Ne Win

Ne Win's date of birth is a subject of debate among various sources. The English-language publication Who's Who in Burma, published in 1961 by People's Literature House, Rangoon, lists Ne Win's birthdate as 14 May 1911.{{Sfn|Taylor|2015|pp=7–9}} This date is also supported by Dr. Maung Maung in the Burmese version of his book Burma and General Ne Win, also published in English, that Ne Win was born on 14 May 1911.Ne Win was known as described as the leader of Myanmar and there are two assumptions of his birth.({{Harvard citation no brackets|Taylor|2015|pp=3–4}}) However, in a book written in Burmese titled The Thirty Comrades, the author Kyaw Nyein gave Ne Win's date of birth as 10 July 1910.{{Sfn|Mya|1992|pp=1–2}} While 24 May 1911 is widely cited as Ne Win's birthdate in many scholarly works and biographical references, the discrepancies among sources warrant acknowledgment. These conflicting accounts highlight the challenges in determining Ne Win's exact birthdate and may stem from differences in historical documentation or cultural interpretations. Therefore, while 24 May 1911 is commonly accepted, alternative dates cannot be disregarded entirely.{{Cite web |title=U Ne Win (born May 24, 1911, Paungdale, Burma [Myanmar]—died December 5, 2002, Yangon, Myanmar) Burmese general who was the leader of Burma (now Myanmar) from 1962 to 1988. |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/U-Ne-Win |website=Britannica|date=28 March 2024 }}

File:David Ben Gurion - General Ne Win PM of Burma 1959.jpg, the Prime Minister of Israel and General Ne Win as Prime Minister of Burma on 8 June 1959]]

Kyaw Nyein's date of 1910 can be considered as the more plausible date. First, Kyaw Nyein had access to historical records and he interviewed many surviving members of the Thirty Comrades when he wrote the book in the mid-to late 1990s.{{Sfn|Taylor|2015|pp=13–15}} (Ne Win was one of the Thirty Comrades who secretly went to undergo military training in the early 1940s for the purpose of fighting for independence from the British).{{Sfn|Maung|1965|p=9}} In his book published around 1998, Kyaw Nyein lists the names of the surviving members of the Thirty Comrades whom he had interviewed, although Ne Win was not mentioned among them.{{Sfn|Mya|1992|pp=4–8}} Secondly, when Ne Win died on 5 December 2002, the Burmese language newspapers that were allowed to carry a paid obituary stated the age of 'U Ne Win' to be '93 years'.The age of the Myanmar's dictator may be 93 years.{{Harvard citation no brackets|Taylor|2015|p=74}} According to Burmese custom, a person's age is their age upon their next birthday.{{Cite book|last=Maung (U)|first=Maung|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hTtuAAAAMAAJ|title=Burma and General Ne Win|date=1969|publisher=Asia Publishing House|isbn=978-0-210-98196-2|pages=34–35|language=en|access-date=18 November 2020|archive-date=18 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318201336/https://books.google.com/books?id=hTtuAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}} Since Ne Win turned 92 in July 2002, when he died in December 2002 he was considered to be 93 years old.{{Cite journal|last=Butwell|first=Richard|date=1972|title=Ne Win's Burma: At the End of the First Decade|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2643067|journal=Asian Survey|volume=12|issue=10|pages=901–912|doi=10.2307/2643067|jstor=2643067|issn=0004-4687|access-date=7 November 2020|archive-date=7 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207115536/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2643067|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} Most Western news agencies, based on the May 1911 birth date, reported that Ne Win was 91 years old, but the obituary put up by his family (most probably his children) stated that he was 93 years old, which most likely stems from East Asian age reckoning.{{Cite web|title=Ne Win|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110810105500370|access-date=7 November 2020|website=Oxford Reference|language=en|archive-date=18 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318105947/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110810105500370|url-status=live}}

