Paper cup

Paper cups have been documented in imperial China, where paper was invented by the 2nd century BC.{{Cite book|last=Tsien|first=Tsuen-Hsuin|author-link=Tsien Tsuen-hsuin|editor=Joseph Needham|series=Science and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology |volume=5 part 1|title=Paper and Printing|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1985|page=38}} Paper cups were known as chih pei and were used for the serving of tea. They were constructed in different sizes and colors, and were adorned with decorative designs. Textual evidence of paper cups appears in a description of the possessions of the Yu family, from the city of Hangzhou.{{cite book|title=Science and Civilisation in China: Paper and Printing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lx-9mS6Aa4wC&pg=PA122|year=1985|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-08690-5|author=Joseph Needham|page=122|quote=At this time tea was served from baskets made of rushes which held... a set of several tens of paper cups (chih pei) in different sizes and colors with delicate designs}}

The modern paper cup was developed in the 20th century. In the early 20th century, it was common to have shared glasses or dippers at water sources such as school faucets or water barrels in trains. This shared use caused public health concerns. One notable investigation into their use was the study by Alvin Davison, biology professor at Lafayette College, published with the sensational title "Death in School Drinking Cups" in Technical World Magazine in August 1908, based on research carried out in Easton, Pennsylvania's public schools. The article was reprinted and distributed by the Massachusetts State Board of Health in November 1909.{{cite web|url=http://academicmuseum.lafayette.edu/special/dixie/company.html|title=Dixie Cup Company History|publisher=Lafayette College Libraries|date=August 1995|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112065042/http://academicmuseum.lafayette.edu/special/dixie/company.html|archive-date=2011-11-12}}

Based on these concerns, and as paper goods (especially after the 1908 invention of the Dixie Cup) became cheaply and cleanly available, local bans were passed on the shared-use cup. One of the first railway companies to use disposable paper cups was the Lackawanna Railroad, which began using them in 1909. By 1917, the public glass had disappeared from railway carriages, replaced by paper cups even in jurisdictions where public glasses had yet to be banned.{{White-Passenger-1985|volume=2|page=432}}

Paper cups are also employed in hospitals for health reasons. In 1942 the Massachusetts State College found in one study that the cost of using washable glasses, re-used after being sanitized, was 1.6 times the cost of using single-service paper cups.{{cite journal|title=Uses for Paper Cups and Containers|author=Beulah France|journal=The American Journal of Nursing|volume=42|issue=2|date=February 1942|pages=154–156|doi=10.2307/3416163|jstor=3416163|s2cid=220566845}} These studies, as well as the reduction in the risk of cross-infection, encouraged the use of paper cups in hospitals.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

{{redirect|Dixie cup|the type of naval headgear|Sailor cap|the musical band|the Dixie Cups}}

Dixie Cup is the brand name for a line of disposable paper cups that were first developed in the United States in 1907 by Lawrence Luellen, an inventor in Boston, Massachusetts, who was concerned about germs being spread by people sharing glasses or dippers at public supplies of drinking water. Luellen developed an ice-cooled water-vending machine with disposable cups, and with another Bostonian, Hugh Moore, embarked on an advertising campaign to educate the public and to market his machine, principally to railroad companies. Davison's study was instrumental in abolishing the public glass and opening the door for the paper cup. Soon, the devices, which would dispense cool water for one cent, became standard equipment on trains.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

After Lawrence Luellen invented his paper cup and corresponding water fountain, he started the American Water Supply Company of New England in 1908 located in Boston. The company began producing the cup as well as the Water Vendor. In order to expand their territory, Luellen organized the American Water Supply Company of New York as well as the American Water Supply Company of New Jersey with the help of Hugh Moore. Instead of producing the cups and fountains, these subsidiary companies were charged with the sale and distribution of Luellen's products. In 1909 Luellen and Moore started the Public Cup Vendor Company in New York in order to lease their vendor machines. Their primary customers were railroads so that the devices could be implemented on passenger train cars. After many states started to ban the common drinking cup in public places, steady orders for Luellen's machine began to roll in. The success of Luellen and Moore's territorial companies inspired them to incorporate into the Individual Drinking Cup Company of New York in 1910.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

