Physical crystallography before X-rays#Absorption and pleochroism

During the 19th century crystallography was progressively transformed into an empirical and mathematical science by the adoption of symmetry concepts.{{sfnm|Scholz|1989b|Scholz|1989c|Scholz|1994|Katzir|2004}} In 1832 Franz Ernst Neumann used symmetry considerations when studying double refraction.{{sfn|Neumann|1832}} Woldemar Voigt, who was a student of Neumann, in 1885 formalized Neumann's principle as "if a crystal is invariant with respect to certain symmetry operations, any of its physical properties must also be invariant with respect to the same symmetry operations".{{sfn|Neumann's principle}}{{sfnm|Lalena|2006|1pp=145–146|Authier|2014|2p=11}} Neumann's principle is sometimes referred to as the Neumann–Minnigerode–Curie principle based on later work by Bernhard Minnigerode{{sfnm|Minnigerode|1884|Minnigerode|1886|Minnigerode|1887}} (another student of Neumann) and Pierre Curie.{{sfn|Brandmüller|1986}} Curie's principle "the symmetries of the causes are to be found in the effects" is a generalization of Neumann's principle.{{sfnm|Curie|1894|Curie|1982|Shubnikov|1988}} At the end of the 19th century Voigt introduced tensor calculus to model the physical properties of anisotropic crystals.{{sfnm|Voigt|1898|Ferraris|2020}}

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Double refraction occurs when a ray of light incident upon a birefringent material, is split by polarization into two rays taking slightly different paths. The double refraction and rhomboidal cleavage of crystals of calcite, or Iceland spar, were first recorded in 1669 by Rasmus Bartholin{{sfnm|Bartholin|1669|Authier|2013|2pp=298–299}} In 1690 Christiaan Huygens analyzed double refraction in his book Traité de la lumière.{{sfn|Huyghens|1690}} Huygens reasoned that the cleavage rhombohedron resulted from the stacking of spherical particles{{sfn|Lalena|2006|p=131}} and that the peculiarities of the transmission of light can be traced to the particular asymmetry of the crystal.{{sfn|Simonyi|2012|pp=283–288}}

In 1810 Étienne-Louis Malus determined that natural light, too, when reflected through a certain angle, behaves like one of the rays exiting a double-refracting crystal.{{sfn|Malus|1810}} Malus called this phenomenon polarization.{{sfn|Simonyi|2012|p=360}} In 1812 Jean-Baptiste Biot defined optically positive and negative crystals for the first time.{{sfnm|Biot|1812a|Biot|1812b}} In 1819 David Brewster found that all crystals could be classified as isotropic, uniaxial or biaxial.{{sfnm|Brewster|1819c|Lalena|2006|2p=144}} Augustin-Jean Fresnel was a significant researcher in the whole field of crystal optics, and published a detailed paper on double refraction in 1827 in which he described the phenomenon in terms of polarization, understanding light as a wave with field components in transverse polarization.{{sfnm|Fresnel|1827|Fresnel|1852}} Crystal optics was an active research area during the 19th century{{sfn|Wooster|1990|pp=64–65}} and comprehensive accounts of the field were published by Lazarus Fletcher (1891),{{sfn|Fletcher|1891}} Theodor Liebisch (1891){{sfn|Liebisch|1891}} and Friedrich Pockels (1906).{{sfn|Pockels|1906}}

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In 1824 Eilhard Mitscherlich observed that the angle between the cleavage faces of calcite changed with the temperature of the crystal. Mitscherlich concluded that, on heating, calcite contracts (has a negative coefficient of thermal expansion) in a direction perpendicular to the trigonal axis while expanding (positive coefficient) along that axis. This implies that there is a cone of directions along which there is no thermal expansion.{{sfnm|Mitscherlich|1824|Burke|1966|2p=145}} In 1864 Hippolyte Fizeau used an optical interference method to make measurements on many crystals.{{sfn|Fizeau|1864}} The measurements of the change of interfacial angle and the expansion of cut plates and bars were applied to crystals of all symmetries.{{sfn|Wooster|1990|pp=62–63}}

Crystals with less than cubic symmetry are anisotropic and will generally have different expansion coefficients in different directions. If the crystal symmetry is monoclinic or triclinic, even the angles between the axes are subject to thermal changes. In these cases the coefficient of thermal expansion is a tensor. If the temperature {{math|T}} of a crystal is raised by an amount {{math|ΔT}}, a deformation takes place that is described by the strain tensor {{math|u_ij}} = {{math|α_ijΔT}}. The quantities {{math|α_ij}} are the coefficients of thermal expansion. Since {{math|u_ij}} is a symmetrical polar tensor of second rank and T is a scalar, {{math|α_ij}} is a symmetric tensor of second rank.{{sfnm|Authier|2014|p=100|Nye|1990|2pp=106–109}} The contemporary usage of the term tensor was introduced by Woldemar Voigt in 1898.{{sfn|Voigt|1898}}

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Joseph Fourier was an early researcher in thermal conduction, publishing Théorie analytique de la chaleur in 1822.{{sfn|Simonyi|2012|p=370}} The first experiments on thermal conduction in crystals were carried out by Jean-Marie Duhamel in 1832.{{sfn|Duhamel|1832}}

Henri Hureau de Sénarmont conducted experiments to determine if heat would move through crystals with directional dependence.{{sfn|Narasimhan|2010}} He found that, for non-cubic crystals, the isothermal envelope surrounding a point source of heat in a crystal plate had an elliptical shape whose exact form depended on the orientation of the crystal.{{sfn|Sénarmont|1847}} Sénarmont's results qualitatively established that thermal conductivity is directionally dependent (thermal anisotropy), with characteristic directions related to crystallographic axes. In 1848 Duhamel provided an analysis of Sénermont’s findings.{{sfn|Duhamel|1848}}

George Gabriel Stokes and William Thomson provided mathematical theories to explain Sénarmont’s observations.{{sfnm|Stokes|1851|Stokes|2009|Thomson|1857a|Thomson|1857b}} Stokes acknowledged the connection between the phenomena and the symmetry of the crystal, and showed that the number of constants of heat conductivity reduces from nine to six in the case of two planes of symmetry.{{sfn|Katzir|2006|pp=85–86}} The matrix of thermal conductivity components resulting from Stoke's derivation constituted a tensor.{{sfn|Narasimhan|2010}} Experiments by :de:Franz Stenger in 1884{{sfn|Stenger|1884}} examined the theories put forward by Stokes and Thomson and disproved some of their theoretical speculations.{{sfn|Wooster|1990|p=63}}

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Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered the thermoelectric effect in 1821, although it has been claimed that Alessandro Volta should be given the priority.{{sfn|Anatychuk|2024}} In 1844 :de:Wilhelm Gottlieb Hankel investigated thermoelectricity in cobalt and iron sulfide crystals. Hankel showed that when certain external faces were developed the crystals were thermoelectrically positive relative to copper, whereas with other facial forms they were negative.{{sfn|Hankel|1844}} In 1850 Jöns Svanberg used bismuth and antimony crystals to demonstrate a directional variation of the thermoelectric effect.{{sfn|Svanberg|1850}} In 1854 William Thomson put forward a mechanical theory of thermoelectric currents in crystalline solids.{{sfnm|Thomson|1854a|Thomson|1854b|Thomson|1854c|Thomson|1857a}} In 1889 Theodor Liebisch analyzed the dependence of the thermoelectric force on the crystallographic direction in anisotropic crystals.{{sfnm|Liebisch|1889|Wooster|1990|2p=63}}

The first observations on the variation of electrical conductivity with direction in a crystal (anisotropy) were made by Henri Hureau de Sénarmont in 1850 on 36 different substances. The results showed a correlation between the axes of symmetry and the directions of maximum or minimum conductivity.{{sfn|Sénarmont|1850|pp=264–265}} In 1855 Carlo Matteucci performed experiments on bismuth.{{sfnm|Matteucci|1855a|Matteucci|1855b}} In 1888, :sv:Helge Bäckström performed electrical conduction measurements on hematite, another crystal of rhombohedral symmetry.{{sfnm|Bäckström|1888|Wooster|1990|2p=63}}

Electrical conductivity in a crystal is now defined as a second rank symmetric tensor relating two vectors: $\backslash mathbf\{J\}\_i\; =\; \backslash boldsymbol\{\backslash sigma\}\_\{ij\}\; \backslash mathbf\{E\}\_\{j\},$ where $\backslash mathbf\{J\}\_i$ is the current density, $\backslash boldsymbol\{\backslash sigma\}\_\{ij\}$ is the electrical conductivity tensor, and $\backslash mathbf\{E\}\_\{j\}$ is the electric field intensity.{{sfn|Nye|1990|pp=204,289}}