Ne Win, born Shu Maung, was born into an ethnic Burman family in a small village near Paungdale about {{convert|200|miles}} north of Rangoon.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/dec/06/guardianobituaries|title=General Ne Win|last=Smith|first=Martin|date=6 December 2002|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=8 April 2012|archive-date=18 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118073618/https://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/dec/06/guardianobituaries|url-status=live}} Research by renowned Burma scholar Robert Taylor finds rumors of Ne Win having full or partial Chinese ancestry unsubstantiated. His family and colleagues have repeatedly denied Ne Win had any Chinese ancestry.{{sfn|Taylor|2015}}{{pn|date=March 2025}} He spent two years at Rangoon University beginning in 1929, and took biology as his main subject with hopes of becoming a doctor. In 1931 he was expelled from the university after he failed an exam.{{cite book |last= Shaw |first= Karl |title= Power Mad! |trans-title=Šílenství mocných |year= 2005 |orig-year= 2004 |publisher=Metafora |location= Praha |language= cs |isbn=80-7359-002-6 |page= 44 }} Ne Win eventually became "Thakin Shu Maung", or a member of the nationalist organisation Dobama Asiayone (We Burmans Association). Other members of the group included Aung San and U Nu.{{Sfn|Maung|1965|pp=3–4}} In 1941 Ne Win, as a member of the Ba Sein-Tun Ok (Socialist) faction of the Dobama, was one of thirty young men chosen for military training by the Japanese operative Colonel Suzuki Keiji.{{Cite news|last=Smith|first=Martin|date=6 December 2002|title=Obituary: General Ne Win|language=en-GB|page=2|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/dec/06/guardianobituaries|access-date=7 November 2020|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=18 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118073618/https://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/dec/06/guardianobituaries|url-status=live}} Their leader was Aung San and they formed the Burma Independence Army (BIA).{{cn|date=April 2022}} During military training, Shu Maung chose a nom de guerre, Bo Ne Win (Commander Radiant Sun).{{Sfn|Taylor|2015|p=23}} In early 1942 the Japanese Army and the BIA entered Burma in the wake of the retreating British forces. Ne Win's role in the campaign was to organize resistance behind the British lines.{{Sfn|Maung|1965|p=14}}

The experience of the Japanese occupation of Burma worked to alienate the nationalists as well as the population at large. Toward the end of the Second World War, on 27 March 1945 the Burma National Army (BNA, successor to the BIA) turned against the Japanese following the British re-invasion of Burma.{{Sfn|Can-pati|1965|pp=45–49}} Ne Win, as one of the BNA Commanders, was quick to establish links with the British – attending the Kandy conference in Ceylon and taking charge of the anti-Communist operations in the Pyinmana area as commander of the 4th Burma Rifles after the Red Flag Communists and the Communist Party of Burma went underground to fight against the government in October 1946 and on 28 March 1948 respectively.{{Sfn|Can-pati|1965|pp=56–57}} Burma obtained independence on 4 January 1948, and for the first 14 years it had a parliamentary and democratic government mainly under Prime Minister U Nu, but the country was riven with political division.{{Cite journal|last=Razvi|first=Mujtaba|title=The Problem of the Burmese Muslims|date=1978|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41394695|journal=Pakistan Horizon|volume=31|issue=4|pages=82–93|jstor=41394695|issn=0030-980X|access-date=17 November 2020|archive-date=25 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325134706/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41394695|url-status=live}} Even before independence, Aung San was assassinated together with six of his cabinet members on 19 July 1947; U Saw, a pre-war prime minister and political rival of Aung San, was found guilty of the crime and executed.{{Sfn|Yawnghwe|1990|p=130}} U Nu as leader of the Socialists took charge of the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL) formed by the Communists, Socialists and the BNA in 1945 now that Aung San was dead and the Communists expelled from the AFPFL.{{Sfn|Taylor|2015|pp=34–39}}

Following independence there were uprisings in the army and among ethnic minority groups. In late 1948, after a confrontation between army rivals, Ne Win was appointed second in command of the army and his rival Bo Zeya, a communist commander and fellow member of the Thirty Comrades, took a portion of the army into rebellion.{{Sfn|Maung|1965|p=76}} Ne Win immediately adopted a policy of creating Socialist militia battalions called 'Sitwundan' under his personal command with the approval of U Nu.{{Sfn|Mya|1992|p=23}} On 31 January 1949, Ne Win was appointed Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces (Tatmadaw) and given total control of the army, replacing General Smith Dun, an ethnic Karen. He rebuilt and restructured the armed forces along the ruling Socialist Party's political lines, but the country was still split and the government was ineffective.{{Sfn|Yawnghwe|1990|pp=29–31}} He was Minister of Defense from April 1949 to September 1950.{{cite book |last1=Bidwell |first1=Robin Leonard |title=Guide to government ministers |date=1974 |publisher=F. Cass |location=London |isbn=0714630179}}

He was asked to serve as interim prime minister from 28 October 1958 by U Nu, when the AFPFL split into two factions and U Nu barely survived a motion of no-confidence against his government in parliament. Ne Win restored order during the period known as the "Ne Win caretaker government".{{cite book | editor=Nicholas Tarling | editor-link=Nicholas Tarling | year=1993 | title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia | url=https://archive.org/details/chronologyorigi01munsgoog | isbn=0-521-35505-2 }} Elections were held in February 1960 and Ne Win handed back power to the victorious U Nu on 4 April 1960.{{Cite web|title=U Nu {{!}} prime minister of Myanmar|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/U-Nu|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907211143/https://www.britannica.com/biography/U-Nu|archive-date=7 September 2015|access-date=17 November 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}} [https://biography.yourdictionary.com/u-nu Alt URL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127025239/https://biography.yourdictionary.com/u-nu |date=27 November 2020 }}

