reflected in his lifestyle: he lived solitary and preferred to be with plants rather than humans.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=111}}

Arthur Schopenhauer is often mentioned as a prime example of misanthropy.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=12, 15}}{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=101}} According to him, everything in the world, including humans and their activities, is an expression of one underlying will. This will is blind, which causes it to continuously engage in futile struggles. On the level of human life, this "presents itself as a continual deception" since it is driven by pointless desires. They are mostly egoistic and often result in injustice and suffering to others. Once they are satisfied, they only give rise to new pointless desires and more suffering.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=101–3}}{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=15–6}}{{sfn|Troxell|2023}} In this regard, Schopenhauer dismisses most things that are typically considered precious or meaningful in human life, like romantic love, individuality, and liberty.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=104–5}} He holds that the best response to the human condition is a form of asceticism by denying the expression of the will. This is only found in rare humans and "the dull majority of men" does not live up to this ideal.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=105–6}}

Friedrich Nietzsche, who was strongly influenced by Schopenhauer, is also often cited as an example of misanthropy. He saw man as a decadent and "sick animal" that shows no progress over other animals.{{sfn|Cooper|2018|p=2}}{{sfn|Villa|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Wc3xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 127]}}{{sfn|Wilkerson|2023}} He even expressed a negative attitude toward apes since they are more similar to human beings than other animals, for example, with regard to cruelty.{{sfn|Cooper|2018|p=62}} For Nietzsche, a noteworthy flaw of human beings is their tendency to create and enforce systems of moral rules that favor weak people and suppress true greatness.{{sfn|Villa|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Wc3xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 127]}}{{sfn|Solomon|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VuQiiM-ntHwC&pg=PA67 67]}} He held that the human being is something to be overcome and used the term Übermensch to describe an ideal individual who has transcended traditional moral and societal norms.{{sfn|Shaw|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_ic9EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR32 xxxii]}}{{sfn|Grillaert|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7YFFSa5YE5wC&pg=PA245 245]}}

File:Michiel Coxie - Original Sin - WGA05581.jpg, the original sin of Adam and Eve is responsible when they ate from the forbidden tree.]]

Some misanthropic views are also found in religious teachings. In Christianity, for instance, this is linked to the sinful nature of humans and the widespread manifestation of sin in everyday life.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=28–9}} Common forms of sin are discussed in terms of the seven deadly sins. Examples are an excessive sense of self-importance in the form of pride and strong sexual cravings constituting lust. They also include the tendency to follow greed for material possessions as well as being envious of the possessions of others.{{sfn|Kastenbaum|2003|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/christianity/christianity-general/seven-deadly-sins Seven Deadly Sins]}} According to the doctrine of original sin, this flaw is found in every human being since the doctrine states that human nature is already tainted by sin from birth by inheriting it from Adam and Eve's rebellion against God's authority.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=28–9}}{{sfn|Hale|Thorson|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=c91CuCqCM80C&pg=PT54 46]}} John Calvin's theology of Total depravity has been described by some theologians as misanthropic.{{sfn|Sarvis|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bwiaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8]}}{{sfn|Alger|1882|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cSFOAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA109 109]}}{{sfn|Goodliff|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sdXYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 108]}}

Misanthropic perspectives can also be discerned in various Buddhist teachings. For example, Buddha had a negative outlook on the widespread flaws of human beings, including lust, hatred, delusion, sorrow, and despair.{{sfn|Cooper|2018|p=4}} These flaws are identified with some form of craving or attachment (taṇhā) and cause suffering (dukkha).{{sfn|Cooper|2018|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Morgan|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2vgbURej-qAC&pg=PA91 91]}} Buddhists hold that it is possible to overcome these failings in the process of achieving Buddhahood or enlightenment. However, this is seen as a difficult achievement, meaning that these failings apply to most human beings.{{sfn|Cooper|2018|p=56}}