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Until the 19th century crystals were regarded either as magnetic or nonmagnetic. Magnetic crystals are now called ferromagnetic to distinguish them from the several other kinds which have since been discovered. Siméon Denis Poisson (1826) put forward a theory of magnetism as applied to crystals and predicted the behaviour of crystals in a magnetic field{{sfn|Poisson|1826}} which was verified by Julius Plücker in 1847. Plücker studied various natural crystals, such as quartz and related the reaction of the crystal to a magnetic field to its symmetry. All these crystals were repelled from a strong field, unlike ferromagnetic crystals. They were therefore called diamagnetic.{{sfn|Plücker|1847}} In 1850 a number of investigations were carried out by Plücker and August Beer using torsion balances to measure the small forces involved in most observations. Not only were some crystals repelled from a strong field but others were slightly attracted.{{sfnm|1a1=Plücker|1a2=Beer|1y=1850|2a1=Plücker|2a2=Beer|2y=1851}} These were called paramagnetic. Between 1850 and 1856 John Tyndall studied diamagnetism in crystals.{{sfnm|1a1=Tyndall|1a2=Knoblauch|1y=1850|2a1=Tyndall|2y=1851|3a1=Tyndall|3y=1855a|4a1=Tyndall|4y=1855b|5a1=Tyndall|5y=1856|6a1=Tyndall|6y=1870|7a1=Jackson|7y=2015}}

By the end of the 19th century the three types of crystal, ferromagnetic, diamagnetic and paramagnetic, were well established and successful theories had related diamagnetic and paramagnetic crystals to their crystal symmetry. Ferromagnetic properties were dealt with by Pierre Weiss (1896) who explained the hysteresis by assuming that the atoms have permanent magnetic poles which are normally in random positions, but arrange themselves in parallel under the influence of a magnetic field.{{sfn|Weiss|1896}} On removing the field the mutual effect of the parallel dipoles tends to maintain the magnetized state. He further postulated that there were domains within which all the atomic dipoles were similarly orientated and that the N-S axis could be differently orientated in neighbouring domains.{{sfnm|Hoddeson|1992|1pp=372–374|Wooster|1990|2p=63}}

A dielectric is an electrical insulator that can be polarised by an applied electric field. In 1851 the first experiments on the behaviour of crystals in an electric field were carried out by Hermann Knoblauch in a manner similar to that used for the study of magnetic properties.{{sfn|Knoblauch|1851}} The conductivity of the crystals, both over the surface and through the body of the crystal, made these experiments unreliable.{{sfn|Wooster|1990|p=64}} In 1876 Elihu Root avoided some of these difficulties by employing a rapidly alternating field between parallel plates.{{sfnm|Root|1876a|Root|1876b}} In 1893 Friedrich Pockels gave an account of the abnormally large piezoelectric constants of Rochelle salt.{{sfn|Pockels|1893}} A brief history on the theories of dielectrics in the 19th century has been written.{{sfn|Katzir|2006|pp=104–107}}

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In 1811 François Arago, who favoured the corpuscular theory of light, discovered the rotation of the plane of polarization of light travelling through quartz.{{sfn|Arago|1811}} In 1812 Jean-Baptiste Biot, who favoured the wave theory of light, enunciated the laws of rotary polarization and their application to the analysis of various substances.{{sfnm|Biot|1812a|Biot|1812b}} Biot discovered that while some crystals rotate the light to the right others rotate it to the left, and determined that the rotation is proportional to the thickness of substance traversed and to the wavelength of the light.{{sfn|Buchwald|1989|pp=86–107}}

In 1821 John Herschel pointed out the relation between the direction of rotation and the development of faces on quartz crystals.{{sfn|Herschel|1821}} Suspecting that rotatory polarization is an effect of a lack of symmetry, Herschel established that quartz crystals often present faces placed in such a way that those belonging to certain crystals are mirror images of the corresponding faces of other crystals. He explained the connection between this arrangement and the respective rotation of light to the right and to the left.{{sfn|Lalena|2006|p=144}} In 1822 Augustin-Jean Fresnel explained the rotation by postulating oppositely circularly polarized beams travelling with different velocities along the optic axis.{{sfn|Fresnel|1822b}} In 1831 George Biddell Airy gave an explanation of the formation of the spirals which bear his name.{{sfnm|Airy|1831|Ohba|2019}} In 1846 Michael Faraday discovered that the plane of polarization may also be rotated when light passes through an isotropic medium when it is in a magnetic field.{{sfnm|Faraday|1846a|Faraday|1846b}} The corresponding Kerr effect can be observed on reflecting plane-polarized light from a polished ferromagnetic mirror when in a magnetized state.

In 1848 Louis Pasteur gave the general relation between crystal morphology and rotatory polarization.{{sfn|Pasteur|1848a}} Pasteur solved the mystery of polarized light acting differently with chemically identical crystals and solutions. Pasteur discovered the phenomenon of molecular asymmetry, that is that molecules could be chiral and exist as a pair of enantiomers. Pasteur's method was to physically separate the crystals of a racemic mixture of sodium ammonium tartrate into right- and left-handed crystals, and then dissolve them to make two separate solutions which rotated polarized light in opposite directions.{{sfnm|1a1=Geison|1a2=Secord|1y=1988|2a1=Debré|2y=1998|3a1=Kauffman|3a2=Myers|3y=1998|4a1=Flack|4y=2009}}

In 1855 :de:Christian August Hermann Marbach discovered that crystals of sodium chlorate, sodium bromate, sodium ammonium sulfate and sodium amyl acetate have the property of rotating the polarization plane.{{sfnm|Marbach|1855|Darmstaedter|1908}} In 1857 Alfred Des Cloizeaux advanced a general theory of rotatory polarization whilst studying cinnabar and strychnine sulphate.{{sfnm|Des Cloizeaux|1857a|Des Cloizeaux|1857b|Des Cloizeaux|1857c}} In 1864 Josef Stefan introduced the banded spectrum in the study of rotatory polarization.{{sfn|Stefan|1864}} Theories of magnetic optics in ferromagnetic crystals were published in 1892 by D. A. Goldhammer,{{sfn|Goldhammer|1892}} and in 1893 by Paul Drude.{{sfn|Drude|1893}}{{sfn|Wooster|1990|p=65}}

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Conical refraction is an optical phenomenon in which a ray of light, passing through a biaxial crystal along certain directions, is refracted into a hollow cone of light. There are two possible conical refractions, one internal and one external.

In 1821-1822 Augustin-Jean Fresnel developed a theory of double refraction in both uniaxial and biaxial crystals.{{sfnm|Fresnel|1852|O'Hara|1982|2p=233}} Fresnel derived the equation for the wavevector surface in 1823, and André-Marie Ampère rederived it in 1828.{{sfn|Ampère|1828}} Many others investigated the wavevector surface of the biaxial crystal, but they all missed its physical implications.

William Rowan Hamilton, in his work on Hamiltonian optics, discovered the wavevector surface has four conoidal points and four tangent conics.{{sfn|Hamilton|1832}} This implies that, under certain conditions, a ray of light could be refracted into a cone of light within the crystal.{{sfn|Hankins|1980|pp=88–95}} He termed this phenomenon "conical refraction" and predicted two distinct types: internal and external, corresponding respectively to the conoidal points and tangent conics. Hamilton announced his discovery on 22 October 1832. He then asked Humphrey Lloyd to prove his theory experimentally. Lloyd first observed conical refraction on 14 December 1832 with a specimen of aragonite, and published his results in early 1833.{{sfnm|Lloyd|1833a|Lloyd|1833b|Lloyd|1831}} In 1833 James MacCullagh claimed that Hamilton's work was a special case of a theorem he had published in 1830.{{sfnm|MacCullagh|1830|Flood|2006|Flood|2011|O'Hara|1982|4p=256}} Hamilton also exchanged letters with George Biddell Airy who was skeptical that conical refraction could be observed experimentally but became convinced after Lloyd's report.{{sfnm|O'Hara|1982|Sarton|1932}}

Hamilton and Lloyd's discovery was a significant victory for the wave theory of light and solidified Fresnel's theory of double refraction.{{sfn|Berry|Jeffrey|2007}} The discovery of conical refraction is an example of a mathematical prediction being subsequently verified by experiment.{{sfnm|O'Hara|1982|1p=256|Sarton|1932|2p=156}}

Later theoretical work on conical refraction was published in 1860 by Robert Bellamy Clifton{{sfn|Clifton|1860}} and in 1874 by Jules Antoine Lissajous{{sfn|Lissajous|1874}}, and experimental work in 1888 by Theodor Liebisch{{sfn|Liebisch|1888}} and in 1889 by Albrecht Schrauf.{{sfn|Schrauf|1889}}{{sfn|Wooster|1990|p=65}}