{{main article|1962 Burmese coup d'état}}

On 2 March 1962, Ne Win again seized power in a coup d'état. He became head of state as Chairman of the Union Revolutionary Council and also Prime Minister and Minister of Defense. The coup was characterized as "bloodless" by the world's media. Declaring that "parliamentary democracy was not suitable for Burma," the new regime suspended the constitution and dissolved the legislature.Aung-Thwin, Michael; Aung-Thwin, Maitrii (2013). [https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/distributed/H/bo13235575.html A history of Myanmar since ancient times: Traditions and transformations (2nd ed.)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123211257/https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/distributed/H/bo13235575.html |date=23 January 2021 }}. p. 247 London, UK: Reaktion Books. {{ISBN|1861899017}}.

Following riots at Rangoon University in July 1962, troops were sent to restore order. They fired on protesters and destroyed the student union building.Boudreau, Vincent (2004) Resisting Dictatorship: Repression and Protest in Southeast Asia Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZpoCNHhUe7QC&pg=PA37 pp. 37–39, 50–51], {{ISBN|0-521-83989-0}}

Shortly afterward, around 8 pm local time, Ne Win addressed the nation in a five-minute radio speech which concluded with the statement: "If these disturbances were made to challenge us, I have to declare that we will fight sword with sword and spear with spear".The Burmese phrase is "dah go dah gyin, hlan go hlan gyin". Two different English translations of the speech can be read on the front page of the Rangoon Nation and the Rangoon Guardian of 9 July 1962. Part of The Nation's headline of 9 July 1962 read 'General Ne Win States Give Us Time to Work: Obstructionists are Warned: Will Fight Sword with Sword'). On 13 July 1962, less than a week after the speech, Ne Win left for Austria, Switzerland and the United Kingdom "for a medical check up".News items of Ne Win's trip to these countries for 'medical check up' can be found in The Guardian and The Nation of 14 July 1962 All universities were closed for more than two years until September 1964.{{Sfn|Maung|1965|p=59}}

In 1988, 26 years later, Ne Win denied involvement in the dynamiting of the Student Union building, stating that his deputy Brigadier Aung Gyi – who by that time had fallen out with Ne Win and been dismissed – had given the order and that he had to take responsibility as a "revolutionary leader" by giving the sword with sword and spear with spear speech.{{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=Robert H.|url=http://archive.org/details/stateinmyanmar0000tayl|title=The state in Myanmar|date=2009|publisher=Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-0-8248-3362-6|page=134}}

{{Main|Burmese Way to Socialism}}

File:1964-05 1964年2月 周恩来陈毅访问缅甸 与奈温会谈.jpg and Chen Yi during their visit to Burma on 31 May 1964]]

Ne Win oversaw a number of reforms after taking power. The administration instituted a system including elements of nationalism, Marxism, and Buddhism,{{Cite web|last=Win|first=Chong|date=23 December 2018|title=Brief history of Burma|url=http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/dispatches/a+brief+history+of+burma/158170|website=News.Channel4|access-date=24 May 2010|archive-date=6 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106033235/http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/dispatches/a+brief+history+of+burma/158170|url-status=live}} though Ne Win lacked interest in either ideology or religion – terming this the Burmese Way to Socialism. He founded the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP), which in 1964 was formally declared to be the only legal party.{{Cite journal|last=Badgley|first=John H.|date=1 June 1938|title=Burma's China Crisis: The Choices Ahead|url=https://online.ucpress.edu/as/article-abstract/7/11/753/24067/Burma-s-China-Crisis-The-Choices-Ahead?redirectedFrom=fulltext|journal=Asian Survey|language=en|volume=7|issue=11|pages=753–761|doi=10.2307/2642500|jstor=2642500|issn=0004-4687|access-date=17 November 2020|archive-date=8 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108091247/https://online.ucpress.edu/as/article-abstract/7/11/753/24067/Burma-s-China-Crisis-The-Choices-Ahead?redirectedFrom=fulltext|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}

Following the 1962 coup, Ne Win's government began implementing policies highlighting the centrality of Buremse language, Burmese culture, and Burmese Buddhism to the unity of the country. Such policies focused on the school curriuculum, military recruitment, and the advancement of Burmese-centric popular culture. Ethnic schools and hospitals were nationalized, and new staff assigned from Rangoon. When ethnic minority areas did not comply, the communities were attacked by the military. Collectively these policies later became known as General Ne Win's "Burmanization" policies.Saw Eh Htoo and Tony Waters (2024) General Ne Win’s Legacy of Burmanization in Myanmar: The Challenge to Peace in the Twenty-First Century. Singapore: Palgrave MacMillan.

