Phono-semantic matching

The term "phono-semantic matching" was introduced by linguist and revivalist Ghil'ad Zuckermann.{{sfn|Zuckermann|2003a}} It challenged Einar Haugen's classic typology of lexical borrowing (loanwords).{{sfn|Haugen|1950}} While Haugen categorized borrowing into either substitution or importation, camouflaged borrowing in the form of PSM is a case of "simultaneous substitution and importation." Zuckermann proposed a new classification of multisourced neologisms, words deriving from two or more sources at the same time. Examples of such mechanisms are phonetic matching, semanticized phonetic matching and phono-semantic matching.

Zuckermann concludes that language planners, for example members of the Academy of the Hebrew Language, employ the very same techniques used in folk etymology by laymen, as well as by religious leaders.{{sfn|Zuckermann|2006}} He urges lexicographers and etymologists to recognize the widespread phenomena of camouflaged borrowing and multisourced neologization and not to force one source on multi-parental lexical items.

Zuckermann analyses the evolution of the word artichoke.{{harvtxt|Zuckermann|2009|page=60}} Beginning in Arabic {{lang|ar|الخرشوف}} ({{transliteration|ar|ALA|'al-khurshūf}}{{--)}} "the artichoke", it was adapted into Andalusian Arabic alxarshofa, then Old Spanish alcarchofa, then Italian alcarcioffo, then Northern Italian arcicioffo > arciciocco > articiocco, then phonetically realised in English as artichoke. The word was eventually phono-semantically matched back into colloquial Levantine Arabic (for example in Syria and Lebanon) as {{lang|ar|أرضي شوكي}} ({{transliteration|ar|ALA|arḍī shawkī}}{{--)}}, consisting of {{lang|ar|أرضي}} ({{transliteration|ar|ALA|arḍī}}{{--)}} "earthly" and {{lang|ar|شوكي}} ({{transliteration|ar|ALA|shawkī}}{{--)}} "thorny".

Arabic has made use of phono-semantic matching to replace blatantly imported new terminology with a word derived from an existing triliteral root. Examples are:

A number of PSMs exist in Dutch as well. One notable example is {{lang|nl|hangmat}} ("hammock"), which is a modification of Spanish {{lang|es|hamaca}}, also the source of the English word. Natively, the word is transparently analysed as a "hang-mat", which aptly describes the object. Similarly:

• In {{lang|nl|ansjovis}} ("anchovy"), the second part was modified to resemble {{lang|nl|vis}} ("fish"), although the word originates in Spanish anchova;
• In {{lang|nl|scheurbuik}} ("scurvy"), the word parts were modified to resemble {{lang|nl|scheur-}} (stem of {{lang|nl|scheuren}}, tear open) and {{lang|nl|buik}} ("belly, stomach"), although the word originates in Middle Low German {{lang|gml|schorbuck}};
• In {{lang|nl|sprokkelmaand}} (an alternative name for {{lang|nl|februari}}, "February"), the first part was modified to resemble {{lang|nl|sprokkelen}} ("gather wood"), although the word originates in Latin spurcalia;
• In {{lang|nl|zijdenhemdje}} (a variety of apple with a very soft, thin, yellow skin), the word parts were modified to resemble {{lang|nl|zijden}} ("silken") and {{lang|nl|hemdje}} ("shirt; small shirt; vest"), although the word actually denotes the place Sydenham where the apple originates.{{sfn|van Dale|2015}}
• Dutch dictionary Van Dale describes {{lang|nl|balkenbrij}} as a particularly notable example.
• Other examples are {{lang|nl|angstvallig}},{{sfn|Onze Taal - Volksetymologie}} {{lang|nl|dukdalf}}, {{lang|nl|geeuwhonger}},{{sfn|Onze Taal - Volksetymologie}} {{lang|nl|hagedis}}, {{lang|nl|hondsdraf}},{{sfn|Onze Taal - Volksetymologie}} {{lang|nl|penthouse}}, {{lang|nl|rederijker}}, {{lang|nl|rendier}} and {{lang|nl|zondvloed}}.

