Palmyrene Empire

{{further|Crisis of the Third Century}}

Following the murder of Roman emperor Alexander Severus in 235,{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/laterromanempire0000came|url-access=registration|title=The Later Roman Empire, AD 284-430|publisher=Harvard University Press|author= Averil Cameron|page= [https://archive.org/details/laterromanempire0000came/page/3 3]|year= 1993}} general after general squabbled over control of the empire,{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/laterromanempire0000came|url-access=registration|title=The Later Roman Empire, AD 284-430|publisher=Harvard University Press|author= Averil Cameron|page= [https://archive.org/details/laterromanempire0000came/page/4 4]|year= 1993}} the frontiers were neglected and subjected to frequent raids by Carpians, Goths and Alemanni,{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oPuSAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA196|title=Imperial Roman Army|author= Yann Le Bohec|author-link= Yann Le Bohec|page= 196|year= 2013|publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781135955069}}{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mythofnationsmed0000gear|url-access=registration|title=The Myth of Nations: The Medieval Origins of Europe|publisher=Princeton University Press|author=Patrick J. Geary|page= [https://archive.org/details/mythofnationsmed0000gear/page/81 81]|year= 2003}} in addition to outright attacks from the aggressive Sassanids in the east.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SDxrLQymWWwC&pg=PA12|title=The Walls of Rome|author=Nic Fields|page= 12|year= 2008|publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=9781846031984}} Finally, Shapur I of Persia inflicted a disastrous defeat upon the Romans at the Battle of Edessa in 260,{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA177|title= Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation|author= Andrew M. Smith II|page= 177|year= 2013|publisher= Oup USA|isbn= 978-0-19-986110-1}} capturing the Roman emperor Valerian and soon, Quietus and Macrianus rebelled against Valerian's son Gallienus and usurped the imperial power in Syria.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzOGycVVQLEC&pg=PA398|title=Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C.--A.D. 480: History|author= David L. Vagi|page= 398|year= 2000|publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781579583163}}

The Palmyrene leader Odaenathus was declared king,{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MG2hqcRDvJgC&pg=PA159|title=Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals|author1=Beate Dignas |author2=Engelbert Winter |page= 159|year= 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521849258}} and remained nominally loyal to Gallienus, forming an army of Palmyrenes and Syrian peasants to attack Shapur.{{#tag:ref|No evidence exists for Roman units serving in the ranks of Odaenathus; whether Roman soldiers fought under Odaenathus or not is a matter of speculation.{{cite book|author=Pat Southern|title=Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA60|date=17 November 2008|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4411-7351-5|page=60}}|group=note}} In 260, Odaenathus won a decisive victory over Shapur in a battle near the Euphrates. Next, Odaenathus defeated the usurpers in 261, and spent the remainder of his reign fighting the Persians.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K6eFJ_vcqSwC&pg=PA501|title=The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|author= Edward Gibbon|page= 501|year= 2004|publisher=Wildside Press |isbn=9780809592357}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bpd3tBPN4v8C&pg=PA237|title= Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century|author= Clifford Ando|page= 237|year= 2012|isbn= 9780748620500}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7-jUAMmMS5cC&pg=PA3|title=The Policy of the Emperor Gallienus|author= Lukas De Blois|page= 3|year= 1976|publisher=BRILL |isbn=9004045082}} Odaenathus received the title Governor of the East, and ruled Syria as the imperial representative,{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y6IaBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA333|title=Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World|author= Nathanael J. Andrade|page= 333|year= 2013|isbn=9781107012059}} and declared himself King of Kings.{{#tag:ref|The first decisive evidence for the use of this title for Odaenathus is an inscription dated to 271, posthumously describing Odaenathus as king of kings.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA78|title=Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome|author= Richard Stoneman|page= 78|year= 1994|isbn=0472083155}} Odaenathus' son Hairan I is directly attested as "King of Kings" during his lifetime. Hairan I was proclaimed by his father as co-ruler; it is unlikely that Odaenathus was simply a king while his son held the King of Kings title.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72|title= Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen|author= Pat Southern|page= 72|year= 2008|isbn= 9781441142481}}|group=note}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9y7nTpFcN3AC&pg=PA354|title=The Middle East Under Rome|author= Maurice Sartre|author-link= Maurice Sartre|page= 354|year= 2005|isbn=9780674016835}} Odaenathus was assassinated along with his son Hairan in 267; according to Joannes Zonaras and the Historia Augusta, he was killed by his cousin, whose name is given by the latter source as Maeonius.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA78|title=Empress Zenobia: Palmyra s Rebel Queen|author= Pat Southern|page= 78|year= 2008|isbn=9781847250346}} The Historia Augusta also claims that Maeonius was proclaimed emperor for a very brief period, before being executed by the soldiers.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q8Z7AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA292|title=Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History|author= Trevor Bryce|page= 292|year= 2014|isbn=978-0-19-100292-2}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA108|title=Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome|author= Richard Stoneman|page= 108|year= 1994|isbn=0472083155}} No inscriptions or other evidence exist for Maeonius' reign, and he was probably killed immediately after assassinating Odaenathus.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dlEMAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA321|title=History of the decline and fall of the Roman empire for the use of families and young persons: reprinted from the original text, with the careful omission of all passagers of an irreligious tendency, Volume 1|author1=Edward Gibbon |author2=Thomas Bowdler |page= 321|year= 1826}}{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/ageofsoldierem00brau|url-access=registration|title=The Age of the Soldier Emperors: Imperial Rome, A.D. 244-284|publisher=Noyes Press|author= George C. Brauer|page= [https://archive.org/details/ageofsoldierem00brau/page/163 163]|year= 1975|isbn=9780815550365}}

