Paiwan language#Phonology

Paiwan variants are seen divided into the following dialect zones by Ferrell.{{sfn|Ferrell|1982|pp=4–6}}

• A1 – southern and central
• Kuɬaɬau (Kulalao) _ used in Ferrell's 1982 Paiwan Dictionary due to its widespread intelligibility and preservation of various phonemic distinctions; also spoken in Tjuabar Village, Taitung County, where Tjariḍik and "Tjuabar" (closely related to Tjavuaɬi) are also spoken.
• Kapaiwanan (Su-Paiwan)
• Tjuaqatsiɬay (Kachirai) – southernmost dialect
• A2 – central
• Ɬarəkrək (Riki-riki)
• Patjavaɬ (Ta-niao-wan)
• B1 – northernmost
• Tjukuvuɬ (Tokubun)
• Kaviangan (Kapiyan)
• B2 – northwestern
• Tjaɬakavus (Chalaabus, Lai-yi)
• Makazayazaya (Ma-chia)
• B3 – east-central
• Tjariḍik (Charilik)
• B4 – eastern
• Tjavuaɬi (Taimali)
• Tjakuvukuvuɬ (Naibon, Chaoboobol)

This classification were thought to be corrected by Cheng 2016 as below:{{full citation needed|date=February 2024}}

Note: A village unnoted of Vuculj/Ravar is by default placed under Vuculj here.

{{lang|pwn|

• Paridrayan group (Ravar)
• Paridrayan /pariɖajan/
• Tjailjaking
• Tineljepan
• Cavak
• Tjukuvulj
• Timur group
• Timur
• Tavatavang
• Vuljulju
• Sagaran (Ravar-Vuculj mixture)
• Makazayazaya branch
• 'ulaljuc
• Idra
• Masilidj
• Makazayazaya
• Paljulj
• Kazangiljan
• Masisi
• Kazazaljan
• 'apedang
• Kaviyangan
• Puljetji
• Tjuaqau
• Eastern branch
• Paumeli
• Tjulitjulik
• Viljauljaulj
• Kaljataran
• Ka'aluan
• Tjua'au
• Sapulju
• Kingku
• Djumulj
• Tjukuvulj
• Tjagaraus branch
• Payuan
• Padain
• Piuma
• Raxekerek branch (west)
• Raxekerek
• Kinaximan
• Tjevecekadan
• Raxekerek branch (east)
• Tjahiljik
• Tjacuqu
• Tjatjigelj
• Tjaqup
• Rahepaq
• Kaljapitj
• Qeceljing
• Pacavalj
• Kuvaxeng
• Utjaqas
• Ljupetj
• Tjala'avus branch
• Tjalja'avus
• Calasiv
• Tjana'asia
• Pucunug
• Vungalid
• Pailjus

|italic=no}}

Kuljaljau Paiwan has 23–24 consonants ({{IPA|/h/}} is found only in loanwords, and {{IPA|/ʔ/}} is uncommon) and 4 vowels.{{sfn|Ferrell|1982|p=7}} Unlike many other Formosan languages that have merged many Proto-Austronesian phonemes, Paiwan preserves most Proto-Austronesian phonemes and is thus highly important for reconstruction purposes.

The four Paiwan vowels are {{IPA|/i ə a u/}}. {{IPA|/ə/}} is written {{angbr|e}} in the literature.

In Northern Paiwan the palatal consonants have been lost, though this is recent and a few conservative speakers maintain them as allophonic variants (not as distinct phonemes). {{IPA|/ʔ/}} is robust, unlike in other Paiwan dialects where its status is uncertain, as it derives from *q.

Younger speakers tend to pronounce {{IPA|/ʎ/}} as {{IPA|[l]}}. Fricative {{IPA|[ɣ]}} is characteristic of Mudan village; elsewhere is Southern Paiwan it tends to be a trill {{IPA|[r]}}, though it still varies {{IPA|[r ~ ɣ ~ ʁ ~ h]}}. Word-initial *k has become {{IPA|/ʔ/}}.