A few PSMs exist in English. The French word {{Wikt-lang|fr|chartreuse}} ("Carthusian monastery") was translated to the English charterhouse. The French word {{Wikt-lang|fr|choupique}}, itself an adaptation of the Choctaw name for the bowfin, has likewise been Anglicized as {{Wikt-lang|en|shoepike}},{{cite web |url=http://www.bowfinanglers.com/ |title=Bowfin Anglers |access-date=2007-07-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712154743/http://www.bowfinanglers.com/ |archive-date=2007-07-12 }} although it is unrelated to the pikes. The French name for the Osage orange, {{lang|fr|bois d'arc}} ({{abbr|lit.|literally}} "bow-wood"), is sometimes rendered as "bowdark".{{sfn|Wynia|2011}} {{Dubious span|text=In Canada, the cloudberry is called "bakeapple" after the French phrase baie qu'appelle 'the what-do-you-call-it berry'.||reason=The OED disagrees with this etymology, instead saying, "So called with reference to the flavour of the berries".|date=July 2024}}

The second part of the word muskrat was altered to match rat, replacing the original form {{linktext|musquash}}, which derives from an Algonquian (possibly Powhatan{{cite web|work=Online Etymology Dictionary|title=Muskrat|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=muskrat}}{{better source needed|date=July 2024}}) word, muscascus (literally "it is red"), or from the Abenaki native word mòskwas.

The use of runagates in Psalm 68 of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer derives from phono-semantic matching between Latin {{lang|la|renegatus}} and English {{wikt-lang|en|run}} {{wikt-lang|en|agate}}.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

The Finnish compound word for "jealous," {{lang|fi|mustasukkainen}}, literally means "black-socked" ({{lang|fi|musta}} "black" and {{lang|fi|sukka}} "sock"). However, the word is a case of a misunderstood loan translation from Swedish {{lang|sv|svartsjuk}} "black-sick". The Finnish word {{lang|fi|sukka}} fit with a close phonological equivalent to the Swedish {{lang|sv|sjuk}}. Similar cases are {{lang|fi|työmyyrä}} "hardworking person", literally "work mole", from {{lang|sv|arbetsmyra}} "work ant", matching {{lang|sv|myra}} "ant" to {{lang|fi|myyrä}} "mole"; and {{lang|fi|liikavarvas}} "clavus", literally "extra toe", from {{lang|sv|liktå}} < {{lang|sv|liktorn}} "dead thorn", matching {{lang|fi|liika}} "extra" to {{lang|sv|lik}} "dead (archaic)" and {{lang|fi|varvas}} "toe" to {{lang|sv|tå}} < {{lang|sv|torn}} "thorn".{{cite web|url=http://kirlah-kielet.blogspot.com/2008_05_01_archive.html|title=Kielten ihmeellinen maailma: toukokuuta 2008|work=kirlah-kielet.blogspot.com}}torn, in Svenska Akademiens Ordbok (1940). https://www.saob.se/artikel/?seek=liktorn&pz=1

{{harvtxt|Mailhammer|2008}} "applies the concepts of multisourced neologisation and, more generally, camouflaged borrowing, as established by {{harvtxt|Zuckermann|2003a}} to Modern German, pursuing a twofold aim, namely to underline the significance of multisourced neologisation for language contact theory and secondly to demonstrate that together with other forms of camouflaged borrowing it remains an important borrowing mechanism in contemporary German."{{sfn|Mailhammer|2008|page=191}}