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Photoelasticity describes changes in the optical properties of a material under mechanical deformation. The photoelastic phenomenon in transparent, non-crystalline materials (gels and glasses) was first discovered by David Brewster in 1815.{{sfnm|Brewster|1815|Brewster|1816}} Brewster then detected the effect in crystals{{sfnm|Brewster|1818|Brewster|1819a|Brewster|1819b}} and showed that uniaxial crystals could be made biaxial.{{sfn|Wooster|1990|p=65}} In 1822 Augustin-Jean Fresnel experimentally confirmed that the photoelastic effect was a stress-induced birefringence.{{sfnm|Fresnel|1822a|Fresnel|1822b}}

Franz Ernst Neumann investigated double refraction in stressed transparent bodies. In 1841 Neumann published his elastic equations, which describe, in differential form, the changes which polarized light experiences when travelling through a stressed body.{{sfn|Neumann|1841}} The Neumann equations are the basis of all subsequent photoelasticity research.{{sfn|Mönch|1986}}

The photoelastic effect was analyzed by Friedrich Pockels, who also discovered the Pockels electro-optic effect, (the production of birefringence of light on the application of an electric field). In 1889/90 Pockels produced a phenomenological theory for both of these effects for all crystal classes.{{sfnm|Pockels|1889|Pockels|1890|Narasimhamurty|1981}}

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In 1809 Louis Cordier discovered the phenomenon of pleochroism while investigating a new mineral that he named dichröıte. Dichröıte (cordierite) crystals showed different colors when viewed along different axes.{{sfn|Cordier|1809}} From 1817-1819 David Brewster made a systematic study of light absorption and pleochroism in various minerals and showed that, in uniaxial crystals, the absorption is smallest in the direction of, and greatest at right angles to, the optical axis.{{sfnm|Brewster|1819a|Brewster|1820a|Brewster|1820b}} In 1820 John Herschel studied the absorbtion of light in biaxial crystals and explained the interference rings first observed by David Brewster.{{sfn|Herschel|1820}} In 1838 Jacques Babinet discovered that the greatest absorption in a crystal generally coincided with the direction of greatest refractive index.{{sfn|Babinet|1838}} In 1845 Wilhelm Haidinger published a general account of pleochroism in crystals.{{sfn|Haidinger|1845}} In 1854 Henri Hureau de Sénarmont showed that transparent crystals stained by a dye during crystal growth became pleochroic.{{sfn|Sénarmont|1854}}{{sfn|Shtukenberg|Punin|2007|p=132}}

In 1877 :de:Paul Glan performed photometric observations on absorption.{{sfn|Glan|1877}} In 1880 :de:Hugo Laspeyres pointed out the existence of absorption axes (directions of least, intermediate, and greatest absorption). He investigated certain biaxial crystals and found that the absorption axes, although subject to the symmetry of the crystal, did not necessarily coincide with the principal directions of the indicatrix.{{sfnm|Laspeyres|1880|Mandarino|1959}} In 1888 Henri Becquerel made qualitative and quantitative observations{{sfnm|Becquerel|1888a|Becquerel|1888b}}. Woldemar Voigt (1885) and Paul Drude (1890) presented theories of the absorption of light in crystals.{{sfnm|Voigt|1885|Drude|1890|Drude|1900}} In 1906 Friedrich Pockels published his Lehrbuch der Kristalloptik{{sfn|Pockels|1906}} which gave an overview of the subject.{{sfn|Wooster|1990|p=65}}

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Luminescence is the non-thermal emission of visible light by a substance; an example is the emission of visible light by minerals in response to irradiation by ultraviolet light. The term luminescence was first used by Eilhard Wiedemann in 1888;{{sfn|Valeur|Berberan-Santos|2011|p=731}} he stated that luminescence was separate from thermal radiation, and he distinguished six different forms of luminescence according to their excitation,{{sfn|Goldberg|Weiner|1989}} for example photoluminescence, electroluminescence, etc.{{sfnm|Wiedemann|1888|Hoppe|1926|2p=149}}

Fluorescence is luminescence which occurs during the irradiation of a substance by electromagnetic radiation; fluorescent materials generally cease to glow nearly immediately when the radiation source stops.{{sfn|Harvey|1957|pp=390-409}} The term fluorescence was coined by George Stokes in 1852, and was derived from the behavior of fluorite when exposed to ultraviolet light.{{sfnm|Stokes|1852|Stokes|1853}}

Phosphorescence is long-lived luminescence; phosphorescent materials continue to emit light for some time after the radiation stops. In 1857 Edmond Becquerel invented the phosphoroscope, and in a detailed study of phosphorescence and fluorescence, showed that the duration of phosphorescence varies by substance, and that phosphorescence in solids is due to the presence of finely dispersed foreign substances. Becquerel suggested that fluorescence is simply phosphorescence of a very short duration.{{sfnm|Becquerel|1859|Harvey|1957|2pp=349–365}} The most prominent phosphorescent material for 130 years was ZnS doped with Cu⁺, or later Co²⁺, ions. The material was discovered in 1866 by Théodore Sidot who succeeded in growing tiny ZnS crystals by a sublimation method.{{sfnm|Sidot|1866|2a1=Xu|2a2=Tanabe|2y=2019|2p=3}}

Crystalloluminescence is the emission of light during crystal growth from solution. The first observation was that of potassium sulfate which was reported by a number of researchers in the eighteenth century; other substances reported in the early literature which exhibit crystalloluminescence include strontium nitrate, cobalt sulfate, potassium hydrogen sulfate, sodium sulfate, and arsenious acid.{{sfn|Harvey|1957|pp=387–389}} In 1918 Harry Weiser summarised the research on crystalloluminescence up to that date.{{sfn|Weiser|1918}} Neither the spectral distribution nor the excitation mechanisms of crystalloluminescence are understood.{{sfn|Zink|Chandra|1982}}

Triboluminescence is the generation of light when certain materials, for example quartz, are rubbed;{{sfn|Harvey|1957|pp=378–387}} fractoluminescence is the emission of light from the fracture of a crystal. The first recorded observation is attributed to Francis Bacon when he recorded in his 1620 Novum Organum that sugar sparkles when broken or scraped in the dark.{{sfn|Bacon|1620}} The scientist Robert Boyle also reported on some of his work on triboluminescence in 1664.{{sfn|Boyle|1664}}

In 1677 Henry Oldenburg described the luminescence of fluorite, CaF₂, on heating.{{sfnm|Oldenburg|1677|Harvey|1957|2p=120}} In 1830 Thomas Pearsall observed that colourless fluorite could be coloured by discharging sparks from a Leyden jar held against it.{{sfnm|Pearsall|1830a|Pearsall|1830b|Wilk|2013}} In 1881 luminescence excited by cathode rays was described by William Crookes.{{sfnm|Crookes|1881|2a1=Goldberg|2a2=Weiner|2y=1989}} In 1885 Edmond Becquerel found that when crystals were bombarded by cathode rays they became coloured and also emitted light.{{sfn|Becquerel|1885}} In 1894 :de:Eugen Goldstein showed that ultraviolet light has the same effect as cathode rays.{{sfn|Goldstein|1894}}{{sfn|Wooster|1990|pp=65–66}}

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The study of the optical properties of opaque substances has been closely linked with the development of suitable microscopes.{{sfn|Wooster|1990|p=66}} The first instrument adapted to reflected light was the Lieberkühn reflector attributed to Johann Nathanael Lieberkühn.{{sfn|Orcel|1972|p=301}} The use of polished and etched surfaces for this type of study was introduced by Jöns Jacob Berzelius in 1813.{{sfn|Orcel|1972|p=301}} A theory of the light reflected from metals was put forward by Augustin-Louis Cauchy in 1848{{sfn|Cauchy|1848}}. In 1858 Henry Clifton Sorby established the technique of cutting minerals and crystals into thin sections for examination under the polarizing microscope.{{sfn|Sorby|1858}} In 1864 Sorby studied the microscopical structure of minerals from meteorites.{{sfn|Sorby|1864}} In 1888 Paul Drude published work on reflection from antimony sulfide.{{sfn|Drude|1888}}

Heinrich Rubens measured the dependence of the refractive index of quartz on wavelength, and found absorption in particular infrared wavelength ranges. By 1896 Rubens saw these bands as a potential filter that would allow him to separate out an almost monochromatic beam from the broad range of infrared radiation that his sources produced.{{sfn|Hoddeson|1992|p=18}} In 1897 Rubens and his student Ernest Fox Nichols studied the reststrahlen (residual rays){{sfn|Rubens|Aschkinass|1898}} obtained when infrared rays of appropriate wavelength are reflected from the surfaces of crystals.{{sfnm|Nichols|1897|2a1=Rubens|2a2=Nichols|2y=1897}}

{{multiple image

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| image1 = Carl von Linné, 1707-1778, botanist, professor (Alexander Roslin) - Nationalmuseum - 15723.tif

| alt1 = Painting of Carl Linnaeus

| caption1 = Carl Linnaeus

| image2 = Hubert von Herkomer03.jpg

| alt2 = Painting of William Thomson

| caption2 = William Thomson

| footer = Researchers in pyroelectricity

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Pyroelectricity is the generation of a temporary voltage in a crystal when subjected to a temperature change.{{sfn|Pyroelectricity}} The appearance of electrostatic charges upon a change of temperature has been observed since ancient times, in particular with tourmaline and was described, among others, by Steno, Linnaeus, Aepinus and René Just Haüy. Aepinus published an account of his observations in 1756.{{sfn|Aepinus|1756}} Haüy made detailed investigations of pyroelectricity;{{sfn|Burke|1966|p=85}} he detected pyroelectricity in calamine and showed that electricity in tourmaline was strongest at the poles of the crystal and became imperceptible at the middle. Haüy published a book on electricity and magnetism in 1787.{{sfn|Haüy|1787}} Haüy later showed that hemihedral crystals are electrified by temperature change while holohedral (symmetric) crystals are not.