Odaenathus was succeeded by his minor son, the ten-year-old Vaballathus,{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA299|title=Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History|author= Trevor Bryce|page= 299|year= 2014|publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-964667-8}} under the regency of Zenobia.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA114|title=Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome|author= Richard Stoneman|page= 114|year= 1994|publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=0472083155}} Vaballathus was kept in the shadow while his mother assumed actual rule and consolidated her power. The queen was careful not to provoke Rome and took for herself and her son the titles that her husband had, while working on guaranteeing the safety of the borders with Persia, and pacifying the dangerous Tanukhid tribes in Hauran.

{{See also|Sack of Bostra|Palmyrene invasion of Egypt}}

File:AURELIANUS RIC V 381-795833.jpg. To the left, Aurelian as Augustus on the reverse.|199x199px]]

Zenobia started an expedition against the Tanukhids in the spring of 270, during the reign of emperor Claudius Gothicus{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=41-MAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA302|title=Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History|author= Trevor Bryce|page= 302|year= 2004|publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-100293-9}} aided by her generals, Septimius Zabbai (a general of the army) and Septimius Zabdas (the chief general of the army).{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA48|title=Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation|author=Andrew M. Smith II|year=2013|page=48|publisher=Oup USA |isbn=978-0-19-986110-1}}

Zabdas sacked Bosra, killed the Roman governor, and marched south securing Roman Arabia.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA61|title=Aurelian and the Third Century|first= Alaric|last= Watson|page= 61|publisher = Routledge|date= 2004|isbn = 9781134908158}} According to the Persian geographer Ibn Khordadbeh, Zenobia herself attacked Dumat Al-Jandal but could not conquer its castle.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_BxuAAAAMAAJ|title=Dirasah li-āthār Mintaqat al-Jawf|author= Khaleel Ibrahim Muaikel|page= 43|year= 1994|publisher=King Fahd National Library |isbn=9789960000114}} However, Ibn Khordadbeh likely confused Zenobia with al-Zabbā, a semi-legendary Arab queen whose story is often confused with Zenobia's story.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA433|title=The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337|author= Fergus Millar|page= 433|year= 1993|publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674778863}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A7joBeDsajcC&pg=PA148 |title=Histories of the Middle East: Studies in Middle Eastern Society, Economy and Law in Honor of A.L. Udovitch|author1=Roxani Eleni Margariti |author2=Adam Sabra |author3=Petra Sijpesteijn |page= 148|year= 2010|publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-9004184275}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1iGpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 |title=The Politics and Culture of an Umayyad Tribe: Conflict and Factionalism in the Early Islamic Period|author= Mohammad Rihan|page= 28|year= 2014|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=9781780765648}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA296 |title=Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History|author= Trevor Bryce|page= 296|year= 2014|publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-964667-8}}