{{harvtxt|Sapir|Zuckermann|2008}} demonstrate how Icelandic camouflages many English words by means of phono-semantic matching. For example, the Icelandic-looking word eyðni, meaning "AIDS", is a PSM of the English acronym AIDS, using the pre-existent Icelandic verb eyða, meaning "to destroy", and the Icelandic nominal suffix -ni.{{harvtxt|Sapir|Zuckermann|2008|page=36}}: see also {{lang|zh-hans|爱滋病}} {{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|aìzībìng}} (lit. "a disease caused by (making) love"), another PSM of AIDS, in this case in Standard Chinese. Similarly, the Icelandic word tækni, meaning "technology, technique", derives from tæki, meaning "tool", combined with the nominal suffix -ni, but is, in fact, a PSM of the Danish teknik (or of another derivative of Greek {{lang|grc|τεχνικός}} {{transliteration|grc|tekhnikós}}), meaning "technology, technique". Tækni was coined in 1912 by Dr Björn Bjarnarson from Viðfjörður in the East of Iceland. It had been in little use until the 1940s, but has since become common, as a lexeme and as an element in new formations, such as raftækni, lit. "electrical technics", i.e. "electronics", tæknilegur "technical" and tæknir "technician".{{harvtxt|Sapir|Zuckermann|2008|pages=37–38}}, cf. {{lang|ar|تقنيّ}} taqni/tiqani (lit. "of perfection, related to mastering and improving"), another PSM of technical, in this case in Modern Arabic. Other PSMs discussed in the article are beygla, bifra{{snd}} bifrari, brokkál, dapur{{snd}} dapurleiki - depurð, fjárfesta - fjárfesting, heila, guðspjall, ímynd, júgurð, korréttur, Létt og laggott, musl, pallborð{{snd}} pallborðsumræður, páfagaukur, ratsjá, setur, staða, staðall{{snd}} staðla{{snd}} stöðlun, toga{{snd}} togari, uppi and veira.{{sfn|Sapir|Zuckermann|2008}}

{{Main|Ateji|jukujikun}}

In modern Japanese, loanwords are generally represented phonetically via katakana. However, in earlier times loanwords were often represented by kanji (Chinese characters), a process called {{transliteration|ja|ateji}} when used for phonetic matching, or {{transliteration|ja|jukujikun}} when used for semantic matching. Some of these continue to be used; the characters chosen may correspond to the sound, the meaning, or both.

In most cases the characters used were chosen only for their matching sound or only for their matching meaning. For example, in the word {{lang|ja-Hani|寿司}} (sushi), the two characters are respectively read as {{transliteration|ja|su}} and {{transliteration|ja|shi}}, but the character {{lang|ja-Hani|寿}} means "one's natural life span" and {{lang|ja-Hani|司}} means "to administer", neither of which has anything to do with the food{{snd}} this is {{transliteration|ja|ateji}}. Conversely, in the word {{lang|ja-Hani|煙草}} ({{transliteration|ja|tabako}}) for "tobacco", the individual kanji respectively mean "smoke" and "herb", which corresponds to the meaning, while none of their possible readings have a phonetic relationship to the word {{transliteration|ja|tabako}}{{snd}} this is {{transliteration|ja|jukujikun}}.

In some cases, however, the kanji were chosen for both their semantic and phonetic values, a form of phono-semantic matching. A stock example is {{lang|ja-Hani|倶楽部}} ({{transliteration|ja|kurabu}}) for "club", where the characters can be interpreted loosely in sequence as "together-fun-place" (which has since been borrowed into Chinese during the early 20th century with the same meaning, including the individual characters, but with a pronunciation that differs considerably from the original English and the Japanese, {{transliteration|zh|jùlèbù}}). Another example is {{lang|ja-Hani|合羽}} ({{transliteration|ja|kappa}}) for the Portuguese {{lang|pt|capa}}, a kind of raincoat. The characters can mean "wings coming together", as the pointed {{lang|pt|capa}} resembles a bird with wings folded together.

PSM is frequently used in Mandarin borrowings.{{sfn|Zuckermann|2003b}}{{sfn|Zuckermann|2004}} An example is the Taiwanese Mandarin word {{lang|zh-Hant|威而剛}} {{transliteration|zh|wēi'érgāng}}, which literally means "powerful and hard" and refers to Viagra, the drug for treating erectile dysfunction in men, manufactured by Pfizer.{{sfn|Zuckermann|2003a|page=59}}