{{stack|File:Dixie Cup Company, Easton, Pa (66342).jpg, Pennsylvania.]]}}

The Dixie Cup was first called "Health Kup", but from 1919 it was named after a line of dolls made by Alfred Schindler's Dixie Doll Company in New York. Success led the company, which had existed under a variety of names, to call itself the Dixie Cup Corporation and move to a factory in Wilson, Pennsylvania. Atop the factory was a large water tank in the shape of a cup.[http://media.lehighvalleylive.com/easton_impact/photo/11646305-large.jpg Former Dixie Cup Factory, Wilson, Pa] (photograph)

In 1957, Dixie merged with the American Can Company. The James River Corporation purchased American Can's paper business in 1982. The assets of James River are now part of Georgia-Pacific, a subsidiary of Koch Industries, the second largest privately owned company in the United States. In 1983, production moved to a modern factory in Forks, Pennsylvania. The original factory in Wilson has sat vacant ever since. The closing of the factory also prompted Conrail to abandon the Easton & Northern railroad branch, of which Dixie Cups was the last major customer.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

In 1969, the Dixie Cup logo was created by Saul Bass, a graphic designer known for his motion picture title sequences.{{Cite news |last=Lewis |first=Andy |date=November 8, 2011 |title=Movie and Logo Designer Saul Bass Celebrated with Book, MoMA Event |work=The Hollywood Reporter |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/general-news/saul-bass-designer-moma-258891/ |access-date=August 4, 2023}}

A generalization of the coupon collector's problem, where one needs 2 (or any arbitrary larger number) of each coupon, instead of just 1, is sometimes called the Dixie cup problem; the name is inspired by children trying to collect "a complete set of pictures of baseball players, movie stars, etc., which appear on the covers of dixie cups" and trading with each other as they all try to create a complete set.{{Citation |last1=Newman |first1=Donald J. |title=The double dixie cup problem |journal=American Mathematical Monthly |volume=67 |issue=1 |pages=58–61 |year=1960 |doi=10.2307/2308930 |jstor=2308930 |mr=0120672 |last2=Shepp |first2=Lawrence |author-link1=Donald J. Newman |author-link2=Lawrence Shepp|url=https://gwern.net/doc/statistics/order/1960-newman.pdf}}

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File:Healthkup.png

File:This is the Sanitary Age.png

File:Soda Dixie Cups.png

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The tone of many of the advertisements created by the Dixie Cup Company took the form of embracing modern ideals and marketing towards people who wanted to improve their lives and jump on board a new trend for fear of being left behind. “This is the sanitary age -- the age of dixie cups,”{{Cite web|url=https://sites.lafayette.edu/dixieexhibit/|title=Whistlin' Dixie: Marketing the Paper Cup, 1910-1960|website=sites.lafayette.edu|access-date=2019-05-18}}{{failed verification|date=September 2023}} was used for several years with success.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

A subsequent pivot towards soda fountains was made in both product line and advertising, but the central idea of individual use as more sanitary than reusable glasses persisted. An emphasis on the theme of cups being “touched only by you” was seen as an act to make the cups seem individualized.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

{{stack|File:Dixie Cup 20090904.jpg.{{cite web |url=http://thelibrary.springfield.missouri.org/lochist/postcards/lily-tulip_cup_corporation.cfm |title=Lily-Tulip Cup Corporation, Springfield-Greene County Library, Springfield, Missouri }} Made of poured concrete, the cup stands about {{convert|68.1|ft}} tall.]]}}