Research into pyroelectricity became more quantitative in the 19th century.{{sfn|Lang|2004|p=66}} In 1824 David Brewster gave the effect the name it has today.{{sfn|Brewster|1824}} In 1840 Gabriel Delafosse, Haüy's student, theorized that only molecules which are not symmetrical can be polarized electrically.{{sfn|Katzir|2006|pp=26–27}} Both William Thomson in 1878{{sfn|Thomson|1878}} and Woldemar Voigt in 1897{{sfn|Voigt|1897}} helped develop a theory for the processes behind pyroelectricity.

A detailed history of pyroelectricity has been written by Sidney Lang;{{sfn|Lang|1974}} shorter histories have also been published.{{sfnm|Lang|2004|Katzir|2006|2pp=24–29|Burke|1966|3pp=136–138}}.

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| image1 = FriedrichMohs.jpg

| alt1 = Painting of Friedrich Mohs

| caption1 = Friedrich Mohs

| image2 = Woldemar Voigt, c. 1908.jpg

| alt2 = Photograph of Woldemar Voigt

| caption2 = Woldemar Voigt

| image3 = Wilhelm Röntgen 1900 Portrait (3x4 cropped).jpg

| alt3 = Photograph of Wilhelm Röntgen

| caption3 = Wilhelm Röntgen

| image4 = Lampros Koromilas greek revolutionary.jpg

| alt4 = Photograph of Lambros Koromilas

| caption4 = Lambros Koromilas

| footer = Researchers in elastic properties

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}}

Some minerals, for example mica, are highly elastic, springing back to their original shape after being bent. Others, for example talc, may be readily bent but do not return to their original form when released. The initial theory of the elasticity of solid bodies were developed in the 1820s. Augustin-Louis Cauchy and Siméon Denis Poisson published theories of the mutual action of a regular arrangement of particles for a non-cubic body in 1823{{sfn|Cauchy|1823}} and 1829 respectively.{{sfnm|Poisson|1829a|Poisson|1829b}} In 1827 Claude-Louis Navier published a theory for an isotropic body.{{sfn|Navier|1827}} Also during the 1820s Friedrich Mohs introduced his eponymous scale of hardness.{{sfn|Mohs|1822}} In 1834 Franz Ernst Neumann published a paper on the elasticity of homohedral crystals.{{sfn|Neumann|1834}}

In 1828 Cauchy generalised the problem and showed that 36 independent constants were required to describe elasticity in crystals.{{sfn|Cauchy|1828}} George Green (1837) introduced the limitation that the force between any two elements of a crystal, however small, must lie along the line joining their centres.{{sfn|Green|1837}} This reduced the number of constants from 36 to 21. William Thomson (1857) showed that Green’s assumption was unnecessary and that the thermodynamic requirements of a reversible process require only 21 constants, without any special assumptions.{{sfn|Thomson|1857b}} In 1874 Woldemar Voigt measured the elasticity of rock salt{{sfnm|Voigt|1874|Voigt|1876}} and G. Baumgarten measured the elasticity of calcite.{{sfn|Baumgarten|1874}} In 1887 Wilhelm Röntgen and J. Schneider measured the cubic compressibility of sodium and potassium chlorides.{{sfn|Röntgen|Schneider|1887}} In 1877 Lambros Koromilas measured the elasticity of gypsum and mica by twisting mineral bars.{{sfn|Coromilas|1877}}; in 1881 H. Klang carried out similar experiments with fluorites.{{sfn|Klang|1881}}

In the period 1874-1888 Voigt was the leading researcher on the elasticity of crystals. Voigt showed that the number of elasticity constants reduces as more symmetry is introduced into the crystal. For a triclinc crystal, which is the most general case, 21 elasticity constants are required. For a monoclinic crystal there are 13 elasticity constants, for a rhombic crystal 9, for a hexagonal crystal 7, for a tetragonal crystal 6, and finally for a cubic crystal there are only 3.{{sfnm|Voigt|1888|Tutton|1922}} A summary of developments in the field was published by W. A. Wooster.{{sfn|Wooster|1990|p=67}}

{{multiple image

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| image1 = Pierre Curie by Dujardin c1906.jpg

| alt1 = Photograph of Pierre Curie

| caption1 = Pierre Curie

| image2 = Gabriel Lippmann2.jpg

| alt2 = Photograph of Gabriel Lippmann

| caption2 = Gabriel Lippmann

| footer = Researchers in piezoelectricity

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}}

In 1880 Pierre and Jacques Curie discovered piezoelectricity (an electric charge that accumulates in response to applied mechanical stress) in certain crystals, including quartz, tourmaline, cane sugar and sodium chlorate.{{sfnm|1a1=Curie|1a2=Curie|1y=1880a|2a1=Curie|2a2=Curie|2y=1880b|3a1=Curie|3a2=Curie|3y=1881a|4a1=Curie|4a2=Curie|4y=1881b|5a1=Curie|5a2=Curie|5y=1881c}}{{sfnm|Authier|2013|1p=258|Katzir|2003a|Katzir|2006}} The Curies, however, did not predict the converse piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of a mechanical strain resulting from an applied electric field). The converse effect was deduced by Gabriel Lippmann in 1881.{{sfn|Lippmann|1881}} The Curies immediately confirmed the existence of the effect,{{sfn|Curie|Curie|1881d}} and went on to obtain quantitative proof of the complete reversibility of electro-elasto-mechanical deformations in piezoelectric crystals.{{sfnm|1a1=Curie|1a2=Curie|1y=1882|2a1=Curie|2a2=Curie|2y=1887|3a1=Curie|3a2=Curie|3y=1889}}

In 1890 Woldemar Voigt published a phenomenological theory{{sfn|Katzir|2003b}} of the piezoelectric effect based on the symmetry of crystals without centrosymmetry.{{sfnm|Voigt|1890a|Voigt|1890b|Wooster|1990|3p=67}}

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| image1 = Theodor Hilsdorf - Paul Heinrich von Groth (1910).jpg

| alt = Photograph of Paul Groth

| caption1 = Paul Groth

| image2 = Zeitschrift für Krystallographie und Mineralogie, title page, volume 1, 1877.png

| alt2 = Title page of the first issue of the journal Zeitschrift für Krystallographie

| caption2 = Z. Krist., 1, 1877

| footer = Founder of Zeitschrift für Kristallographie

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}}

Before the 20th century crystallography was not a well-established academic discipline. There were no academic positions specifically in crystallography. Workers in the field normally carried out their crystallographic research as an ancillary to other employment(s), or had independent means. The leading workers in the field of physical crystallography were employed as follows:

• Professors
• Mathematics or science: Airy,{{sfn|MacTutor|loc=George Biddell Airy}} Arago,{{sfn|MacTutor|loc=Dominique François Jean Arago}} E. Becquerel,{{sfn|Gough|1970}} Biot,{{sfn|MacTutor|loc=Jean-Baptiste Biot}} Curie,{{sfnm|Curie|1923|Wyart|1971}} Drude,{{sfn|Hoffmann|2006}} Hamilton,{{sfn|Hankins|1980}} Linnaeus,{{sfn|Blunt|1971}} Mitscherlich,{{sfn|Schütt|1992}} Pasteur,{{sfn|Debré|1998}} Pockels,{{sfn|Shtukenberg|Punin|2007|p=211|loc="the great systematizers of crystal physics, Voigt and Pockels"}}, Plücker{{sfn|MacTutor|loc=Julius Plücker}}, Stokes,{{sfn|MacTutor|loc=George Gabriel Stokes}} Tyndall,{{sfn|MacLeod|1981}} Thomson,{{sfn|MacTutor|loc=William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)}} Voigt{{sfn|Goldbers|1976}}
• Mineralogy: Groth,{{sfn|Fischer|1972}} Haüy,{{sfnm|Authier|2013|1p=319|Hooykaas|1972|Kunz|1918|4a1=Boulliard|4a2=Cabaret|4a3=Giura|4y=2022}} Liebisch,{{sfn|Schuh|2013}} Mohs,{{sfn|Authier|2013|p=350}} Neumann,{{sfnm|Authier|2013|1p=354|MacTutor|2loc=Franz Ernst Neumann}} Sénarmont{{sfn|Fischer|1975}}
• Other employment: Bartholinus (physician),{{sfnm|Authier|2013|1p=296|MacTutor|2loc=Erasmus Bartholin}} Brewster (editor),{{sfn|Authier|2013|p=349}} Fresnel (engineer),{{sfn|MacTutor|loc=Augustin Jean Fresnel}} Hooke (municipal official),{{sfnm|Authier|2013|1p=293|MacTutor|2loc=Robert Hooke}} Malus (military officer){{sfn|MacTutor|loc=Étienne Louis Malus}}
• Independently wealthy: Herschel, {{sfn|MacTutor|loc=John Frederick William Herschel}} Huygens{{sfnm|Authier|2013|1p=34|MacTutor|2loc=Christiaan Huygens}}