Another example is the Mandarin form of World Wide Web, which is {{transliteration|zh|wàn wéi wǎng}} ({{zh|s=万维网|t={{linktext|萬維網}}}}), which satisfies "www" and literally means "myriad dimensional net".See CEDICT or the [http://www.mdbg.net/chindict/chindict.php?page=translate&trst=0&trqs=World+Wide+Web&trlang=&wddmtm=0 MDBG Chinese-English Dictionary]. The English word hacker has been borrowed into Mandarin as {{lang|zh|{{linktext|黑客}}}} ({{transliteration|zh|hēikè}}, "dark/wicked visitor").{{sfn|Gao|2008}}

Modern Standard Chinese {{lang|zh-Hans|声纳}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|聲納}} {{transliteration|zh|shēngnà}} "sonar" uses the characters {{lang|zh-Hans|声}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|聲}} {{transliteration|zh|shēng}} "sound" and {{lang|zh-Hans|纳}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|納}} {{transliteration|zh|nà}} "receive, accept". The pronunciations {{transliteration|zh|shēng}} and {{transliteration|zh|nà}} are phonetically somewhat similar to the two syllables of the English word. Chinese has a large number of homo/heterotonal homophonous morphemes, which would have been a better phonetic fit than {{transliteration|zh|shēng}}, but not nearly as good semantically{{snd}} consider the syllable {{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|song}} (cf. {{lang|zh|送}} {{transliteration|zh|sòng}} 'deliver, carry, give (as a present)', {{lang|zh|松}} {{transliteration|zh|sōng}} 'pine; loose, slack', {{lang|zh-Hans|耸}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|聳}} {{transliteration|zh|sǒng}} 'tower; alarm, attract' etc.), {{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|sou}} (cf. {{lang|zh|搜}} {{transliteration|zh|sōu}} 'search', {{lang|zh|叟}} {{transliteration|zh|sŏu}} 'old man', {{lang|zh-Hans|馊}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|餿}} {{transliteration|zh|sōu}} 'sour, spoiled' and many others) or {{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|shou}} (cf. {{lang|zh|收}} {{transliteration|zh|shōu}} 'receive, accept', {{lang|zh|受}} {{transliteration|zh|shòu}} 'receive, accept', {{lang|zh|手}} {{transliteration|zh|shǒu}} 'hand', {{lang|zh|首}} {{transliteration|zh|shǒu}} 'head', {{lang|zh-Hans|兽}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|獸}} {{transliteration|zh|shòu}} 'beast', {{lang|zh|瘦}} {{transliteration|zh|shòu}} 'thin' and so forth).{{sfn|Zuckermann|2003a|page=57}}

According to Zuckermann, PSM in Mandarin is common in:

• brand names, e.g., {{lang|zh-hans|可口可乐}}/{{lang|zh-hant|可口可樂}} {{transliteration|zh|Kěkǒu kělè}}, "Coca-Cola" translates to "tasty [and] entertaining",{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXQWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT84|title = Terminology Translation in Chinese Contexts: Theory and Practice|isbn = 9781000357103|last1 = Li|first1 = Saihong|last2 = Hope|first2 = William|date = 22 February 2021| publisher=Routledge }} {{lang|zh-hans|可乐}}/{{lang|zh-hant|可樂}} itself genericised to refer to any cola.{{cite web| url = http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/可樂#Noun |script-title = zh:可樂 - Wiktionary| date=24 April 2021 }}
• computer jargon, e.g., the aforementioned word for "World Wide Web".
• technological terms, e.g., the aforementioned word for "sonar".
• toponyms, e.g., the name {{lang|zh-hans|白俄罗斯}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|白俄羅斯}} {{transliteration|zh|Bái'èluósī}}, "Belarus" combines the word {{lang|zh|白}} {{transliteration|zh|Bái}}, "White" with the name {{lang|zh-hans|俄罗斯}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|俄羅斯}} {{transliteration|zh|Èluósī}}, "Russia", therefore meaning "White Russia" just like the endonym "{{lang|be|Белару́сь}}".