The base paper for paper cups is called "cup board", and is made on special multi-ply paper machines. It has a barrier coating for waterproofing. The paper needs high stiffness and strong wet sizing. The cup board grade has a special design for the cup manufacturing processes. The mouth roll forming process requires good elongation properties of the board and the plastic coating. A well formed mouth roll provides stiffness and handling properties in the cup. The basis weights of the cup boards are 170–350 g/m².{{cite book |last1=Savolainen|first1=Antti|title=Paper and Paperboard Converting|series=Papermaking Science and Technology |volume=12 |year= 1998|publisher= Fapet OY|location=Finland |isbn=978-952-5216-12-7 |pages= 170–172|chapter=6 }}

To meet hygiene requirements, paper cups are generally manufactured from virgin (non-recycled) materials.{{citation needed|date=February 2012}} The one exception to this is when the paper cup features an extra insulating layer for heat retention, which never comes into contact with the beverage, such as a corrugated layer wrapped around a single-wall cup.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

Originally, paper cups for hot drinks were glued together and made waterproof by dropping a small amount of clay in the bottom of the cup, and then spinning at high speed so that clay would travel up the walls of the cup, making the paper water-resistant.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} However, this resulted in drinks smelling and tasting of cardboard.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

Cups for cold drinks could not be treated in the same way, as condensation forms on the outside, then soaks into the board, making the cup unstable. To remedy this, cup manufacturers developed the technique of spraying both the inside and outside of the cup with wax. Clay and wax-coated cups disappeared with the invention of polyethylene (PE)-coated cups; this process covers the surface of the board with a very thin layer of PE, waterproofing the board and welding the seams together.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

In 2017, the Finnish board manufacturer Kotkamills launched a new kind of cup (food service) board which uses no wax or plastic for waterproofing, and thus can be recycled as part of the normal paper and board waste stream, biodegraded, or even composted in small quantities.{{cite news|title=Suomalainen yritys teki sen – kahvin, rasvan ja oluen kestävät muovittomat ihmepahvit lähtevät maailmalle: "Kiinnostus on valtavaa"|trans-title=A Finnish company made it – plastic-free miracle board that can withstand coffee, fat and beer: "We have received huge interest"|url=https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-9717592|access-date=1 September 2017|agency=YLE}}

In 2017, the Newport Beach, California, company Smart Planet Technologies, launched "reCUP" for the UK market, a recyclable paper cup using a polyethylene and mineral-blended coating branded EarthCoating, that is engineered to be recycled through traditional paper recycling systems. Paper cups with EarthCoating are sold by Detpak, Huhtamaki, Linstol, and Pureco USA.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

Paper cups and paper bags made from "Pinyapel", paper made from discarded pineapple leaves, were introduced in 2019. The water-resistant food packaging alternative material was developed by a consortium made up of the Department of Trade and Industry Design Center of the Philippines (DCP), Cagayan de Oro Handmade Paper, Nature's Fresh, and Ideatechs Packaging Corporation. The innovation was a Wood Pencil Awardee in the 2019 edition of the annual D&AD Future Impact Awards.{{Cite web|url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/life/10/30/19/pinoy-made-pinyapel-wins-environment-and-sustainability-award-in-new-york|title = Pinoy-made 'Pinyapel' wins environment and sustainability award in New York|date = 30 October 2019}} Tests by the DCP show that the 55.32 percent mass loss of Pinyapel in four weeks is much higher than the 21.33 percent mass loss in commercial paper bags, giving evidence that the material decomposes faster than other paper products.{{Cite web|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/filipino-plastic-free-cup-packaging-pineapple-leaves-paper/|title=Filipinos Made This Plastic-Free Cup From Pineapple Leaves|website=Vice.com}}

{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2017|small=y}}

Originally paper cups were printed using rubber blocks mounted on cylinders, with a different cylinder for each colour. Registration across different colours was very difficult, but later flexography plates became available and with the use of mounting systems it became easier to register across the colours, allowing for more complex designs. Printing flexographic has become ideal for long runs and manufacturers generally use this method when producing over a million cups. Machines such as Comexi are used for this, which have been adapted to take the extra large reels that are required by paper cup manufacturers. Ink technology has also changed and where solvent-based inks were being used, water-based inks are instead being utilised. One of the side effects of solvent-based inks is that hot drink cups in particular can smell of solvent, whereas water-based inks have eliminated this problem.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