The Paiwan personal pronouns below are from Ferrell (1982).{{sfn|Ferrell|1982|p=14}}

Paiwan has three construction markers, which are also known as relational particles.{{sfn|Ferrell|1982|p=13}}

1. {{lang|pwn|a}} – shows equational relationship; personal sing. = {{lang|pwn|ti}}, personal plural = {{lang|pwn|tia}}
2. {{lang|pwn|nua}} – shows genitive / partitive relationship; personal sing. = {{lang|pwn|ni}}, personal plural = {{lang|pwn|nia}}
3. {{lang|pwn|tua}} – shows that the relationship is neither equational nor genitive; personal sing. = *{{lang|pwn|tjai}}, personal plural = {{lang|pwn|tjaia}}

Other words include:

• {{lang|pwn|i}} – be at, in (place)
• {{lang|pwn|nu}} – if when
• {{lang|pwn|na}} – already (definitely) done/doing or have become
• {{lang|pwn|uri}} – definite future negative marker
• {{lang|pwn|uri}} – definite future marker
• {{lang|pwn|ɬa}} – emphasis, setting apart

Affixed adverbials include:{{sfn|Ferrell|1982|p=14}}

• {{lang|pwn|-tiaw}}
• {{lang|pwn|nu-tiaw}}: tomorrow
• {{lang|pwn|ka-tiaw}}: yesterday
• {{lang|pwn|-sawni}}
• {{lang|pwn|nu-sawni}}: soon, in a little while (future)
• {{lang|pwn|ka-sawni}}: a little while ago
• {{lang|pwn|-ngida}}
• {{lang|pwn|nu-ngida}}: when? (future)
• {{lang|pwn|ka-ngida}}: when? (past)

Interjections include the following:{{sfn|Ferrell|1982|p=12}}

• {{lang|pwn|ui}} – yes
• {{lang|pwn|ini}} – no (not do)
• {{lang|pwn|neka}} – no, not (not exist)
• {{lang|pwn|ai}} – oh! (surprise, wonder)
• {{lang|pwn|ai ḍivá}} – alas!
• {{lang|pwn|uá}} – oh! (surprise, taken aback)
• {{lang|pwn|ai ḍaḍá}} – ouch! (pain)

Paiwan verbs have 4 types of focus.{{sfn|Ferrell|1982|p=30}}

1. Agent/Actor
2. Object/Goal/Patient
3. Referent: spatial/temporal locus, indirect object, beneficiary
4. Instrument/Cause/Motivation/Origin

The following verbal affixes are used to express varying degrees of volition or intent, and are arranged below from highest to lowest intention.{{sfn|Ferrell|1982|p=37}}

1. {{lang|pwn|ki-}} (intentional)
2. {{lang|pwn|pa-}} (intentional)
3. {{lang|pwn|-m-}} (volitionally ambiguous)
4. {{lang|pwn|si-}} (volitionally ambiguous)
5. {{lang|pwn|ma-}} (non-intentional)
6. {{lang|pwn|se-}} (non-intentional)

Paiwan verbs can also take on the following non-derivational suffixes.{{sfn|Ferrell|1982|p=13}}

• {{lang|pwn|-anga}}: "certainly," "truly doing"
• {{lang|pwn|-angata}}: "definitely" (emphatic)
• {{lang|pwn|-anga}}: "still, yet, continuing to"

The Paiwan affixes below are from the Kulalao dialect unless stated otherwise, and are sourced from Ferrell (1982).{{sfn|Ferrell|1982|pp=15–27}}