From a monolingual Chinese view, Mandarin PSM is the 'lesser evil' compared with Latin script (in digraphic writing) or code-switching (in speech). Zuckermann's exploration of PSM in Standard Chinese and Meiji-period Japanese concludes that the Chinese writing system is multifunctional: pleremic ("full" of meaning, e.g., logographic), cenemic ("empty" of meaning, e.g., phonographic - like a syllabary), and phono-logographic (simultaneously cenemic and pleremic). Zuckermann argues that Leonard Bloomfield's assertion that "a language is the same no matter what system of writing may be used"{{sfn|Bloomfield|1933}} is inaccurate. "If Chinese had been written using roman letters, thousands of Chinese words would not have been coined, or would have been coined with completely different forms".{{sfn|Zuckermann|2003a|page=255}} Evidence of this can be seen in the Dungan language, a Chinese language that is closely related to Mandarin, but written phonetically in Cyrillic, where words are directly borrowed, often from Russian, without PSM.{{cite journal | last = Mair | first = Victor | author-link = Victor H. Mair | title = Implications of the Soviet Dungan Script for Chinese Language Reform | journal = Sino-Platonic Papers | issue = 18 | date = May 1990 | url = http://www.pinyin.info/readings/texts/dungan.html}}

A related practice is the translation of Western names into Chinese characters.

Often in phono-semantic matching, the source language determines both the root word and the noun-pattern. This makes it difficult to determine the source language's influence on the target language morphology. For example, "the phono-semantic matcher of English dock with Israeli Hebrew {{Script/Hebrew|מבדוק}} mivdók could have used{{snd}}after deliberately choosing the phonetically and semantically suitable root {{transliteration|he|b-d-q}} {{Script/Hebrew|בדק}} meaning 'check' (Rabbinic) or 'repair' (Biblical){{snd}} the noun-patterns mi⌂⌂a⌂á, ma⌂⌂e⌂á, mi⌂⌂é⌂et, mi⌂⌂a⌂áim etc. (each ⌂ represents a slot where a radical is inserted). Instead, mi⌂⌂ó⌂, which was not highly productive, was chosen because its [o] makes the final syllable of {{Script/Hebrew|מבדוק}} mivdók sound like English dock."{{sfn|Zuckermann|2009|page=59}}

The Hebrew name {{lang|he|יְרוּשָׁלַיִם}} (Yərūšālayim) for Jerusalem is rendered as {{lang|grc|Ἱεροσόλυμα}} (Hierosóluma) in, e.g. Matthew 2:1. The first part corresponds to the Ancient Greek prefix {{lang|grc|ἱερo-}} (hiero-), meaning "sacred, holy".

Old High German widarlōn ("repayment of a loan") was rendered as widerdonum ("reward") in Medieval Latin. The last part corresponds to the Latin donum ("gift").{{Cite OED1 |guerdon|year=1900}}{{cite book|last=Smythe Palmer|first=Abram|title=Folk-etymology: A Dictionary of Verbal Corruptions Or Words Perverted in Form Or Meaning, by False Derivation Or Mistaken Analogy|year=1882|publisher=Johnson Reprint}}{{rp|157}}

Viagra, a brand name which was suggested by Interbrand Wood (the consultancy firm hired by Pfizer), is itself a multisourced neologism, based on Sanskrit {{lang|sa|व्याघ्र}} {{IAST|vyāghráh}} ("tiger") but enhanced by the words vigour (i.e. strength) and Niagara (i.e. free/forceful flow).{{sfn|Zuckermann|2003a|page= 59}}

Other than through Sinoxenic borrowings, Vietnamese employs phono-semantic matching less commonly than Chinese. Examples include {{lang|vi|ma trận}} ("matrix", from the words for "magic" and "battle array"), {{lang|vi|áp dụng}} ("apply", from the words for "press down" and "use"), and {{lang|vi|{{linktext|Huỳnh Phi Long|lang=vi}}}} (Huey P. Long, from "yellow flying dragon", evoking the Huey P. Long Bridge).