However, there are also many religious teachings opposed to misanthropy, such as the emphasis on kindness and helping others. In Christianity, this is found in the concept of agape, which involves selfless and unconditional love in the form of compassion and a willingness to help others.{{sfn|Catholic University of America|1967|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/christianity/early-christianity/agape Agape]}} Buddhists see the practice of loving kindness (metta) as a central aspect that implies a positive intention of compassion and the expression of kindness toward all sentient beings.{{sfn|Aung|1996|p=E12}}{{sfn|Morgan|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2vgbURej-qAC&pg=PA138 138]}}

Many examples of misanthropy are also found in literature and popular culture. Timon of Athens by William Shakespeare is a famous portrayal of the life of the Ancient Greek Timon, who is widely known for his extreme misanthropic attitude. Shakespeare depicts him as a wealthy and generous gentleman. However, he becomes disillusioned with his ungrateful friends and humanity at large. This way, his initial philanthropy turns into an unrestrained hatred of humanity, which prompts him to leave society in order to live in a forest.{{sfn|Harris|2022|pp=27–30}}{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=1–2}} Molière's play The Misanthrope is another famous example. Its protagonist, Alceste, has a low opinion of the people around him. He tends to focus on their flaws and openly criticizes them for their superficiality, insincerity, and hypocrisy. He rejects most social conventions and thereby often offends others, for example, by refusing to engage in social niceties like polite small talk.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=2–4}}{{sfn|Harris|2022|p=58}}{{sfn|Hawcroft|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ewxREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA132 132]}}

File:Portrait of Jonathan Swift - Francis Bindon .PNG

The author Jonathan Swift had a reputation for being misanthropic. In some statements, he openly declares that he hates and detests "that animal called man".{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=14}} Misanthropy is also found in many of his works. An example is Gulliver's Travels, which tells the adventures of the protagonist Gulliver, who journeys to various places, like an island inhabited by tiny people and a land ruled by intelligent horses. Through these experiences of the contrast between humans and other species, he comes to see more and more the deep flaws of humanity, leading him to develop a revulsion toward other human beings.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=84–5}}{{sfn|Jan|Firdaus|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=diLPYfA--XMC&pg=PA115 115]}} Ebenezer Scrooge from Charles Dickens's A Christmas Carol is an often-cited example of misanthropy. He is described as a cold-hearted, solitary miser who detests Christmas. He is greedy, selfish, and has no regard for the well-being of others.{{sfn|Moore|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lfmqz6ybAVEC&pg=PA16 16]}}{{sfn|Pirson|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3YswDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 58]}}{{sfn|Cornog|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cyD059eY2RYC&pg=PA357 357]}} Other writers associated with misanthropy include Gustave Flaubert and Philip Larkin.{{sfn|Steegmuller|1982|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vFzQdS8N_5IC&pg=PR14 xiv]}}{{sfn|Raban|1992}}

The Joker from the DC Universe is an example of misanthropy in popular culture. He is one of the main antagonists of Batman and acts as an agent of chaos. He believes that people are selfish, cruel, irrational, and hypocritical. He is usually portrayed as a sociopath with a twisted sense of humor who uses violent means to expose and bring down organized society.{{sfn|Lee|Bird|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pHwCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA164 164]}}{{sfn|Donohoo|2023}}{{sfn|Bolus|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7bamDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 24]}}

Misanthropy is closely related but not identical to philosophical pessimism. Philosophical pessimism is the view that life is not worth living or that the world is a bad place, for example, because it is meaningless and full of suffering.{{sfn|Smith|2014|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/SMIPPA-6 1–3]|loc=Introduction}}{{sfn|Jenkins|2020|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/JENTPO-28 20–41]}} This view is exemplified by Arthur Schopenhauer and Philipp Mainländer.{{sfn|Fernández|2006|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/FERSP-2 646–664]}} Philosophical pessimism is often accompanied by misanthropy if the proponent holds that humanity is also bad and partially responsible for the negative value of the world. However, the two views do not require each other and can be held separately.{{sfn|Kidd|2020b}}{{sfn|Cooper|2018|pp=5–6}} A non-misanthropic pessimist may hold, for instance, that humans are just victims of a terrible world but not to blame for it. Eco-misanthropists, by contrast, may claim that the world and its nature are valuable but that humanity exerts a negative and destructive influence.{{sfn|Kidd|2020b}}{{sfn|Gerber|2002|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/GERWIS-3 41–55]}}