In October of 270,{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62|title=Aurelian and the Third Century|author= Alaric Watson|page= 62|year= 2014|isbn=9781134908158}} a Palmyrene army of 70,000 invaded Egypt,{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA133|title=Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen|author= Pat Southern|page= 133|year= 2008|isbn=9781441142481}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=41-MAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA303|title=Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History|author= Trevor Bryce|page= 303|year= 2014|isbn=978-0-19-100293-9}} and declared Zenobia queen of Egypt.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA304|title=Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History|author= Trevor Bryce|page= 304|year= 2014|isbn=978-0-19-964667-8}} The Roman general Tenagino Probus was able to regain Alexandria in November, but was defeated and escaped to the fortress of Babylon, where he was besieged and committed suicide after being captured by Zabdas, who continued his march south and secured Egypt.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA63|title=Aurelian and the Third Century|author= Alaric Watson|page= 63|year= 2014|isbn=9781134908158}} Afterward, in 271, Zabbai started the operations in Asia Minor, and was joined by Zabdas in the spring of that year.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA64|title=Aurelian and the Third Century|author= Alaric Watson|page= 64|year= 2014|isbn=9781134908158}} The Palmyrenes subdued Galatia, and occupied Ancyra, marking the greatest extent of the Palmyrene expansion.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qQKIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA80|title=Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire|author= Warwick Ball|page= 80|year= 2002|isbn=9781134823871}} However, the attempts to conquer Chalcedon were unsuccessful.

The Palmyrene conquests were done under the protective show of subordination to Rome.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA179|title= Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation|author= Andrew M. Smith II|page= 179|year= 2013|isbn= 978-0-19-986110-1}} Zenobia issued coinage in the name of Claudius' successor Aurelian with Vaballathus depicted as king,{{#tag:ref|Claudius died in August 270, shortly before Zenobia's invasion of Egypt.|group=note}} while the emperor allowed the Palmyrene coinage and conferred the Palmyrene royal titles.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzOGycVVQLEC&pg=PA365|title=Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C.--A.D. 480: History|author= David L. Vagi|page= 365|year= 2000|isbn=9781579583163}} However, toward the end of 271, Vaballathus took the title of Augustus along with his mother.

File:Antoninian Vaballathus Augustus (obverse).jpg

Image:ZENOBIA - RIC V 2 - 80000750.jpg

File:AurelianusPalmyra272.png

In 272, Aurelian crossed the Bosphorus and advanced quickly through Anatolia.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA307|title=Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History|author= Trevor Bryce|page= 307|year= 2014|isbn=978-0-19-964667-8}} According to one account, Marcus Aurelius Probus regained Egypt from Palmyra,{{#tag:ref|All other accounts indicate that a military action was not necessary, as it seems that Zenobia had withdrawn her forces in order to defend Syria.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA308|title=Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History|author= Trevor Bryce|page= 308|year= 2014|isbn=978-0-19-964667-8}}|group=note}} while the emperor continued his march and reached Tyana.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|title=Aurelian and the Third Century|author= Alaric Watson|page= 71|year= 2004|isbn=9781134908158}} The fall of Tyana lent itself to a legend; Aurelian to that point had destroyed every city that resisted him, but he spared Tyana after having a vision of the great philosopher Apollonius of Tyana, whom he respected greatly, in a dream.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA72|title=Aurelian and the Third Century|author= Alaric Watson|page= 72|year= 2004|isbn=9781134908158}} Apollonius implored him, stating: "Aurelian, if you desire to rule, abstain from the blood of the innocent! Aurelian, if you will conquer, be merciful!".{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA167|title=Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome|author= Richard Stoneman|page= 167|year= 1994|isbn=0472083155}} Whatever the reason for his clemency, Aurelian's sparing of Tyana paid off; many more cities submitted to him upon seeing that the emperor would not exact revenge upon them.