In the nineteenth century there were informal schools of physical crystallography researchers in France (Arago, E. Becquerel, Biot, Fresnel, Haüy, Sénarmont),{{sfnm|Mauskopf|1976|Kubbinga|2012|Lalena|2006}} Germany (Drude, Groth, Liebisch, Mitscherlich, Mohs, Neumann, Pockels, Voigt){{sfnm|Scholz|1989c|Kubbinga|2012|Lalena|2006}} and the British Isles (Airy, Brewster, Hamilton, Stokes, Thomson).{{sfnm|Deas|1959|Authier|2013|2pp=333–337}}

Until the founding of Zeitschrift für Krystallographie und Mineralogie by Paul Groth in 1877 there was no lead journal for the publication of crystallographic papers. The majority of crystallographic research was published in the journals of national scientific societies, or in mineralogical journals.{{sfn|Schuh|2007|pp=371–373}} The inauguration of Groth’s journal marked the emergence of crystallography as a mature science independent of geology.{{sfn|Kahr|McBride|1992|p=12}}

• Timeline of crystallography

{{Reflist|20em}}

{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Aepinus |year=1756 |title=Memoire concernant quelques nouvelles experiences électriques remarquables |trans-title=Memoir of some remarkable new electrical experiments |journal=Histoire de l'Académie royale des sciences et des belles lettres (Berlin) |volume=12 |pages=105–121 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mZgDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA105 |access-date=20 March 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Airy |first1=G. B. |title=On the nature of the light in the two rays produced by the double refaction of quartz |journal=Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society |date=1831 |volume=4 |pages=79-123, 198-208 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/47617#page/95/mode/1up |access-date=14 April 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Ampère |first1=A. M. |year=1828 |title=Mémoire sur la détermination de la surface courbe des ondes lumineuses dans un milieu don't l'élasticité est différente suivant les trois directions principales |trans-title=Memoir on the determination of the curved surface of light waves in a medium where elasticity is different in the three main directions |journal=Annales de chimie et de physique |volume=39 |pages=113–45 |url=https://archive.org/details/s3id13208080/page/112/mode/2up |access-date=12 April 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite book |last1=Anatychuk |first1=Lukyan I. |editor1-last=Anatychuk |editor1-first=Lukyan I. |editor2-last=Burkov |editor2-first=Alexander |editor3-last=Goldsmid |editor3-first=Hiroshi Julian |editor4-last=Grin |editor4-first=Yuri |editor5-last=Koumoto |editor5-first=Kunihito |editor6-last=Narducci |editor6-first=Dario |editor7-last=Nolas |editor7-first=George S. |title=200 Years of Thermoelectricity: An Historical Journey Through the Science and Technology of Thermoelectric Materials (1821-2021) |date=2024 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |location=Cham |isbn=978-3-031-22107-1 |pages=3–12 |chapter=On the Discoverers of Thermoelectricity |series=Springer Series in Materials Science |volume=328 |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-22108-8_1}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Arago |first1=François |year=1811 |title=Mémoire sur une modification remarquable qu'éprouvent les rayons lumineux dans leur passage à travers certains corps diaphanes et sur quelques autres nouveaux phénomènes d'optique |trans-title=Memoir on a remarkable modification that light rays experience during their passage through certain translucent substances and on some other new optical phenomena |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ucm.5326746608&view=1up&seq=105 |journal=Mémoires de la classe des sciences mathématiques et physiques de l'Institut Impérial de France, première partie |pages=93–134 |language=French |access-date=16 February 2025}}
• {{cite book |last1=Authier |first1=A. |year=2013 |title=Early days of x-ray crystallography |series=International Union of Crystallography Texts on Crystallography |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780198754053 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199659845.001.0001}}
• {{cite book |editor-last1=Authier |editor-first1=A. |title=International Tables for Crystallography: Physical properties of crystals |year=2014 |volume=D |page=11 |isbn=978-1-118-76229-5 |doi=10.1107/97809553602060000113}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Babinet |first1=J. |title=Sur l'absorption dans les milieux colorés biréfringents |trans-title=On absorption in bi-refractive coloured media |journal=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences |year=1838 |volume=7 |pages=832–833 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/81350#page/846/mode/1up |access-date=24 March 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite book |last1=Bacon |first1=Francis |title=Novum Organum |year=1620 |url=https://archive.org/details/baconsnovumorgan00bacoiala/page/372/mode/2up |access-date=8 April 2025 |language=Latin |quote=Atque certissimum est saccharum omne, sive conditum (ut vocant) sive simplex, modo sit durius, in tenebris fractum aut cultello scalptum coruscare [And it is most certain that all sugar, whether seasoned (as they call it) or plain, provided it is harder, will sparkle in the dark when broken or scratched with a knife.]}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Bäckström |first1=Helge |title=Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Thermoelektricität der Krystalle |journal=Öfversigt af Kongl. Vetenskaps-akademiens forhandlingar |date=1888 |volume=45 |issue=8 |pages=553–559 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/100845#page/567/mode/1up |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/fversigtafkong451888kung/page/552/mode/2up |archive-date=24 August 2010 |access-date=26 March 2025 |trans-title=Contributions to understanding the thermoelectric properties of crystals |language=German |url-status=live}}
• {{cite book |last1=Bartholin |first1=Erasmus |title=Experimenta crystalli islandici disdiaclastici quibus mira & infolita refractio detegitur |trans-title=Experiments on birefringent Icelandic crystal through which is detected a remarkable and unique refraction |year=1669 |location=Copenhagen |publisher=Daniel Paulli |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F7RAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP11 |access-date=22 March 2025 |language=Latin}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Baumgarten |first1=G. |title=Die Elasticität von Kalkspathstäbchen |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1874 |volume=228 [152] |issue=7 |pages=369–397 |doi=10.1002/andp.18742280702 |bibcode=1874AnP...228..369B |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1874_152_7/mode/2up |access-date=18 April 2025 |trans-title=The elasticity of calcite bars |language=German}}
• {{cite book |last1=Becquerel |first1=Edmond |title=Recherches sur divers effets lumineux qui resultent de l'action de la lumière sur les corps (1st, 2nd and 3rd Mémoires) |trans-title=Research on various light effects resulting from the action of light on bodies |year=1859 |publisher=Mallet-Bachelier |location=Paris |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044019364801&seq=25 |access-date=8 April 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Becquerel |first1=Edmond |title=Étude spectrale des corps rendus phosphorescents par l'action de la lumière ou par les d´echarges électriques |trans-title=Spectral study of bodies made phosphorescent by the action of light or by electrical charges |journal=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences |year=1885 |volume=101 |pages=205–210 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30574/f205.item |access-date=6 April 2025 |language=French |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/comptes-rendus-hebdomadaires-academie-des-sciences_1885-07-20_101_3/page/204/mode/2up |archive-date=20 April 2024 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Becquerel |first1=Henri |title=Recherches sur les variations des spectres d'absorption dans les cristaux |trans-title=Research on variations in absorption spectra in crystals |journal=Annales de chimie et de physique |year=1888a |volume=14 |pages=170–257 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6571104n/f176.item |access-date=24 March 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Becquerel |first1=Henri |title=Sur les variations des spectres d'absorption des composés du didyme |trans-title=Variations in the absorption spectra of didymium compounds |journal=Annales de chimie et de physique |year=1888b |volume=14 |pages=257–279 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6571104n/f263.item |access-date=24 March 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite book |last1=Berry |first1=M. V. |last2=Jeffrey |first2=M. R. |title=Progress in Optics |year=2007 |volume=50 |pages=13–50 |editor-last1=Wolf |editor-first1=E. |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079663807500028 |access-date=2024-04-23 |publisher=Elsevier |chapter=Conical diffraction: Hamilton's diabolical point at the heart of crystal optics |journal= |doi=10.1016/S0079-6638(07)50002-8 |bibcode=2007PrOpt..50...13B |isbn=978-0-444-53023-3}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Biot |first1=Jean-Baptiste |title=Mémoire sur un nouveau genre d'oscillation que les molécules de la lumière éprouvent en traversant certains cristaux |trans-title=Memoir on a new kind of oscillation that light molecules experience when passing through certain crystals |journal=Mémoires de la Classe des Sciences Mathématiques et Physiques de l'Instut Impérial de France |year=1812a |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=1–371 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/55077#page/9/mode/1up |access-date=16 February 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Biot |first1=Jean-Baptiste |title=Sur la découverte d'une propriété nouvelle dont jouissent les forces polarisent des certains cristaux |trans-title=On the discovery of a new property demonstrated by the polarizing forces of certain crystals|journal=Mémoires de la Classe des Sciences Mathématiques et Physiques de l'Instut Impérial de France |year=1812b |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=19–30 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/55077#page/539/mode/1up |access-date=16 February 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite book |last1=Blunt |first1=Wilfrid |title=The compleat naturalist; a life of Linnaeus |date=1971 |publisher=Viking Press |location=New York |isbn=067023396X |edition=1st |url=https://archive.org/details/compleatnaturali0000blun/page/n5/mode/2up |access-date=28 February 2025 |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Boulliard |first1=Jean-Claude |last2=Cabaret |first2=Delphine |last3=Giura |first3=Paolo |title=René-Just Haüy and the birth of crystallography |url=https://www.iucr.org/news/newsletter/volume-30/number-4/rene-just-hauy-and-the-birth-of-crystallography |journal=IUCr Newsletter |volume=30 |issue=4 |year=2022 |publisher=IUCr |access-date=14 January 2025}}