A system of state hospitals and institutions was established in Burma; medical care was free. Private hospitals were brought under public ownership. A new system of public education was introduced. A campaign to liquidate illiteracy was carried out starting in 1965.{{Cite journal|last=Fan|first=Hongwei|date=2012|title=The 1967 anti-Chinese riots in Burma and Sino–Burmese relations|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-southeast-asian-studies/article/1967-antichinese-riots-in-burma-and-sinoburmese-relations/32233393B60BBE02A8AFB7AD92EEFC8A|journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies|language=en|volume=43|issue=2|pages=234–256|doi=10.1017/S0022463412000045|s2cid=159753249|issn=1474-0680|access-date=17 November 2020|archive-date=25 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325073602/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-southeast-asian-studies/article/1967-antichinese-riots-in-burma-and-sinoburmese-relations/32233393B60BBE02A8AFB7AD92EEFC8A|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} Between 1962 and 1965 important laws against landlords and usury were adopted. They aimed at protecting peasants' rights to land and property and to renting the land. These measures included the law abolishing rents on land.Houtman, Gustaaf (1999). Mental culture in Burmese crisis politics: Aung San Suu Kyi and the National League for Democracy. ILCAA. {{ISBN|978-4-87297-748-6}}.

On 2 March 1974, he disbanded the Revolutionary Council and proclaimed the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma. He was elected president of Myanmar and shortly afterward appointed Brigadier General Sein Win as Prime Minister.{{Cite web|last=Steinberg|first=David I.|date=1997|title=Burma's way to Economics and Politics|url=http://asiafoundation.org/pdf/wp5.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501111851/http://asiafoundation.org/pdf/wp5.pdf|archive-date=1 May 2011|access-date=17 November 2020|website=The Asia Foundation Working Paper Series.}} On 9 November 1981, Ne Win resigned as president and was succeeded in that post by General San Yu. However, Ne Win remained leader of the party and thus remained the ultimate political authority in the land until his resignation in 1988.

File:1966-06 1966年刘少奇陈毅夫妇与缅甸奈温夫妇.jpg in June 1966]]

Ne Win's government nationalized the economy and pursued a policy of autarky, which involved the economic isolation of Burma from the world. The ubiquitous black market and rampant smuggling supplied the needs of the people, while the central government slid slowly into bankruptcy.{{Cite web|title=Power & Money: Economics and Conflict in Burma|url=http://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/power-money-economics-and-conflict-burma|access-date=7 November 2020|website=www.culturalsurvival.org|date=9 April 2010 |language=en|archive-date=29 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129020040/https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/power-money-economics-and-conflict-burma|url-status=live}} Autarky also involved expelling foreigners and restricting visits by foreigners to three days, and after 1972, one week. The Burmanization of the economy included the expulsion of many Chinese (along with Indians).{{Cite book |last=Han |first=Enze |title=The Ripple Effect: China's Complex Presence in Southeast Asia |date=2024 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-769659-0 |location=New York, NY}}{{Rp|page=141}} Ne Win's government prohibited foreigners from owning land and practicing certain professions.{{Rp|page=141}} Even foreign aid organizations were banned; the only humanitarian aid permitted was on an intergovernmental basis. Furthermore, heavy-handed political oppression caused many in the educated workforce to emigrate.{{Cite web|title=Myanmar – Since independence|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Myanmar|access-date=7 November 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=4 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504062055/https://www.britannica.com/place/Myanmar|url-status=live}}

Ne Win also took drastic steps regarding the currency. In 1985, he issued a decree that 25, 35, and 75 kyat notes would cease to be legal tender, alleging that they were subject to hoarding by black-marketeers and were also used to finance the various insurgencies. Though limited compensation was offered, this wiped out people's savings overnight. At least one insurgency, that of the ethnic Kayan, was triggered by this act.{{Cite web |date=1 July 1988 |title=Burma: Prospects for Reform of Ne Win's 'No Win' Economic Policies" [censored word(s)#93; |url=https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP89G01321R000500010005-2.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721205732/https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP89G01321R000500010005-2.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2021 |access-date=21 July 2021 |publisher=CIA}}