Entering Issus and heading to Antioch, Aurelian defeated Zenobia in the Battle of Immae.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA309|title=Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History|author= Trevor Bryce|page= 309|year= 2014|isbn=978-0-19-964667-8}} Zenobia retreated to Antioch then fled to Emesa while Aurelian advanced and took the former.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA74|title=Aurelian and the Third Century|author= Alaric Watson|page= 74|year= 2004|isbn=9781134908158}} After regrouping, the Romans first destroyed a Palmyrene garrison stationed at the fort of Daphne,{{#tag:ref|Daphne was a garden located six miles south of Antioch.{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/syriaholylandasi02carn|title=Syria, the Holy Land, Asia Minor, &c. illustrated: In a series of views drawn from nature|publisher=Fisher, Son, & Co.; London, Paris, & America.|author1=John Carne |author2=William Purser |page= [https://archive.org/details/syriaholylandasi02carn/page/31 31]|year= 1836}}|group=note}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA138|title=Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen|author= Pat Southern|page= 138|year= 2008|isbn=9781441142481}} and headed south to Apamea,{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|title=Aurelian and the Third Century|author= Alaric Watson|page= 75|year= 2004|isbn=9781134908158}} then continued to Emesa and defeated Zenobia again at the Battle of Emesa, forcing her to evacuate to the capital.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA310|title=Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History|author= Trevor Bryce|page= 310|year= 2014|isbn=978-0-19-964667-8}} Aurelian marched through the desert and was harassed by Bedouins loyal to Palmyra, but as soon as he arrived at the city gates, he negotiated with the Bedouins, who betrayed Palmyra and supplied the Roman army with water and food.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76|title=Aurelian and the Third Century|author= Alaric Watson|page= 76|year= 2004|isbn=9781134908158}} Aurelian besieged Palmyra in the summer of 272,{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&pg=PA52|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337|author1=Alan Bowman |author2=Peter Garnsey |author3=Averil Cameron |page= 52|year= 2005|isbn=9780521301992}} and tried to negotiate with Zenobia, on the condition that she surrender herself in person to him, to which she answered with refusal. The Romans tried to breach the city defenses several times but were repelled,{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA175|title=Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome|author= Richard Stoneman|page= 175|year= 1994|isbn=0472083155}} however, as the situation deteriorated, Zenobia left the city and headed east to ask the Persians for help.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA77|title=Aurelian and the Third Century|author= Alaric Watson|page= 77|year= 2004|isbn=9781134908158}} The Romans followed the empress, captured her near the Euphrates and brought her back to the emperor. Soon after, the Palmyrene citizens asked for peace, and the city capitulated.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qQKIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81|title=Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire|author= Warwick Ball|page= 81|year= 2002|isbn=9781134823871}}

Image:Antoninianus-Aurelianus-Palmyra-s3262.jpg, defeats the Palmyrene Empire, and celebrates ORIENS AVG, the Augustus Rising Sun.]]

Aurelian spared the city and stationed a garrison of 600 archers led by a certain Sandarion, as a peacekeeping force.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA313|title= Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History|author= Trevor Bryce|page= 313|year= 2014|isbn= 978-0-19-964667-8}} The defenses were destroyed and most of the military equipment was confiscated.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA78|title=Aurelian and the Third Century|author= Alaric Watson|page= 78|year= 2014|isbn=9781134908158}} Zenobia and her council were taken to Emesa and put on trial. Most of the high-ranking Palmyrene officials were executed,{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2no_XSYREXIC&pg=RA1-PA242|title=Zenobia, Or, The Fall of Palmyra: A Historical Romance in Letters from L. Manlius Piso from Palmyra, to His Friend Marcus Curtius at Rome|author= William Ware|page= 242|year= 1846}} while Zenobia's and Vaballathus's fates are uncertain.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81|title=Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire|author= Warwick Ball|page= 81|year= 2002|publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781134823864}}

In 273, Palmyra rebelled under the leadership of a citizen named Septimius Apsaios,{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA180|title= Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation|author= Andrew M. Smith II|page= 180|year= 2013|publisher= Oup USA|isbn= 978-0-19-986110-1}} and contacted the Roman prefect of Mesopotamia, Marcellinus, offering to help him usurp the imperial power. Marcellinus delayed the negotiations and sent word to the Roman emperor, while the rebels lost their patience and declared a relative of Zenobia named Antiochus as Augustus.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA181|title= Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation|author= Andrew M. Smith II|page= 181|year= 2013|publisher= Oup USA|isbn= 978-0-19-986110-1}} Aurelian marched against Palmyra and was helped by a Palmyrene faction from inside the city, headed by a man with a senatorial rank named Septimius Haddudan.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA60|title=Roman Syria and the Near East|first= Kevin|last= Butcher|page= 60|year= 2003|publisher = Getty Publications|isbn = 9780892367153}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81|title=Aurelian and the Third Century|author=Alaric Watson|page= 81|year= 2004|publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781134908158}}

Aurelian spared Antiochus, but razed Palmyra.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&pg=PA515|title= The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337|author1=Alan Bowman |author2=Peter Garnsey |author3=Averil Cameron |page= 515|year= 2005|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 9780521301992}} The most valuable monuments were taken by the emperor to decorate his Temple of Sol, while buildings were smashed, people were clubbed and cudgeled and Palmyra's holiest temple pillaged.