• {{cite web| last1=Boyle |first1=Robert |title=Experiments and considerations touching colours first occasionally written, among some other essays to a friend, and now suffer'd to come abroad as the beginning of an experimental history of colours |year=1664 |pages=391–411 |url=https://name.umdl.umich.edu/A28975.0001.001 |publisher=University of Michigan |website=Library Digital Collections: Early English Books Online |access-date=8 April 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Brandmüller |first1=J. |title=An extension of the Neumann–Minnigerode–Curie principle |journal=Computers & Mathematics with Applications |publisher=Elsevier BV |volume=12 |issue=1–2 |year=1986 |doi=10.1016/0898-1221(86)90143-4 |pages=97–100 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82370259.pdf | doi-access=free |access-date=21 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Brewster |first1=David |title= On the effects of simple pressure in producing that species of crystallization which forms two oppositely polarised images, and exhibits the complementary colours by polarised light |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |year=1815 |volume=105 |issue=Part 1 |pages=60–64 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1815.0006 |url=https://archive.org/details/s3id13528520/page/60/mode/2up |access-date=21 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Brewster |first1=David |title=On the communication of the structure of doubly refracting crystals to glass, muriate of soda, fluor spar, and other substances, by mechanical compression and dilatation |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |date=31 December 1816 |volume=106 |issue=Part 1 |pages=156–178 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1816.0011 |s2cid=108782967 |url=https://archive.org/details/s3id13528530/page/156/mode/2up |access-date=21 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Brewster |first1=David |title=On the Effects of Compression and Dilatation in altering the Polarising Structure of Doubly Refracting Crystals |journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh |date=1818 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=283–286 |doi=10.1017/s0080456800018214 |url=https://archive.org/details/transactionsofro08roya/page/280/mode/2up |access-date=21 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Brewster |first1=David |title=On the laws which regulate the absorption of polarised light by doubly refracting crystals |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |date=31 December 1819a |volume=109 |issue=Part 1 |pages=11–28 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1819.0004 |url=https://archive.org/details/s3id13528560/page/n27/mode/2up |access-date=21 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Brewster |first1=David |title=On the action of crystallized surfaces upon light |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |date=31 December 1819b |volume=109 |issue=Part 1 |pages=145–160 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1819.0013 |url=https://archive.org/details/s3id13528560/page/144/mode/2up |access-date=21 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Brewster |first1=David |title=On the connection between the primitive forms of crystals and the number of their axes of double refraction |journal=Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural History Society |date=1819c |volume=3 |pages=50–74 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/172098#page/76/mode/1up |access-date=18 April 2025 |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/memoirsofwerner31821wern/page/50/mode/2up |archive-date=3 September 2014 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Brewster |first1=David |title=On the absorption of polarised light by doubly refracting crystals |journal=Edinburgh Philosophical Journal |year=1820a |volume=2 |pages=341–348 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_edinburgh-philosophical-journal_january-april-1820_2/page/350/mode/2up |access-date=24 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Brewster |first1=David |title=On the phenomena of dichroism |journal=Edinburgh Philosophical Journal |year=1820b |volume=3 |pages=244–247 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_edinburgh-philosophical-journal_april-01-october-01-1820_3/page/242/mode/2up |access-date=24 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Brewster |first1=David |title=Observations of the pyro-electricity of minerals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dkQEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA208 |journal=The Edinburgh Journal of Science |volume=1 |year=1824 |pages=208–215 |access-date=20 March 2025}}
• {{cite book |last1=Buchwald |first1=Jed Z. |title=The rise of the wave theory of light: optical theory and experiment in the early 19th century |date=1989 |publisher=Chicago University Press |location=Chicago |isbn=0-226-07884-1}}
• {{cite book |last1=Burke |first1=John G. |title=Origins of the science of crystals |date=1966 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, CA |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofscience0000burk |access-date=10 May 2024 |url-access=registration}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Cauchy |first1=Augustin-Louis |title=Recherches sur l'équilibrie et le mouvement intérieur des corps solides, ou fluides élastiques ou non élastiques |trans-title=Research on the equilibrium and internal movement of solid bodies, elastic or non-elastic fluids |journal=Bulletin des Sciences par la Société Philomathique de Paris |year=1823 |pages=9–13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gGhFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA9 |access-date=2 April 2025 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511702518.038 |isbn= |language=French}}
• {{cite book |last1=Cauchy |first1=Augustin-Louis |title=Oeuvres Complètes: Series 2 |chapter=Sur l'équilibre et le mouvement d'un système de points matériels sollicités par des forces d'attraction ou de repulsion materielle |trans-title=On the balance and movement of a system of material points as a result of forces of attraction or repulsion |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2009 |pages=227–252 |orig-year=1828 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511702679.011 |language=French |ref={{sfnref|Cauchy|1828}}}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Cauchy |first1=A. |title=Note sur la lumière réfléchie par la surface d'un corps opaque, et spécialement d'un métal |journal=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences |date=1848 |volume=26 |pages=86–88 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k2983p/f90.item |access-date=9 April 2025 |trans-title=Note about the light reflected by the surface of an opaque body, and especially of a metal |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Clifton |first1=R. B. |title=On the conical refraction of a straight line |journal=Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics| year=1860 |volume=3 |pages=360–363 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxkLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA360 |access-date=13 April 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Cordier |first1=L. |title=Description du dichröıte, nouvelle espèces minérale |trans-title=Description of dichröite, a new mineral species |journal=Journal des mines |date=February 1809 |volume=25 |issue=146 |pages=129–138 |url=https://www.annales.org/archives/annales/1809-1/ |access-date=24 March 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Coromilas |first1=L. A. |title=Ueber die Elasticitätsverhältnisse im Gyps und Glimmer [thesis] |trans-title=On the elasticities of gypsum and mica |journal=Zeitschrift für Krystallographie und Mineralogie |year=1877 |volume=1 |pages=407–412 |url=https://archive.org/details/zeitschrift-fuer-kristallographie-crystalline-materials_1877_1/page/406/mode/2up |access-date=4 April 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Crookes |first1=William |title=On discontinuous phosphorescent spectra in high vacua |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London |date=31 December 1881 |volume=32 |issue=212–215 |pages=206–213 |doi=10.1098/rspl.1881.0022}}
• {{cite book |last1=Curie |first1=Marie |title=Pierre Curie |date=1923 |publisher=The Macmillan Company |location=New York |translator-last1=Kellogg |translator-first1=Charlotte and Vernon |url=https://archive.org/details/pierrecurie0000curi/page/n7/mode/2up |access-date=27 February 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Curie |first1=Pierre |title=Sur la symétrie dans les phénomènes physiques, symétrie d'un champ électrique et d'un champ magnétique |trans-title=On symmetry in physical phenomena, symmetry of an electric field and a magnetic field |journal=Journal de Physique |series=3e série |date=1894 |volume=3 |pages=393–415 |url=https://archive.org/details/oeuvresdepierrec00curi/page/118/ |access-date=6 February 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite book |last1=Curie |first1=Pierre |editor1-last=Rosen |editor1-first=Joe |translator-last1=Rosen |translator-first1=Joe |translator-last2=Copié |translator-first2=P. |title=Symmetry in physics: selected reprints |year=1982 | orig-date=1894 |publisher=American Association of Physics Teachers |location=Stony Brook, NY |pages=17–25 |chapter=On symmetry in physical phenomena, symmetry of an electric field and of a magnetic field}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Curie |first1=Pierre |last2=Curie |first2=Jacques |title=Développement, par pression, de l'électricité polaire dans les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées |trans-title=Development of polar electricity by pressure in hemihedral crystals with inclined faces |journal=Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences |date=1880a |volume=91 |pages=294–297 |url=https://archive.org/details/oeuvresdepierrec00curi/page/6/mode/2up |access-date=6 February 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Curie |first1=Pierre |last2=Curie |first2=Jacques |title=Sur l'électricité polaire dans les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées |trans-title=On polar electricity in hemihedral crystals with inclined faces |journal=Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences |date=1880b |volume=91 |pages=383–387 |url=https://archive.org/details/oeuvresdepierrec00curi/page/10/mode/2up |access-date=6 February 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Curie |first1=Pierre |last2=Curie |first2=Jacques |title=Lois du dégagement de l'électricité par pression dans la tourmaline |trans-title=Laws of the release of electricity by pressure in tourmaline |journal=Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences |date=1881a |volume=92 |pages=186–188 |url=https://archive.org/details/oeuvresdepierrec00curi/page/14/mode/2up |access-date=6 February 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Curie |first1=Pierre |last2=Curie |first2=Jacques |title=Sur les phénomènes électriques de la tourmaline et des cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées |trans-title=On the electrical phenomena of tourmaline and hemihedral crystals with inclined faces |journal=Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences |date=1881b |volume=92 |pages=350–353 |url=https://archive.org/details/oeuvresdepierrec00curi/page/18/mode/2up |access-date=19 April 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Curie |first1=Pierre |last2=Curie |first2=Jacques |title=Les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées, comme sources constantes d'électricité |trans-title=Hemihedral crystals with inclined faces, as constant sources of electricity |journal=Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences |date=1881c |volume=93 |pages=204–207 |url=https://archive.org/details/oeuvresdepierrec00curi/page/22/mode/2up |access-date=6 February 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Curie |first1=Pierre |last2=Curie |first2=Jacques |title=Contractions et dilatations produites par des tensions électriques dans les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées |trans-title=Contractions and expansions produced by electrical voltages in hemihedral crystals with inclined faces |journal=Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences |date=1881d |volume=93 |pages=1137–1140 |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3049g/f1131.image |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/oeuvresdepierrec00curi/page/26/mode/2up |archive-date=4 October 2011 |access-date=6 February 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Curie |first1=Pierre |last2=Curie |first2=Jacques |title=Déformations électriques du quartz |trans-title=Electrical deformation of quartz |journal=Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences |date=1882 |volume=95 |pages=914–916 |url=https://archive.org/details/oeuvresdepierrec00curi/page/30/mode/2up |access-date=6 February 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Curie |first1=Pierre |last2=Curie |first2=Jacques |title=Sur les phénomènes piézo-électriques |trans-title=On piezoelectric phenomena |journal=Bulletin des séances de la Société française de Physique |date=1887 |pages=47–48 |url=https://archive.org/details/oeuvresdepierrec00curi/page/32/mode/2up |access-date=6 February 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Curie |first1=Pierre |last2=Curie |first2=Jacques |title=Dilatation électrique du quartz |trans-title=Electrical expansion of quartz |journal=Journal de Physique |series=2e série |date=1889 |volume=8 |pages=149–169 |url=https://archive.org/details/oeuvresdepierrec00curi/page/34/mode/2up |access-date=20 April 2025 |language=French}}