In 1987, reportedly on the recommendation of an astrologer that the number nine was auspicious, Ne Win ordered the withdrawal of several large-denomination kyat notes while issuing new denominations of 45 and 90 kyats. Both 45 and 90 are divisible by nine, and their numerals add up to nine. Again, millions of Burmese lost their life savings, and the demonetization also rendered about 75% of the entire kyat reserves completely useless.George Packer, [http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2008/08/25/080825fa_fact_packer?currentPage=all "Drowning"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130132658/http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2008/08/25/080825fa_fact_packer?currentPage=all |date=30 November 2012 }}, The New Yorker, 25 August 2008 This crippled the Burmese economy further still.{{Cite book|last1=Selochan|first1=Viberto|url=https://press.anu.edu.au/publications/military-and-democracy-asia-and-pacific|title=The Military and Democracy in Asia and the Pacific|last2=May|first2=Ron|year=2004|publisher=ANU Press|isbn=978-1-920942-00-7|language=en|access-date=17 November 2020|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305033013/http://press.anu.edu.au//mdap/mobile_devices/ch03s05.html|url-status=live}} Ne Win was well known for his penchant for yadaya (traditional Burmese rituals performed in order to ward off misfortune).{{cite web |url=http://bruinskeptics.org/2008/05/26/how-astrology-ruined-myanmars-economy/ |title=Bruin Alliance of Skeptics and Secularists » How Astrology Ruined Myanmar's Economy |access-date=2 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100803225416/http://bruinskeptics.org/2008/05/26/how-astrology-ruined-myanmars-economy/ |archive-date=3 August 2010 }} When his soothsayer warned him that there might be a bloodbath, he would stand in front of a mirror and trample on meat to simulate the blood, then shoot his reflection to avert the possibility of an assassination attempt.{{cite web |url=http://www.dgmoen.net/video_trans/014.html |title=Inside Burma :: DGMoen.net :: Promoting Social Justice, Human Rights, and Peace |access-date=13 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430010209/http://www.dgmoen.net/video_trans/014.html |archive-date=30 April 2011 }}

Ne Win resigned as chairman of the ruling Burma Socialist Programme Party on 23 July 1988 at the height of the uprising against his regime, and roughly one year after the United Nations declared Burma a "Least Developed Country".{{Cite news|last=Smith|first=Martin|date=6 December 2002|title=Obituary: General Ne Win|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/dec/06/guardianobituaries|access-date=7 November 2020|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=18 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118073618/https://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/dec/06/guardianobituaries|url-status=live}}

Sporadic protests against the government continued. Students led protests in 1965, December 1969, and December 1970.Yawnghwe, Chao-Tzang. Burma: Depoliticization of the Political. cited in Alagappa, Muthiah. (1995). Political Legitimacy in Southeast Asia: The Quest for Moral Authority. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8047-2560-6}} These demonstrations took place mainly on campuses located in the cities of Rangoon, Mandalay and Moulmein and were often followed by the closure of universities and colleges. In June 1974, workers from more than 100 factories throughout the nation participated in a strike, to which the government reacted by shooting about 100 workers and students on 6 June 1974 at the Thamaing Textile Factory and the Sinmalaik Dock Yard in Rangoon.{{Cite web|date=28 September 2007|title=The Burma road to ruin|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/sep/28/burma.uk|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081122/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/sep/28/burma.uk|archive-date=4 March 2016|access-date=7 November 2020|website=The Guardian|language=en}} Since Ne Win was in Australia on an official visit at the time, responsibility for these shootings is unclear. On 5 December 1974, students turned the funeral of former UN Secretary General U Thant into a demonstration, snatching the coffin on display at the Kyaikkasan Race Course and erecting a makeshift mausoleum on the grounds of the former Student Union building in protest against the government for not honouring their famous countryman with a state funeral.Fong, Jack. (2008). Revolution as Development: The Karen Self-determination Struggle Against Ethnocracy (1949–2004). Boca Raton, FL: BrownWalker Press. {{ISBN|978-1-59942-994-6}} The military stormed the campus on 11 December, killing some of the students, recovered the coffin and buried U Thant at the foot of the Shwedagon pagoda, next to the tomb of Thakin Kodaw Hmaing.{{cite web|title=Myanmar Data – Ne Win (Burmese: ေနဝင္‌း IPA: [nè wín]; 24 May or 14 May 1911 or 10 July 1910 – 5 December 2002; born Xiu Mao)|url=http://thetmsk.multiply.com/journal/item/9|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714132124/http://thetmsk.multiply.com/journal/item/9|archive-date=14 July 2011|access-date=2 July 2010}}Callahan, Mary. (2001). Burma: Soldiers as State Builders. ch. 17. cited in Alagappa, Muthiah. (2001). Coercion and Governance: The Declining Political Role of the Military in Asia. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8047-4227-6}}