The ultimate motive behind the revolt is debated; when dealing with the rise of Palmyra and the rebellion of Zenobia, historians most often interpreted the ascendancy as an indication of cultural, ethnic or social factors.{{sfn|Nakamura|1993|p= [http://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/3431 133]}} Andreas Alföldi viewed the rebellion as a completely native ethnic opposition against Rome.{{sfn|Nakamura|1993|p= [http://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/3431 133]}} Irfan Shahîd considered Zenobia's revolt a pan-Arab movement that was a forerunner of the Arab expansion of the Caliphates;{{sfn|Nakamura|1993|p= [http://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/3431 133]}} an opinion shared by Franz Altheim,{{sfn|Nakamura|1993|p= [http://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/3431 133]}} and an almost universal view amongst Arab and Syrian scholars such as Philip Khuri Hitti.{{sfn|Hitti|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=CusnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT73 73]}}{{sfn|Zahrān|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=1CRmAAAAMAAJ 36]}} Mark Whittow disagreed that the revolt was ethnic in its nature and emphasized that it was a reaction to the weakness of Rome and its inability to protect Palmyra from the Persians.{{sfn|Whittow|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=GSmrBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT154 154]|ignore-err=yes}} Warwick Ball viewed the rebellion as aimed at Rome's throne, not just Palmyrene independence.{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 82]}} Vaballathus' inscriptions indicated the style of a Roman emperor; according to Ball, Zenobia and Vaballathus were contenders for the Roman imperial throne, following a plan similar to that of Vespasian, who ascended the throne after building his power-base in Syria.{{sfn|Ball|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=73-JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 82]}}{{sfn|Whittow|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=GSmrBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT154 154]|ignore-err=yes}} Andrew M. Smith II considered the revolt as a bid for both independence and the Roman throne.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA180 180]}} The Palmyrene royalty used Eastern titles such as king of kings, which had no relevance in Roman politics, while the conquests were in the interest of Palmyrene commerce.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA180 180]}} Finally, it was only in the last regnal year of Zenobia and Vaballathus that the Roman imperial rank was claimed.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA180 180]}} Fergus Millar, although tending toward the view that it was not only an independence movement, believes there is not yet enough evidence to draw a conclusion on the nature of Palmyra's revolt.{{sfn|Millar|1993|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C&pg=PA334 334]}}

During the mid-twentieth century, interest in the Palmyrene Empire was briefly revived by the advent of Syrian nationalism.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnHkR_ohJrsC&pg=PT15|title=The Romans: All That Matters|first = John |last=Manley|page= 15|year= 2013|publisher = John Murray Press|isbn = 9781444183887}} Modern Syrian nationalists viewed the empire as a uniquely Syrian civilization which attempted to liberate the masses of the Levant from Roman rule.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dBIoBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT153|title=Among the Ruins: Syria Past and Present|author= Christian Sahner|page= 153|year= 2014|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-025737-8}} A Syrian TV show was produced based on Zenobia's life, and she was the subject of a biography written by Syria's former minister of defense Mustafa Tlass.

• Gallic Empire

{{Reflist|group=note|colwidth=40em}}

{{Reflist}}

• {{cite journal|first= Byron|last= Nakamura|year= 1993|title= Palmyra and the Roman East |journal=Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies|publisher= Duke University, Department of Classical Studies|volume=34|issn=0017-3916}}
• {{cite book|title=History of The Arabs|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780333631423|url-access=registration|first=Philip K.|last=Hitti|orig-year= 1937|year=2002|edition= 10|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-13032-7}}
• {{cite book|title= Zenobia between reality and legend|first= Yāsamīn|last=Zahrān|year=2003|publisher=Archaeopress|series=BAR (British Archaeological Reports) International Series|volume= 1169|isbn=978-1-84171-537-7}}
• {{New Cambridge History of Islam|chapter=The late Roman/early Byzantine Near East|first= Mark |last=Whittow | authorlink=Mark Whittow|volume=1}}
• {{cite book|first= Warwick |last=Ball|title= Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire| year=2002| publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-82387-1}}
• {{cite book|title=Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation|first= Andrew M.|last=Smith II|publisher=Oxford University Press|year= 2013|isbn= 978-0-19-986110-1}}
• {{cite book|first= Fergus |last=Millar|title= The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337| year=1993| publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-77886-3}}

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{{Rulers of the Ancient Near East}}

{{Syria topics}}

Category:Roman Syria

Category:Crisis of the Third Century

Category:Former countries in West Asia

Category:Former empires

*

Category:270s in the Roman Empire

Category:273 disestablishments

Category:States and territories disestablished in the 3rd century

Category:270 establishments

Category:States and territories established in the 270s

Category:History of the Levant

Category:Former monarchies

Category:Ancient Levant