Other methods of printing have been used for short runs such as offset printing, which can vary within a range from 10,000 to 100,000 cups. Offset printing inks have also been developed and although in the past these were solvent based, the latest soya-based inks have reduced the danger of cups smelling. The latest development is Direct-printing, which allows printing on very small quantities, typically from 1,000 cups, and is used by companies including Brendos Ltd offering small quantities in short lead times. Rotogravure can also be used, but this is extremely expensive and is normally only utilised for items requiring extremely high quality printing like ice cream containers.{{cite web |title=Rotogravure Printing for Ice Cream Containers |url=https://luxpackgcc.com/rotogravure-printing-for-ice-cream-containers/ |website=LuxPack GCC |access-date=30 September 2024}}

Most paper cups are designed for a single use and then disposal. Very little recycled paper is used to make paper cups because of contamination concerns and regulations. Since most paper cups are coated with plastic (polyethylene), then both composting and recycling of paper cups is uncommon because of the difficulty in separating the polyethylene in the recycling process of said cups. As of 2016, there are only two facilities in the UK able to properly recycle PE-coated cups; in the absence of such facilities, the cups are taken to landfill or incinerated.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

A UK-based business group James Cropper have developed the world's first facility for the effective recycling of the estimated 2.5 billion paper coffee cups used and disposed of by British businesses each year, and have become one of 14 international companies to formally join the Paper Recovery and Recycling Group (PCRRG).{{citation needed|date=December 2019}}

James Cropper's Reclaimed Fibre Facility was opened by HM The Queen in July 2013, and recovers both the plastic and paper from the cups; ensuring nothing is wasted from the recycling process. Although paper cups are made from renewable resources (wood chips 95% by weight), paper products in a landfill might not decompose, or can release methane, if decomposed anaerobically.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

A US company, [http://www.smartplanettech.com Smart Planet Technologies] has developed a new coating on paper cups and folding cartons called EarthCoating so they are certified universally recyclable in conventional paper recycling systems. Paper cups with EarthCoating have received the highest "AAA" rating for recycling from Der Grune Punkt (The Green Dot), a certifying body for recycling in the EU, for recycling in Class 13 bales along with office paper. Smart Planet Technologies' licensee Detpak, along with paper-shredder Shred-X have set up commercial recycling systems for paper cups with EarthCoating, branded "RecycleMe", used in recycled paper products such as copy paper, gift wrap, and paper bags. Detpak declared the takeaway cup problem solved in Australia.{{Cite web|title=Detpak - Takeaway Cup Recycling Solved in Australia|url=https://www.detpak.com/news-and-events/latest-news/takeaway-cup-recycling-solved-in-australia/|access-date=2021-04-07|website=www.detpak.com|language=en}} Subsequently, Australia's Department of Defense, along with globally-recognized recycler Veolia, have teamed up to recycle the department's paper cups, as part of their "War on Waste".{{Cite web|title=Veolia and Defence join together to eliminate single-use disposable cups|url=https://www.veolia.com/anz/newsroom/veolia-and-defence-join-together-eliminate-single-use-disposable-cups|access-date=2021-04-07|website=Veolia Australia and New Zealand|language=en}}

In 2017, the Finnish board manufacturer Kotkamills launched a new kind of cup (food service) board which uses no wax or plastic for waterproofing, and thus can be recycled as part of the normal paper and board waste stream, biodegraded, or even composted in small quantities.