{{div col}}

;Prefixes

• {{lang|pwn|ka-}}: used as an inchoative marker with some stems; past marker
• {{lang|pwn|ka- -an}}: principal, main
• {{lang|pwn|kaɬa- -an}}: time/place characterized by something
• {{lang|pwn|ma-ka-}}: go past, via; having finished
• {{lang|pwn|pa-ka-}}: go/cause to go by way of (something/place)
• {{lang|pwn|ka-si-}}: come from
• {{lang|pwn|ken(e)-}}: eat, drink, consume
• {{lang|pwn|ki-}}: get, obtain
• {{lang|pwn|ku-}}: my; I (as agent of non-agent focus verb)
• {{lang|pwn|ɬa-}}: belonging to a given [plant/animal] category
• {{lang|pwn|ɬe-}}: to go in the direction of
• {{lang|pwn|ɬia-}}: (have) come to be in/at
• {{lang|pwn|li-}}: have quality of
• {{lang|pwn|ma-}}: be affected by, be in condition of (involuntary)
• {{lang|pwn|mare-}}: having reciprocal relationship
• {{lang|pwn|mare-ka-}}: in some general category
• {{lang|pwn|maɬe-}}: number of persons
• {{lang|pwn|me-}}: agent marker usually involving change of status (used with certain verbs)
• {{lang|pwn|mere-}}: be gigantic, super-
• {{lang|pwn|mi-}}: agent marker that is usually intransitive (used with certain verbs)
• {{lang|pwn|mi- -an}}: pretend, claim
• {{lang|pwn|mu-}}: agent marker (certain verbs)
• {{lang|pwn|ka-na- -anga}}: every
• {{lang|pwn|pa-}}: to cause to be/occur
• {{lang|pwn|pe-}}: emerge, come into view
• {{lang|pwn|pi-}}: put in/on; do something to
• {{lang|pwn|pu-}}: have or produce; acquire
• {{lang|pwn|pu- -an}}: place where something is put or kept
• {{lang|pwn|ma-pu-}}: do nothing except ...
• {{lang|pwn|ra-}}: having to do with
• {{lang|pwn|r-m-a-}}: do at/during
• {{lang|pwn|r-m-a- -an}}: do at/in
• {{lang|pwn|sa-}}: wish to; go to, in direction of; have odor, quality, flavor of
• {{lang|pwn|pa-sa-}}: transfer something to; nearly, be on point of doing
• {{lang|pwn|ki-sa-}}: use, utilize, employ
• {{lang|pwn|na-sa-}}: perhaps, most likely is
• {{lang|pwn|san(e)-}}: construct, work on/in
• {{lang|pwn|ki-sane(e)-}}: become/act as; one who acts as
• {{lang|pwn|ru-}}: do frequently/habitually; have many of
• {{lang|pwn|se-}}: people of (village/nation); have quality of; occur suddenly/unexpectedly/unintentionally
• {{lang|pwn|s-ar-e-}}: be in state/condition of (involuntary)
• {{lang|pwn|si-}}: be instrument/cause/beneficiary of; instrument focus marker; belonging to certain time in past
• {{lang|pwn|ma-si-}}: carry, transport
• {{lang|pwn|su-}}: your; you (agent of non-agent focus verb); leave, remove, desist from
• {{lang|pwn|ki-su-}}: remove or have removed from oneself
• {{lang|pwn|ta-}}: past marker
• {{lang|pwn|tu-}}: similar to, like
• {{lang|pwn|ma-ru-}}: be dissimilar but of same size
• {{lang|pwn|tja-}}: our, we (inclusive); more, to a greater extent, further
• {{lang|pwn|ki-tja-}}: take along for use
• {{lang|pwn|tjaɬa- -an}}: most, -est
• {{lang|pwn|tjara-}}: be definitely
• {{lang|pwn|tjaɬu-}}: reach/extend as far as
• {{lang|pwn|tjari-}}: furthest, utmost
• {{lang|pwn|tja-u-}}: to have just done
• {{lang|pwn|tje-}}: choose to do at/from
• {{lang|pwn|ka-tje- -an}}: containing
• {{lang|pwn|tji-}}: used mainly in plant/animal species names (non-Kulalao frozen affix)
• {{lang|pwn|tji-a-}}: be/remain at
• {{lang|pwn|tju-}}: do/use separately; be/do at certain place
• {{lang|pwn|m-uri-}}: search for

;Infixes

• {{lang|pwn|-aɬ-, -al-, -ar-}}: having sound or quality of; involving use of; non-Kulalao
• {{lang|pwn|-ar-}}: do indiscriminately, on all sides; non-Kulalao
• {{lang|pwn|-m-}}: agent or actor; -n- following /p/, /b/, /v/, /m/; m- before vowel-initial words
• {{lang|pwn|-in-}}: perfective marker, action already begun or accomplished, object or product of past action; in- before vowel-initial words

;Suffixes

• {{lang|pwn|-an}}: specific location in time/space; specific one/type; referent focus
• {{lang|pwn|-en}}: object/goal of action; object focus
• {{lang|pwn|-aw, -ay}}: projected or intended action, referent focus
• {{lang|pwn|-u}}: agent focus (most subordinate clauses); most peremptory imperative
• {{lang|pwn|-i}}: object focus (most subordinate clauses); polite imperative
• {{lang|pwn|-ɬ}}: things in sequence; groupings; durations of time

{{div col end}}

The following affixes are from the Tjuabar dialect of Paiwan, spoken in the northwest areas of Paiwan-occupied territory (Comparative Austronesian Dictionary 1995).