• {{cite book |last1=Darmstaedter |first1=Ludwig |title=Ludwig Darmstaedters Handbuch zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften und der Technik |trans-title=Ludwig Darmstaeder’s Handbook on the History of Science and Technology|date=1908 |publisher=J. Springer |location=Berlin |pages=558 |url=https://archive.org/details/ludwigdarmstaedt02darmuoft/page/558/mode/1up |access-date=15 April 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Deas |first1=Herbert D. |title=Crystallography and crystallographers in England in the early nineteenth century: a preliminary survey |journal=Centaurus |date=June 1959 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=129–148 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0498.1959.tb00253.x|bibcode=1959Cent....6..129D }}
• {{cite book |last1=Debré |first1=Patrice |title=Louis Pasteur |date=1998 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |translator-last1=Forster |translator-first1=Elborg |pages=29–51 |chapter=Crystals: A New Law |isbn=9780801865299}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Des Cloizeaux |first1=A. |title=Note sur l'existence de la polarisation circulaire dans le cinabre |journal=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences |date=1857a |volume=44 |pages=876–878 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3001w/f889.item |access-date=14 April 2025 |trans-title=Note on the existence of circular polarization in cinnabar |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Des Cloizeaux |first1=A. |title=Complément à la note sur l'existence de la polarisation circulaire dans le cinabre, et observations sur le pouvoir rotatoire des cristaux de sulfate de strychnine |journal=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences |date=1857b |volume=44 |pages=909–915 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3001w/f922.item |access-date=14 April 2025 |trans-title=Addition to the note on the existence of circular polarization in cinnabar, and observations on the rotational power of strychnine sulphate crystals |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Des Cloizeaux |first1=A. |title=Sur la découverte de la polarisation circulaire dans les cristaux de cinabre; et sur l'existence simultanée du pouvoir rotatoire dans les cristaux et dans les dissolutions de sulfate de strychnine |journal=Annales de chimie et de physique |date=1857c |volume=51 |pages=361–367 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k65708374/f365.item |access-date=14 April 2025 |trans-title=On the discovery of circular polarization in cinnabar crystals; and on the simultaneous existence of rotational power in crystals and in strychnine sulphate dissolutions |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Drude |first1=P. |title=Beobachtungen über die Reflexion des Lichtes am Antimonglanz |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1888 |volume=270 [34] |issue=7 |pages=489–531 |doi=10.1002/andp.18882700706 |bibcode=1888AnP...270..489D |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1888_34_7/page/488/mode/2up |access-date=9 April 2025 |trans-title=Observations about the reflection of light on antimony |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Drude |first1=P. |title=Das Verhalten der Absorptionscoëfficienten von Krystallen |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1890 |volume=276 [40] |issue=8 |pages=665–680 |doi=10.1002/andp.18902760809 |bibcode=1890AnP...276..665D |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1890_40_8/page/664/mode/2up |access-date=24 March 2025 |trans-title=The behaviour of the absorption coefficients of crystals |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Drude |first1=P. |title=Ueber die Berechnung magnetooptischer Erscheinungen |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1893 |volume=284 [48] |issue=1 |pages=122–125 |doi=10.1002/andp.18922840111 |bibcode=1893AnP...284..122D |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1893_48_1/page/122/mode/2up |access-date=14 April 2025 |trans-title=On the calculation of magneto-optical phenomena |language=German}}
• {{cite book |last1=Drude |first1=Paul |title=Lehrbuch der Optik |trans-title=Textbook of optics |date=1900 |publisher=S. Hirzel |location=Leipzig |url=https://archive.org/details/lehrbuchderopti02drudgoog/page/n7/mode/2up |access-date=25 March 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Duhamel |first1=J. M. C. |title=Sur les Équations générales de la propagation de la chaleur dans les Corps solides dont la conductibilité n'est pas la même dans tous les sens |journal=Journal de l'École polytechnique |date=1832 |volume=13 |pages=356–399 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k4336778/f361.item |access-date=28 March 2025 |trans-title=On the general equations of heat propagation in solid bodies whose conductivity is not the same in all directions |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Duhamel |first1=J. M. C. |title=Propagation de la chaleur dans les cristaux |journal=Journal de l'École polytechnique |date=1848 |volume=19 |pages=155–188 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k433687m/f158.item |access-date=28 March 2025 |trans-title=Propagation of heat in crystals |language=French}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Faraday |first1=Michael |title=On new magnetic actions and on the magnetic condition of all matter |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: Experimental Researches in Electricity |date=1846a |series=20th series |pages=21–40 |doi=10.5479/sil.389648.mq591304 |url=https://library.si.edu/digital-library/book/onnewmagneticact01fara |access-date=14 April 2025 |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/philtrans02948340/mode/2up |archive-date=31 July 2011 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Faraday |first1=Michael |title=On new magnetic actions and on the magnetic condition of all matter — continued |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: Experimental Researches in Electricity |date=1846b |series=21st series |pages=41–62 |doi=10.5479/sil.389648.mq591304 |url=https://library.si.edu/digital-library/book/onnewmagneticac01fara |access-date=14 April 2025 |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/philtrans02545456 |archive-date=31 July 2011 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Ferraris |first1=Giovanni |title=Historical notes on anisotropy |journal=Rendiconti Lincei. Scienze Fisiche e Naturali |date=March 2020 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=5–7 |doi=10.1007/s12210-020-00870-5|bibcode=2020RLSFN..31....5F }}
• {{cite book |last1=Fischer |first1=Walther |editor1-last=Gillispie |editor1-first=Charles Coulston |title=Dictionary of scientific biography |date=1972 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=0684101165 |pages=556–558 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/groth-paul-heinrich-von |access-date=8 February 2025 |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofscie0005unse/page/556/mode/2up |archive-date=19 October 2022 |chapter=Groth, Paul Heinrich von |volume=5 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite book |last1=Fischer |first1=Walther |editor1-last=Gillispie |editor1-first=Charles Coulston |title=Dictionary of scientific biography |date=1975 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=0684129248 |pages=303–306 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/senarmont-henri-hureau-de |access-date=17 April 2025 |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofscie12gill/page/302/mode/2up |archive-date=16 November 2010 |chapter=Sénarmont, Henri Hureau De |volume=12 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Fizeau |first1=H. |title=Recherches sur la dilatation et la double réfraction du cristal de roche échauffé |trans-title=Research on expansion and double refraction of heated rock crystal |journal=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences |date=1864 |volume=58 |pages=923–932 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/23663#page/931/mode/1up |access-date=24 March 2025 |archive-url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3015d/f925.item |archive-date=15 October 2007 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Flack |first1=H. D. |url=http://crystal.flack.ch/dox/sh5092.pdf |title=Louis Pasteur's discovery of molecular chirality and spontaneous resolution in 1848, together with a complete review of his crystallographic and chemical work |date=2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190908211420/http://crystal.flack.ch/dox/sh5092.pdf |archive-date=8 September 2019 |journal=Acta Crystallographica, Section A |volume=65 |issue=5 |pages=371–389 |doi=10.1107/S0108767309024088 |pmid=19687573 |bibcode=2009AcCrA..65..371F |access-date=13 February 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=L. |title=The Optical Indicatrix and the Transmission of Light in Crystals |journal=Mineralogical Magazine and Journal of the Mineralogical Society |date=December 1891 |volume=9 |issue=44 |pages=278–388 |doi=10.1180/minmag.1891.009.44.04 |bibcode=1891MinM....9..278F |url=https://archive.org/details/opticalindicatri00fletrich/page/n5/mode/2up |access-date=23 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Flood |first1=Raymond |date=2006 |title=Mathematics in Victorian Ireland |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17498430600964433 |journal=BSHM Bulletin: Journal of the British Society for the History of Mathematics |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=200–211 |doi=10.1080/17498430600964433 |issn=1749-8430 |s2cid=122564180}}