The manufacture of paper usually requires inorganic chemicals and creates water effluents. Paper cups may consume more non-renewable resources than cups made of polystyrene foam (whose only significant effluent is pentane).{{cite book|title=Management Accounting: The Cornerstone of Business Decisions|author1=Don R. Hansen |author2=Maryanne M. Mowen |name-list-style=amp |year=2005|publisher=Thomson South-Western|isbn=978-0-324-23484-8|page=503}}{{cite book|title=Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Goods and Services: An Input-output Approach|author1=Chris T. Hendrickson |author2=Lester B. Lave |author3=H. Scott Matthews |name-list-style=amp |year=2006|publisher=Resources for the Future|isbn=978-1-933115-23-8|page=5}}

A life cycle inventory of a comparison of paper vs plastic cups shows environmental effects of both with no clear winner.{{Cite journal |last=Hocking |first=M. B. |title=Paper Versus Polystyrene: A Complex Choice |journal=Science |volume=251 |issue=4993n |pages=504–5 |date=1 February 1991 |doi=10.1126/science.251.4993.504 |pmid=17840849|bibcode=1991Sci...251..504H |s2cid=33293105 }}

Polyethylene (PE) is a petroleum-based coating on paper cups that can slow down the process of biodegrading of the paper it coats.{{cite web |url=https://mars-paper.com/pe-coated-paper/ |title=PE Paper Coating |access-date=2024-08-13}}

Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable bio-plastic coating used on some paper cups. PLA is a renewable resource and is certified compostable in industrial composting facilities, which means that when it biodegrades, it does not leave behind any toxic residues.{{cite web |url=http://www.natureworksllc.com/The-Ingeo-Journey/End-of-Life-Options/Composting| title=Composting| access-date=2013-10-15}} Although PLA-lined cups are the only paper cups which can be composted fully, they can contaminate the waste stream, reportedly making other recycled plastics unsaleable.{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/apr/26/waste.pollution |title=Sustainable bio-plastic can damage the environment |website=TheGuardian.com |date=25 April 2008 |access-date=2017-06-21}}

Before 2012, paper cups could only be recycled at a specialized treatment facility regardless of the lining.{{cite web |url=http://www.save-a-cup.co.uk/paper_cups.php |title=Paper Cup Recycling |access-date=2012-02-01}}

A number of cities – including Portland, Oregon — have banned XPS foam cups in take-out and fast food restaurants.{{cite news |url=http://www.portlandmercury.com/portland/Content?oid=29552&category=34029 |title=The Coming Cup-tastrophe |last1=Helfrich |first1=M. William |last2=Sanders |first2=Justin Wescoat |date=2003-08-13 |publisher=The Portland Mercury}}

A study of one paper coffee cup with sleeve (16 ounce / 500 ml) shows that the level of CO₂ emissions is about {{convert|0.253|kilogram}} per cup with sleeve – including paper from trees, materials, production, and shipping.{{cite web

|title=Report of the Alliance for Environmental Innovation

|url=http://www.edf.org/documents/523_starbucks.pdf

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920012738/https://business.edf.org//files/2014/03/starbucks-report-april2000.pdf

|archive-date=2015-09-20

|publisher=edf.com

|access-date=2008-02-06 }}

The habitat loss from one 16 ounce paper coffee cup with a sleeve is estimated to be 0.09 square meters (0.93 square feet).{{dubious|date=June 2016}}{{cite web |title=ecological effects of a paper cup |url=http://ecofx.org/wiki/index.php?title=Paper_cup |publisher=ecofx.org |access-date=February 6, 2008 |archive-date=August 9, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100809164818/http://ecofx.org/wiki/index.php?title=Paper_cup |url-status=dead }}{{unreliable source?|date=June 2016}} Over 6.5 million trees were cut down to make 16 billion paper coffee cups used by U.S. in 2006, using {{convert|4|e9USgal|m3}} of water and resulting in {{convert|253|e6lb|kg}} of waste. Overall, US Americans use 58% of all paper cups worldwide, amounting to 130 billion cups.{{cite web |title=Paper Cups = Unsustainable Consumption |url=http://www.aboutmyplanet.com/environment/paper-unsustainable/ |publisher=aboutmyplanet.com |access-date=February 6, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080606213828/http://www.aboutmyplanet.com/environment/paper-unsustainable/ |archive-date=June 6, 2008 }}{{unreliable source?|date=June 2016}}{{cite web |last=Spitzer |first=Nina |title=The impact of disposable coffee cups on the environment |date=30 July 2009 |url=http://www.sheknows.com/living/articles/810025/the-impact-of-disposable-coffee-cups-on-the-environment |access-date=21 November 2012}}{{unreliable source?|date=June 2016}}