{{Main|1967 anti-Chinese riots in Burma}}

File:Gen. Ne Win, Burmese P.M. touring Nesher Cement Factory in Ramleh (D783-105).jpgIn February 1963, the Enterprise Nationalization Law was passed, effectively nationalizing all major industries and prohibiting the formation of new factories. This law adversely affected many industrialists and entrepreneurs, especially those without full citizenship.Murray, Chinese Education in South-East Asia, p. 190 The government's economic nationalization program further prohibited foreigners, including the non-citizen Chinese, from owning land, sending remittances, getting business licenses and practicing medicine.Murray, Chinese Education in South-East Asia, p. 191 Such policies led to the beginnings of a major exodus of Burmese Chinese to other countries – some 100,000 Chinese left Burma.{{cite book|author=Martin Smith|year=1991|title= Burma – Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity|publisher=Zed Books|location=London, New Jersey|pages=39, 98, 153–154, 225–226}}

Since Ne Win made Burmese the medium of instruction, many Chinese-language schools had to be closed. When the Chinese embassy in Rangoon distributed Mao's red books in Burma, many Chinese went out on the streets in support of the Cultural Revolution. They were attacked by Burmese citizens, the most violent riots taking place in 1967. Beginning in 1967 and continuing throughout the 1970s, anti-Chinese riots continued to flare up, as many elements in Burma tried to spread the Cultural Revolution. Many believed they were covertly supported by the government.{{cite book |last=Steinberg |first=David L. |title=Burma: The State of Myanmar |year=2002 |publisher=Georgetown University Press |isbn=0-87840-893-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/burmastateofmyan0000stei }} Similarly, Chinese shops were looted and set on fire. Public attention was successfully diverted by Ne Win from the uncontrollable inflation, scarcity of consumer items and rising prices of rice. The 1982 Citizenship Law further restricted Burmese citizenship for Burmese Chinese (as it stratified citizenship into three categories: full, associate, and naturalized) and severely limited Burmese Chinese, especially those without full citizenship and those holding FRCs, from attending professional tertiary schools, including medical, engineering, agricultural and economics institutions.{{cite book | author=Mya Than | editor=Leo Suryadinata | year=1997 | title=Ethnic Chinese As Southeast Asians | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US |isbn=0-312-17576-0|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ethnicchineseass0000unse }}{{cite book|last=Richter|first=Frank-Jürgen|title=Business networks in Asia: promises, doubts, and perspectives|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=1999|page=186|isbn=978-1-56720-302-8}} During this period, the country's failing economy and widespread discrimination accelerated an emigration of Burmese Chinese out of Burma.{{Cite news|last=Hogwei|first=Fan|date=28 June 2017|title=Anti-Chinese riots rock Rangoon|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/archive/anti-chinese-riots-rock-rangoon/article19156090.ece|access-date=17 November 2020|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=8 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108124944/https://www.thehindu.com/archive/anti-chinese-riots-rock-rangoon/article19156090.ece|url-status=live}}

{{Main|8888 Uprising}}

Students from universities throughout Rangoon demonstrated again in June 1975 in commemoration of the previous year's Labour Strike. Student-led demonstrations also occurred in March 1976, September 1987, March and June 1988.{{Cite news|last1=Mydans|first1=Seth|last2=Times|first2=Special To the New York|date=12 September 1988|title=A Burmese Power Shift; Though Government Schedules Election, Decision Rests With People in the Streets (Published 1988)|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/09/12/world/burmese-power-shift-though-government-schedules-election-decision-rests-with.html|url-status=live|access-date=7 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110102510/http://www.nytimes.com/1988/09/12/world/burmese-power-shift-though-government-schedules-election-decision-rests-with.html|archive-date=10 November 2012|issn=0362-4331}} [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,968501,00.html?promoid=googlep Alt URL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102182623/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,968501,00.html?promoid=googlep |date=2 November 2012 }} In August and September 1988, these demonstrations turned into a nationwide uprising against BSPP rule in what is now known as the 'Four Eights Uprising'.{{Sfn|Taylor|2015|pp=454–461}}

The 8888 uprising was started by students in Yangon (Rangoon) on 8 August 1988. Student protests spread throughout the country.Ferrara (2003), p. 313Burma Watcher (1989) Hundreds of thousands of monks, children, university students, housewives, doctors and common people protested against the government.Steinberg (2002)Aung-Thwin, Maureen. (1989). [http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19890301faessay5952/maureen-aung-thwin/burmese-days.html Burmese Days] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060223173602/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19890301faessay5952/maureen-aung-thwin/burmese-days.html|date=23 February 2006}}. Foreign Affairs. The uprising ended on 18 September after a bloody military coup by the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). Thousands of deaths have been attributed to the military during this uprising,Fogarty, Phillipa (7 August 2008). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7543347.stm Was Burma's 1988 uprising worth it?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112023805/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7543347.stm|date=12 January 2009}}. BBC News.Wintle (2007) while authorities in Myanmar put the figure at around 350 people killed.Ottawa Citizen. 24 September 1988. P. A.16Associated Press. Chicago Tribune. 26 September 1988.