{{quote box|align=right|width=25em|quote=Humanity is a moral disaster. There would have been much less destruction had we never evolved. The fewer humans there are in the future, the less destruction there will still be.|source=—David Benatar, "The Misanthropic Argument for Anti-natalism"{{sfn|Benatar|2015|p=55}}}}

Antinatalism is the view that coming into existence is bad and that humans have a duty to abstain from procreation.{{sfn|Metz|2012|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/METAFD 1–9]}}{{sfn|Benatar|2015|pp=34–35}} A central argument for antinatalism is called the misanthropic argument. It sees the deep flaws of humans and their tendency to cause harm as a reason for avoiding the creation of more humans.{{sfn|Benatar|2015|pp=55–56}}{{sfn|Benatar|2015a}} These harms include wars, genocides, factory farming, and damages done to the environment.{{sfn|May|2018}}{{sfn|Benatar|2015|pp=39, 44, 48}} This argument contrasts with philanthropic arguments, which focus on the future suffering of the human about to come into existence. They argue that the only way to avoid their future suffering is to prevent them from being born.{{sfn|Benatar|2015|pp=55–56}}{{sfn|Benatar|2015a}}{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|p=14}} The Voluntary Human Extinction Movement and the Church of Euthanasia are well-known examples of social movements in favor of antinatalism and human extinction.{{sfn|Stibbe|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=crjlCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 13]}}{{sfn|MacCormack|2020|p=143}}

Antinatalism is commonly endorsed by misanthropic thinkers.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|p=14}} However, there are numerous other ways that could lead to the involuntary extinction of the human species, with various suggestions having been made about threats to the long-term survival of the human species, including nuclear wars, self-replicating nanorobots, or super-pathogens.{{sfn|Bostrom|2003|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/extinction-human Extinction, Human]}}{{sfn|Leslie|1998|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=books&pg=PA25 25–26]}}{{sfn|Gordijn|Cutter|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Q0u6BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 123]}} While such cases can be seen as terrible scenarios for all life, misanthropes may instead interpret them as reasons for hope that the dominance of humanity in history will eventually come to an end.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|p=107}} A similar sentiment is expressed by Bertrand Russell. He states in relation to the existence of human life on earth and its misdeeds that they are "a passing nightmare; in time the earth will become again incapable of supporting life, and peace will return."{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=107–108}}

Human exceptionalism is the claim that human beings have unique importance and are exceptional compared to all other species. It is often based on the claim that they stand out because of their special capacities, like intelligence, rationality, and autonomy.{{sfn|Srinivasan|Kasturirangan|2016|pp=126–227}} In religious contexts, it is frequently explained in relation to a unique role that God foresaw for them or that they were created in God's image.{{sfn|Durst|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=books&pg=PA1 1]}} Human exceptionalism is usually combined with the claim that human well-being matters more than the well-being of other species. This line of thought can be used to draw various ethical conclusions. One is the claim that humans have the right to rule the planet and impose their will on other species. Another is that inflicting harm on other species may be morally acceptable if it is done with the purpose of promoting human well-being and excellence.{{sfn|Srinivasan|Kasturirangan|2016|pp=126–227}}{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|p=9}}

Generally speaking, the position of human exceptionalism is at odds with misanthropy in relation to the value of humanity.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|p=9}} But this is not necessarily the case and it may be possible to hold both positions at the same time. One way to do this is to claim that humanity is exceptional because of a few rare individuals but that the average person is bad.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=64–65}} Another approach is to hold that human beings are exceptional in a negative sense: given their destructive and harmful history, they are much worse than any other species.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|p=9}}