{{stack|File:Hot Stopper in the lid of a paper coffee cup with a cardboard sleeve.jpeg}}

Paper cups may have various types of lids. The paper cups that are used as containers for yogurt, for example, generally have two types of lids: heat-seal foil lids used for small "single serving" containers, and {{convert|150-200|ml|usfloz|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} plastic press-on, resealable lids used for large "family size" containers, {{convert|250-1000|ml|usfloz|abbr=on|sigfig=1}}, where not all of the yogurt may be consumed at any one time and thus the ability to re-close the container is required.{{cite book|title=Yoghurt: science and technology|author1=Adman Y. Tamime |author2=Richard K. Robinson |name-list-style=amp |year=1999|publisher=Woodhead Publishing|isbn=978-1-85573-399-2|page=97}}

Hot drinks sold in paper cups may come with a plastic lid, to keep the drink hot and prevent spillage. These lids have a hole through which the drink can be sipped. The plastic lids can have many features including peel back tabs, raised walls to protect the foam of gourmet hot drinks and embossed text.{{cite web | url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2011/05/the-rise-of-the-plastic-disposable-coffee-cup-lid/238573/ | title=The Rise of the Plastic, Disposable Coffee Cup Lid | publisher=The Atlantic | date=9 May 2011 | access-date=3 March 2017}} In 2008, Starbucks introduced shaped plastic "splash sticks" to block the hole, in some of their stores, after customer complaints about hot coffee splashing through it.{{cite web | url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/money/advertising/adtrack/2008-04-13-ad-track_N.htm | title=Starbucks splash stick says no to sploshing | publisher=USA Today | date=14 March 2008 | access-date=21 April 2016}}{{cite web | url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/ct-starbucks-little-green-sticks-mystery-solved-20160311-column.html | title=Solving the mystery of Starbucks little green sticks | publisher=Chicago Tribune | date=11 March 2016 | access-date=21 April 2016 | author=Johnson, Steve}}{{cite web | url= https://www.justgiving.com/fundraising/Hotstopper | title=Example of awareness campaign for availability of splash sticks | publisher=JustGiving | date=19 October 2015 | access-date=16 August 2023}}

{{Reflist|1}}

• {{cite book|title=Why Didn't I Think of That? : Bizarre Origins of Ingenious Inventions We Couldn't Live Without|author1=Allyn Freeman|author2=Bob Golden|name-list-style=amp|chapter=Little Dipper|pages=[https://archive.org/details/whydidntithinkof00free/page/183 183–184]|year=1997|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-0-471-16511-8|chapter-url-access=registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/whydidntithinkof00free|url=https://archive.org/details/whydidntithinkof00free/page/183}} – the Dixie Cup
• {{cite book|title=Chinese Paper Folding for Beginners|author=Maying Soong|pages=6–7|year=2002|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-41806-3}} – how to make a paper cup out of a square of paper using origami
• {{cite journal|title=Relative merits of polystyrene foam and paper in hot drink cups: Implications for packaging|journal=Environmental Management|publisher=Springer New York|volume=15|issue=6|date=November 1991|doi=10.1007/BF02394812|pages=731–747|author=Martin B. Hocking|bibcode=1991EnMan..15..731H|s2cid=137050319}}
• {{cite journal|title=Reusable and disposable cups: An energy-based evaluation|journal=Environmental Management|publisher=Springer New York|volume=18|issue=6|date=November 1994|doi=10.1007/BF02393618|pages=889–899|author=Martin B. Hocking|bibcode=1994EnMan..18..889H|s2cid=30427571}}
• [http://www.mathematische-basteleien.de/cup.htm A mathematically annotated folding instruction for paper cups]

• {{commons category-inline|Paper cups}}
• [https://www.themachine.world/2019/12/paper-cup-machine.html Paper cup machine]

{{Paper products}}

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