At the height of the Four Eights Uprising against the BSPP, Ne Win resigned as party chairman on 23 July 1988. In a truculent farewell speech to the BSPP Party Congress, he warned that if the "disturbances" continued the "army would have to be called and I would like to declare from here that if the army shoots it has no tradition of shooting into the air. It would shoot straight to hit."The English translation of Ne Win's speech can be found in 24 July 1988 issues of the Rangoon Guardian and The Working People's Daily. The Tatmadaw troops shot, killed and maimed hundreds if not up to 3,000 or more demonstrators in various places throughout Burma from the period of 8 to 12 August 1988 and again on 18 September 1988, proving that Ne Win's farewell speech was not an empty threat.{{Cite news|last=Win|first=Sein|date=24 July 1988|title=Burmese Leader Ne Win Resigns in Surprise Move|language=en-US|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1988/07/24/burmese-leader-ne-win-resigns-in-surprise-move/1b5896ff-3997-4472-8ffd-d49753838d39/|access-date=7 November 2020|issn=0190-8286|archive-date=9 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109134619/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1988/07/24/burmese-leader-ne-win-resigns-in-surprise-move/1b5896ff-3997-4472-8ffd-d49753838d39/|url-status=live}}{{Cite journal|last=Cook|first=C. P.|date=1970|title=Burma: The Era of Ne Win|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40394388|journal=The World Today|volume=26|issue=6|pages=259–266|jstor=40394388|issn=0043-9134|access-date=7 November 2020|archive-date=7 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107071547/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40394388|url-status=live}}

On 18 September 1988 the military led by Senior General Saw Maung dispelled any hopes for democracy by brutally crushing the uprisings. It is widely believed that Ne Win, though in apparent retirement, orchestrated the coup from behind the scenes.{{cite book | last=Stewart | first=Whitney | year=1997 | title=Aung San Suu Kyi: Fearless Voice of Burma | publisher=Twenty-First Century Books | isbn=0-8225-4931-X | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/aungsansuukyifea00stew }}

For about ten years, Ne Win kept a low profile but remained a shadowy figure exercising at least some influence on the military junta.Listopadov, Nikolai Aleksandrovich. "U NE VIN." Voprosy Istorii no. 11 (November 1997): 56–78. After 1998, Ne Win's influence on the junta began to wane.

Still under house arrest, Ne Win died on 5 December 2002 at his lakeside house in Yangon.{{cite news|title=Former Myanmar President U Ne Win Dies|publisher=People's Daily China 5 December 2002|url=http://english.people.com.cn/200212/05/eng20021205_107999.shtml|access-date=5 February 2007|archive-date=6 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306045100/http://english.people.com.cn/200212/05/eng20021205_107999.shtml|url-status=live}} The death remained unannounced by Burmese media or the junta. The only mention of Ne Win's death was a paid obituary notice that appeared in some of the government-controlled Burmese language newspapers. Ne Win was not given a state funeral, and his former contacts or junior colleagues were strongly discouraged from attending a hastily arranged funeral, so that only thirty people attended the funeral.{{Cite web|title=U Ne Win {{!}} Myanmar general and dictator|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/U-Ne-Win|access-date=7 November 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=27 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027215803/https://www.britannica.com/biography/U-Ne-Win|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|date=6 December 2002|title=Ne Win, dictator who ruined Burma, is dead|url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/ne-win-dictator-who-ruined-burma-is-dead-20021206-gdfx8t.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110073949/https://www.smh.com.au/world/ne-win-dictator-who-ruined-burma-is-dead-20021206-gdfx8t.html|archive-date=10 January 2021|access-date=7 November 2020|website=The Sydney Morning Herald|language=en}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1581413.stm Alt URL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109112913/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1581413.stm |date=9 January 2021 }}

Ne Win's daughter Sandar Win was temporarily released from house arrest to attend his funeral and cremation. She later dispersed her father's ashes into the Hlaing River."After the release of Ne's daughter, Sandar Win she dispersed her father in the river of Yangon river." ({{Harvard citation no brackets|Taylor|2015|p=610}})

Ne Win's grandson Aye Ne Win and Kyaw Ne Win were released in 2013.{{cite news|last=Ei Ei Toe Lwin|title=Prisoners freed, but 60 remain behind bars|url=http://www.mmtimes.com/index.php/national-news/mandalay-upper-myanmar/8821-prisoners-freed-but-60-remain-behind-bars.html|access-date=3 December 2013|newspaper=The Myanmar Times|date=18 November 2013|archive-date=7 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207012740/http://www.mmtimes.com/index.php/national-news/mandalay-upper-myanmar/8821-prisoners-freed-but-60-remain-behind-bars.html|url-status=live}}