Theorists in the field of deep ecology are also often critical of human exceptionalism and tend to favor a misanthropic perspective.{{sfn|Malone|Truong|Gray|2017}}{{sfn|Sale|1988}} Deep ecology is a philosophical and social movement that stresses the inherent value of nature and advocates a radical change in human behavior toward nature.{{sfn|Ball|2011}} Various theorists have criticized deep ecology based on the claim that it is misanthropic by privileging other species over humans.{{sfn|Sale|1988}} For example, the deep ecology movement Earth First! faced severe criticism when they praised the AIDS epidemic in Africa as a solution to the problem of human overpopulation in their newsletter.{{sfn|Hay|2002|p=66}}{{sfn|Taylor|2005}}

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}

• Asociality – lack of motivation to engage in social interaction
• Antihumanism – rejection of humanism
• Antisocial personality disorder
• Cosmicism
• Emotional isolation
• Hatred (video game)
• Nihilism
• Social alienation

{{div col end}}

{{Reflist|23em}}

{{refbegin|30em}}

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• {{cite journal |last1=Kidd |first1=Ian James |title=Philosophical Misanthropy |website=philosophynow.org |date=2020b |issue=139 |url=https://philosophynow.org/issues/139/Philosophical_Misanthropy }}
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• {{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Judith Yaross |last2=Bird |first2=John |title=Seeing MAD: Essays on MAD Magazine's Humor and Legacy |date=16 November 2020 |publisher=University of Missouri Press |isbn=9780826274489 |page=164 |language=en }}
• {{cite book |last1=Leslie |first1=John |title=The end of the world: the science and ethics of human extinction |date=1998 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0203007727 |pages=25–26 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Lim |first1=Song Hwee |title=Celluloid Comrades: Representations of Male Homosexuality in Contemporary Chinese Cinemas |date=31 August 2006 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=9780824830779 |page=167 |language=en }}
• {{cite book |last1=Litvak |first1=P. |last2=Lerner |first2=J. S. |editor1-last=Sander |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Scherer |editor2-first=Klaus |title=The Oxford companion to emotion and the affective sciences |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0198569633 |pages=89–90 |chapter=cognitive bias }}
• {{cite book |last=MacCormack |first=Patricia |title=The Ahuman Manifesto: Activism for the End of the Anthropocene |date=2020 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1350081093 |page=143 |author-link=Patricia MacCormack }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Madison |first1=B. J. C. |title=On the Nature of Intellectual Vice |journal=Social Epistemology Review and Reply Collective |date=2017 |volume=6 |issue=12 |pages=1–6 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/MADOTN }}
• {{cite book |last1=Mahathera |first1=Nyanatiloka |title=Karma and Rebirth |date=1964 |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/nyanatiloka/wheel394.html#ch2 |language=en |chapter=II. Kamma and Rebirth }}
• {{cite book |last1=Malone |first1=Karen |last2=Truong |first2=Son |last3=Gray |first3=Tonia |title=Reimagining Sustainability in Precarious Times |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-9811025501 |language=en }}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Mark |first=Joshua J. |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Heraclitus_of_Ephesos/ |title=Heraclitus of Ephesus |encyclopedia=World History Encyclopedia |date=2010-07-14 |access-date=2017-12-08 }}
• {{cite news |last=May |first=Todd |author-link=Todd May (philosopher) |date=December 17, 2018 |title=Would Human Extinction Be a Tragedy? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/17/opinion/human-extinction-climate-change.html |quote=Human beings are destroying large parts of the inhabitable earth and causing unimaginable suffering to many of the animals that inhabit it. This is happening through at least three means. First, human contribution to climate change is devastating ecosystems .... Second, the increasing human population is encroaching on ecosystems that would otherwise be intact. Third, factory farming fosters the creation of millions upon millions of animals for whom it offers nothing but suffering and misery before slaughtering them in often barbaric ways. There is no reason to think that those practices are going to diminish any time soon. Quite the opposite. }}
• {{cite book |last1=McGraw |first1=Shannon |title=Misanthropy and Criminal Behavior |date=2014 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/48504306.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185435/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/48504306.pdf |archive-date=2021-07-09 |url-status=live |chapter=1. Introduction |pages=1–2 }}