According to Zuckermann, PSM has various advantages from the point of view of a puristic language planner:{{sfn|Zuckermann|2003a}}

• recycling obsolete lexical items
• camouflaging foreign influence (for the native speaker in the future)
• facilitating initial learning (mnemonics) (for the contemporary learner/speaker)

Other motivations for PSM include the following:

• playfulness (cf. midrashic tradition of homiletic commentary, cf. the Jewish pilpul)
• Apollonianism (the wish to create order/meaningfulness, cf. folk etymology, etymythology, paronymic attraction)
• iconicity (the belief that there is something intrinsic about the sound of names; cf. phonaesthetics)
• political correctness / rejective lexical engineering
• attracting customers (in the case of brand names)

An expressive loan is a loanword incorporated into the expressive system of the borrowing language, making it resemble native words or onomatopoeia. Expressive loanwords are hard to identify, and by definition, they follow the common phonetic sound change patterns poorly.{{sfn|Laakso|2010}} Likewise, there is a continuum between "pure" loanwords and "expressive" loanwords. The difference to a folk etymology (or an eggcorn) is that a folk etymology is based on misunderstanding, whereas an expressive loan is changed on purpose, the speaker taking the loanword knowing full well that the descriptive quality is different from the original sound and meaning.

South-eastern Finnish, for example, has many expressive loans. The main source language, Russian, does not use the vowels 'y', 'ä' or 'ö' [y æ ø]. Thus, it is common to add these to redescriptivized loans to remove the degree of foreignness that the loanword would otherwise have. For example, tytinä "brawn" means "wobblyness",{{clarify|reason=I think it should say "can be analyzed as meaning" rather than "means" since the actually meaning is "brawn", but I don't know Finnish.|date=July 2022}} and superficially it looks like a native construction, originating from the verb tutista "to wobble" added with a front vowel sound in the vowel harmony. However, it is expressivized from tyyteni (which is a confusing word as -ni is a possessive suffix), which in turn is a loanword from Russian stúden'.{{sfn|Jarva|2001}} A somewhat more obvious example is tökötti "sticky, tarry goo", which could be mistaken as a derivation from the onomatopoetic word tök (cf. the verb tökkiä "to poke"). However, it is an expressive loan of Russian d'ogot' "tar".{{sfn|Jarva|2003}}

{{div col}}

• Bilingual pun
• Eggcorn
• Hybrid word
• Hobson-Jobson
• Internationalism
• Language contact
• Lexicology
• Phonestheme
• Phonosemantics
• Poetry
• Portmanteau
• Word formation

{{div col end}}

{{reflist|30em}}

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• {{cite journal |last=Zuckermann |first=Ghil'ad |year=2003 |title=Language Contact and Globalisation: The Camouflaged Influence of English on the World's Languages – with special attention to Israeli (sic) and Mandarin |journal=Cambridge Review of International Affairs |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=287–307 |doi=10.1080/09557570302045 |ref={{harvid|Zuckermann|2003b}}|citeseerx=10.1.1.195.9748 |s2cid=11791518 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Zuckermann |first=Ghil'ad |year=2004 |title=Cultural Hybridity: Multisourced Neologization in 'Reinvented' Languages and in Languages with 'Phono-Logographic' Script |journal=Languages in Contrast |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=281–318 |doi= 10.1075/lic.4.2.06zuc|url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:155211/gz4.pdf }}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Zuckermann |first=Ghil'ad |year=2006 |title='Etymythological Othering' and the Power of 'Lexical Engineering' in Judaism, Islam and Christianity. A Socio-Philo(sopho)logical Perspective |encyclopedia=Explorations in the Sociology of Language and Religion |editor-first1=Tope |editor-last1=Omoniyi |editor-first2=Joshua A. |editor-last2=Fishman |location=Amsterdam |publisher=John Benjamins |pages=237–258}}
• {{cite journal |last=Zuckermann |first=Ghil'ad |date=2009 |url=http://www.zuckermann.org/pdf/Hybridity_versus_Revivability.pdf |title=Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns |journal=Journal of Language Contact |volume=Varia 2 |issue=2 |pages=40–67 |doi=10.1163/000000009792497788 }}

{{Refend}}

• [https://qz.com/816544/phono-semantic-matching-corporate-branding/ Jane C. Hu, 23 October 2016: LOST IN TRANSLATION: The genius and stupidity of corporate America are on display when companies rebrand for new countries]

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