Ne Win was married six times:{{Cite news|date=5 December 2002|title=Obituary: Ne Win|language=en-GB|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1581413.stm|publisher=BBC News|access-date=7 November 2020|archive-date=9 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109112913/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1581413.stm|url-status=live}}{{Failed verification|date=June 2022}}

1. He was first married to Daw Than Nyunt, who bore him a son, Kyaw Thein.
2. He was second married to Tin Tin, who bore him two sons, Ngwe Soe and Aye Aung.
3. He then married Khin May Than (Katie Ba Than), daughter of Professor Ba Than, the former dean of Rangoon medical school. The couple had two daughters and a son between them, Sandar Win, Kye Mon Win, and Phyo Wai Win. Khin May Than brought three daughters from her first marriage, Le Le Win and twins Thida Win and Thawdar Win, into the family. Khin May Than was Ne Win's favourite wife and her death in 1972 was a heavy blow to him.
4. He then married Ni Ni Myint, a university teacher, whom he divorced.
5. He then married June Rose Bellamy (Yadana Nat-mei), a great granddaughter of Crown Prince Ka Naung.
6. He remarried his former wife Ni Ni Myint.

{{portal|Myanmar}}

{{notelist}}

{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

{{refbegin|}}

• {{Cite book |last=Can-pati |first=Mranmā |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p3iGXwAACAAJ |title=Party Seminar 1965: Speeches of Chairman General Ne Win and Political Report of the General Secretary |publisher=Burma Socialist Programme Party |year=1965 |isbn=978-87-7694-088-1 |location=Yangon, Burma |access-date=18 November 2020 |archive-date=18 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318201337/https://books.google.com/books?id=p3iGXwAACAAJ |url-status=live }}
• {{cite book |last1=Maung |first1=Maung |date=1965 |title=Burma and General Ne Win |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8pceAAAAMAAJ |author-link=Maung Maung |location=University of Michigan |publisher=Religious Affairs Department Press }}
• {{Cite book |last=Mya |first=Doung Nyo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TmpuAAAAMAAJ |title=The Thirty Comrades |publisher=Guardian Press |year=1992 |location=Myanmar |access-date=18 November 2020 |archive-date=18 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318040206/https://books.google.com/books?id=TmpuAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
• {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Lewis Taylor |date=2015 |title=General Ne Win: A Political Biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=njvzCQAAQBAJ |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=978-9814620130 }}
• {{cite book |last=Yawnghwe |first=Tzang |date=1990 |title=Ne Win's Tatmadaw Dictatorship |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJilSgAACAAJ |publisher=Hurst |isbn=9814620130 |access-date=18 November 2020 |archive-date=25 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325134702/https://books.google.com/books?id=IJilSgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}

{{refend|}}

• Saw Eh Htoo and Tony Waters (2024). General Ne Win’s Legacy of Burmanization in Myanmar: The Challenge to Peace in the Twenty-First Century. Singapore: Palgrave MacMillan.

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| title = Prime Minister of Burma
Acting

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{{s-bef

| before = Win Maung
as President of Burma

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{{s-ttl

| title = Chairman of the Revolutionary Council of Burma

| years = 1962–1974

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{{s-aft

| after = Himself as President

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{{s-bef

| before = U Nu

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{{s-ttl

| title = Prime Minister of Burma

| years = 1962–1964

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| after = Sein Win

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{{s-bef

| before = Himself as Chairman of the Revolutionary Council

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{{s-ttl

| title = President of Burma

| years = 1974–1981

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| after = San Yu

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{{s-ppo}}

{{s-bef

| before = None

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{{s-ttl

| title = Chairman of the Burma Socialist Programme Party

| years = 1962–1988

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| after = Sein Lwin

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{{s-mil}}

{{s-bef

| before = Smith Dun

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{{s-ttl

| title = Chief of General Staff of the Tatmadaw

| years = 1949–1972

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{{Heads of state of Burma (Myanmar)}}

{{Prime Ministers of Burma (Myanmar)}}

{{Fall of Communism}}

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Category:1910s births

Category:2002 deaths

Category:Burma Socialist Programme Party politicians

Category:Burmese collaborators with Imperial Japan

Category:Burmese generals

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Category:Heads of government who were later imprisoned

Category:Leaders who took power by coup

Category:People from Bago Region

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Category:Defence ministers of Myanmar

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Category:Family of Ne Win