• {{cite web |last1=Menon |first1=Sangeetha |title=Vedanta, Advaita |url=https://iep.utm.edu/adv-veda/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=3 July 2021 |date=2023 }}
• {{cite web |title=Definition of Misanthropy |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/misanthropy |website=www.merriam-webster.com |access-date=5 July 2021 |language=en |author=Merriam-Webster staff |date=2023 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Metz |first1=Thaddeus |title=Contemporary Anti-Natalism, Featuring Benatar's Better Never to Have Been |journal=South African Journal of Philosophy |date=2012 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1080/02580136.2012.10751763 |s2cid=143091736 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/METAFD }}
• {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Grace |title=A Christmas Carol: Insight Text Guides |date=2011 |publisher=Insight Publications |isbn=9781921411915 |page=16 |language=en }}
• {{cite book |last1=Morgan |first1=Diane |title=Essential Buddhism: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice |date=2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9780313384523 |language=en }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Moyal |first1=Georges J.D. |title=On Heraclitus's Misanthropy |journal=Revue de Philosophie Ancienne |date=1989 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=131–148 |jstor=24353851 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/24353851 |issn=0771-5420 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Navia |first1=Luis E. |title=Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study |date=1996 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=9780313300158 |language=en }}
• {{cite web |title=misanthropy |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/misanthropy |website=www.etymonline.com |access-date=21 July 2021 |language=en |author=OED staff |date=2019 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Pirson |first1=Michael |title=Humanistic Management: Protecting Dignity and Promoting Well-Being |date=14 September 2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107160729 |page=58 |language=en }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Querido |first1=Pedro |title=Andrew Gibson, Misanthropy: The Critique of Humanity |journal=Comparative Critical Studies |date=February 2020 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=152–7 |doi=10.3366/ccs.2020.0349 |hdl=10451/46707 |s2cid=216373633 |language=en |issn=1744-1854 |hdl-access=free }}
• {{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books-mr-miseryguts-philip-larkins-letters-show-all-the-grim-humour-that-was-a-hallmark-of-his-great-1558190.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220515/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books-mr-miseryguts-philip-larkins-letters-show-all-the-grim-humour-that-was-a-hallmark-of-his-great-1558190.html |archive-date=2022-05-15 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Books: Mr Miseryguts: Philip Larkin's letters show all the grim humor that was a hallmark of his great poems, but, as the years pass, they also chart the true depths of his misanthropy and despair |last=Raban |first=Jonathan |newspaper=The Independent |date=October 17, 1992 |access-date=June 18, 2017 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Rosenberg |first1=Morris |title=Misanthropy and Political Ideology |journal=American Sociological Review |date=December 1956 |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=690–695 |doi=10.2307/2088419 |jstor=2088419 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Sale |first1=Kirkpatrick |title=Deep Ecology And Its Critics |journal=The Nation |date=14 May 1988 |url=http://www.profcohen.net/reli151/uploads/texts/sale1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006081914/http://www.profcohen.net/reli151/uploads/texts/sale1.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-06 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite book |last1=Sarvis |first1=W. |title=Embracing Philanthropic Environmentalism: The Grand Responsibility of Stewardship |publisher=McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-4766-7736-1 |page=8 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Sawaya |first1=Francesca |title=The Difficult Art of Giving: Patronage, Philanthropy, and the American Literary Market |date=15 July 2014 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=9780812290035 |page=207 |language=en }}
• {{cite book |last1=Shakespeare |first1=William |title=Timon of Athens |date=3 April 2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139835114 |page=208 |language=en }}