{{div col}}

;Nouns

• {{lang|pwn|-aḷ-, -alʸ-}} 'tiny things'
• {{lang|pwn|-in-}} 'things made from plant roots'
• {{lang|pwn|-an}} 'place' (always used with another affix)
• {{lang|pwn|mar(ə)-}} 'a pair of' (used for humans only)
• {{lang|pwn|pu-}} 'rich'
• {{lang|pwn|ḳay-}} 'vegetation'
• {{lang|pwn|sə-}} 'inhabitants'
• {{lang|pwn|cua-}} 'name of a tribe'

;Verbs

• {{lang|pwn|-aŋa}} 'already done'
• {{lang|pwn|ka-}} 'to complete'
• {{lang|pwn|kə-}} 'to do something oneself'
• {{lang|pwn|ki-}} 'to do something to oneself'
• {{lang|pwn|kisu-}} 'to get rid of'
• {{lang|pwn|kicu-}} 'to do something separately'
• {{lang|pwn|maCa-}} 'to do something reciprocally' (where C indicates the initial consonant of the stem)
• {{lang|pwn|mə-}} 'to experience, to be something'
• {{lang|pwn|pa-}} 'to cause someone to do something'
• {{lang|pwn|pu-}} 'to produce, to get something'
• {{lang|pwn|sa-}} 'to be willing to do something'
• {{lang|pwn|calʸu-}} 'to arrive at'

;Adjectives

• {{lang|pwn|ma-}} 'being'
• {{lang|pwn|na-}} 'with the quality of'
• {{lang|pwn|səcalʸi-}} 'very'
• {{lang|pwn|ca-}} 'more than'

{{div col end}}

{{Reflist}}

{{Refbegin}}

• {{Cite thesis |last=Chang |first=Anna Hsiou-chuan |title=A Reference Grammar of Paiwan |date=2006 |degree=Ph.D. |publisher=Australian National University |doi=10.25911/5D778712291BF |doi-access=free |language=en |hdl=1885/10719 |hdl-access=free}}
• {{Cite book |last=Chang |first=Hsiu-chuan 張秀絹 |url=https://alilin.cip.gov.tw/ebook/4370214655b6aacf99dd96/HTML5/pc.html#/page/1 |title=Páiwānyǔ yǔfǎ gàilùn |date=2018 |publisher=Yuanzhu minzu weiyuanhui |isbn=978-986-05-5690-2 |location=Xinbei shi |language=zh |script-title=zh:排灣語語法概論 |trans-title=Introduction to Paiwan Grammar |via=alilin.apc.gov.tw}}
• {{Cite book |last=Early |first=Robert |title=One Hundred Paiwan Texts |last2=Whitehorn |first2=John |date=2003 |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |isbn=0-85883-479-0 |series=Pacific Linguistics 542 |location=Canberra |language=en |doi=10.15144/PL-542 |hdl=1885/146710 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}
• {{Cite book |last=Egli |first=Hans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sIGc4yZXtKIC |title=Paiwangrammatik |date=1990 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz |isbn=9783447030502 |location=Wiesbaden |language=de |trans-title=Paiwan Grammar}}
• {{Cite book |last=Ferrell |first=Raleigh |url=https://archive.org/details/paiwandictionary0000ferr |title=Paiwan Dictionary |date=1982 |publisher=The Australian National University |isbn=978-0-85883-264-0 |series=Pacific Linguistics Series C – No. 73 |location=Canberra |language=en |doi=10.15144/PL-C73 |hdl=1885/145076 |url-access=registration |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}

{{Refend}}

• [https://e-dictionary.ilrdf.org.tw/pwn/search.htm Yuánzhùmínzú yǔyán xiànshàng cídiǎn 原住民族語言線上詞典] {{in lang|zh}} – Paiwan search page at the "Aboriginal language online dictionary" website of the Indigenous Languages Research and Development Foundation
• [https://alilin.apc.gov.tw/tw/ebooks?tag=610 Paiwan teaching and leaning materials published by the Council of Indigenous Peoples of Taiwan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120145223/https://alilin.apc.gov.tw/tw/ebooks?tag=610 |date=2021-11-20 }} {{in lang|zh}}
• [https://indigenous-justice.president.gov.tw/doc/apology_text/Paiwan.pdf Paiwan translation of President Tsai Ing-wen's 2016 apology to indigenous people] – published on the website of the presidential office

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