• {{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=George Bernard |title=Man and Superman, John Bull's Other Island, and Major Barbara |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198828853 |page=xxxii |language=en }}
• {{cite book |last1=Shklar |first1=Judith N. |title=Ordinary Vices |date=1984 |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |chapter=5. Misanthropy |page=192 |isbn=978-0674641754 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Cameron |title=Philosophical Pessimism: A Study In The Philosophy Of Arthur Schopenhauer |date=2014 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/SMIPPA-6 |chapter=Introduction |pages=1–3 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Tom W. |title=Factors Relating to Misanthropy in Contemporary American Society |journal=Social Science Research |date=June 1997 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=170–196 |doi=10.1006/ssre.1997.0592 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Solomon |first1=Robert C. |title=In Defense of Sentimentality |date=26 August 2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198033288 |page=67 |language=en }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Srinivasan |first1=Krithika |last2=Kasturirangan |first2=Rajesh |title=Political ecology, development, and human exceptionalism |journal=Geoforum |date=October 2016 |volume=75 |pages=126–227 |doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2016.07.011 |hdl=20.500.11820/92518b23-6ace-42ed-852a-1cf93f65a898 |s2cid=148390374 |hdl-access=free }}
• {{cite book |title=The Letters of Gustave Flaubert: 1857-1880 |page=xiv |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=1982 |isbn=0674526406 |editor1-last=Steegmuller |editor1-first=Francis }}
• {{cite book |last=Stern |first=Paul |title=Socratic Rationalism and Political Philosophy: An Interpretation of Plato's Phaedo |year=1993 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=9780791415733 |page=95 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Stibbe |first1=Arran |title=Ecolinguistics: Language, Ecology and the Stories We Live By |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1317511908 |page=13 |language=en }}
• {{cite book |last1=Svoboda |first1=Toby |title=A Philosophical Defense of Misanthropy |date=29 April 2022 |publisher=Taylor & Francis Limited |isbn=9781032029986 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/SVOAPD |language=en }}
• {{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Bron |editor1-last=Jones |editor1-first=Lindsay |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |date=2005 |publisher=Macmillan Reference |isbn=978-0028657349 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/earth-first-0 |language=en }}
• {{cite web |last1=Troxell |first1=Mary |title=Schopenhauer, Arthur |url=https://iep.utm.edu/schopenh/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=8 January 2023 |date=2023 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Tsakalakis |first1=Thomas |title=Political Correctness: A Sociocultural Black Hole |date=15 October 2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781000205084 |language=en }}
• {{cite book |last1=Villa |first1=Dana |title=Socratic Citizenship |date=1 September 2020 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691218175 |page=127 |language=en }}
• {{cite book |last1=White |first1=David A. |title=Myth and Metaphysics in Plato's Phaedo |date=1989 |publisher=Susquehanna University Press |isbn=9780945636014 |page=134 |language=en }}
• {{cite book |last1=Wilford |first1=Paul T. |last2=Stoner |first2=Samuel A. |title=Kant and the Possibility of Progress: From Modern Hopes to Postmodern Anxieties |date=4 June 2021 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=9780812297799 |pages=42–3 |language=en }}
• {{cite web |last1=Wilkerson |first1=Dale |title=Nietzsche, Friedrich: 1. Life |url=https://iep.utm.edu/nietzsch/#H1 |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=8 January 2023 |date=2023 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=David Lay |title=Rousseau's Platonic Enlightenment |date=1 November 2010 |publisher=Penn State Press |isbn=9780271045511 |page=147 |language=en }}
• {{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=Garrath |title=Hobbes, Thomas: Moral and Political Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=8 January 2023 |date=2023 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Yeroulanos |first1=Marinos |title=A Dictionary of Classical Greek Quotations |date=30 June 2016 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=9781786730497 |page=203 |language=en }}

{{refend}}

{{Commons category|Misanthropy}}

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{{Philosophical pessimism}}

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