• {{cite book |last1=Flood |first1=Raymond |date=2011 |title=Mathematics in Victorian Britain |chapter=Taking root: Mathematics in Victorian Ireland |pages=103–119 |editor-last1=Flood |editor-first1=Raymond |editor-last2=Rice |editor-first2=Adrian |editor-last3=Wilson |editor-first3=Robin |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-960139-4}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Fresnel |first1=A. |title=Note sur la double réfraction du verre comprimé |trans-title=Note on the double refraction of pressed glass |journal=Annales de chimie et de physique, Série 2 |date=1822a |volume=20 |pages=376–383 |url=https://archive.org/details/s3id13207880/page/376/mode/2up |access-date=21 March 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite book |last1=Fresnel |first1=Augustin |title=Oeuvres Complètes d'Augustin Fresnel |volume=1 |publisher=Imprimerie Impériale |location=Paris |year=1866 |orig-date=1822b |pages=731–751 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_aus9AQAAIAAJ/page/n821/mode/2up?view=theater |access-date=14 April 2025 |language=French |chapter=Mémoire sur la double réfraction que les rayons lumineux éprouvent en traversant les aiguilles de cristal de roche suivant des directions parallèles à l'axe |trans-chapter=Memoir on the double refraction that light rays undergo in traversing the needles of quartz in the directions parallel to the axis |ref={{sfnref|Fresnel|1822b}}}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Fresnel |first1=A. |title=Mémoire sur la double réfraction |trans-title=Memoir on double refraction |journal=Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences de l'Institut de France |year=1827 |volume=7 |pages=45–176 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k32227/f275.item |access-date=22 March 2025 |language=French |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/mmoiresdelacad07memo/page/44/mode/2up |archive-date=22 October 2009 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite book |last1=Fresnel |first1=A. |title=Scientific Memoirs, selected from the Transactions of Foreign Academies of Science and Learned Societies, and from Foreign Journals |chapter=Memoir on double refraction |editor-last1=Taylor |editor-first1=Richard |translator-last1=Hobson |translator-first=A.W. |year=1852 |volume=5 |pages=238–333 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=London |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/scientificmemoir05memo/page/238/mode/2up |access-date=22 March 2023}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Geison |first1=Gerald L. |last2=Secord |first2=James A. |title=Pasteur and the Process of Discovery: The Case of Optical Isomerism |journal=Isis |date=1988 |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=6–36 |doi=10.1086/354632 |jstor=234439|pmid=3286576 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Glan |first1=P. |title=Ueber ein neues Photometer |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1877 |volume=237 [1] |issue=7 |pages=351–360 |doi=10.1002/andp.18772370704 |bibcode=1877AnP...237..351G |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1877_1_7/page/350/mode/2up |access-date=24 March 2025 |trans-title=On a new photometer |language=German}}
• {{cite book |last1=Goldberg |first1=Marvin C. |last2=Weiner |first2=Eugene R. |editor1-last=Goldberg |editor1-first=Marvin C. |title=Luminescence Applications in Biological, Chemical, Environmental, and Hydrological Sciences |date=1989 |publisher=American Chemical Society |location=Washington, DC |isbn=9780841215603 |page=4 |chapter-url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/bk-1989-0383.ch001 |access-date=4 April 2025 |chapter=The Science of Luminescence|doi=10.1021/bk-1989-0383.ch001 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Goldbers |first1=Stanley |editor1-last=Gillispie |editor1-first=Charles Coulston |title=Dictionary of scientific biography |date=1976 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=0684129264 |pages=61–63 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/science-and-technology/physics-biographies/woldemar-voigt |access-date=18 April 2025 |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofscie14gill/page/60/mode/2up |archive-date=17 November 2010 |chapter=Voigt, Woldemar |volume=14 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Goldhammer |first1=D. A. |title=Das Kerr'sche magnetooptische Phänomen und die magnetische Circularpolarisation nach der electrischen Lichttheorie |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1892 |volume=282 [46] |issue=5 |pages=71–98 |doi=10.1002/andp.18922820504 |bibcode=1892AnP...282...71G |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1892_46_5/page/70/mode/2up |access-date=14 April 2025 |trans-title=Kerr’s magneto-optical phenomenon and the magnetic circular polarization according to the electrical light theory |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Goldstein |first1=E. |title=Über die Einwirkung von Kathodenstrahlen auf einige Salze |journal=Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin |date=1894 |volume=Juni-Dec 1894 |pages=937–945 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/93024#page/475/mode/1up |access-date=6 April 2025 |trans-title=About the effect of cathode rays on some salts |language=German}}
• {{cite book |last1=Gough |first1=J. B. |editor1-last=Gillispie |editor1-first=Charles Coulston |title=Dictionary of scientific biography |date=1970 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=0684169630 |pages=555–556 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/becquerel-alexandre-edmond |access-date=17 April 2025 |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofscie0000unse_s3y8/page/178/mode/2up |archive-date=10 September 2012 |chapter=Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond |volume=1 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Green |first1=George |title=On the Laws of the Reflexion and Refraction of Light at the Common Surface of Two Noncrystallized Media |journal=Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society |date=1837 |volume=7 |pages=1–24 |doi=10.1190/1.9781560801931.ch3d |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/19797#page/13/mode/1up |access-date=2 April 2025}}

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• {{cite journal |last=Hamilton |first=William R. |date=1832 |title=Third Supplement to an Essay on the Theory of Systems of Rays |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30078785 |journal=The Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy |volume=17 |pages=v–144 |jstor=30078785 |issn=0790-8113}}
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• {{cite book |last1=Harvey |first1=E. Newton |title=A history of luminescence from the earliest times until 1900 |date=1957 |publisher=The American Philosophical Society |location=Philadelphia, PA |url=https://archive.org/details/historyoflumines0000harv |url-access=registration |access-date=4 April 2025}}
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• {{cite journal |last1=Herschel |first1=John |title=On the action of crystallized bodies on homogeneous light, and on the causes of the deviation from Newton's scale in the tints which many of them develope on exposure to a polarised ray |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |date=31 December 1820 |volume=110 |pages=45–100 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1820.0005}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Herschel |first1=J. F. W. |title=On the rotation impressed by plates of rock crystal on the planes of polarisation of the rays of light, as connected with certain peculiarities in its crystallisation |journal=Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society |year=1821 |volume=1 |pages=43–52 |url=https://archive.org/details/TransactionsOfTheCambridgePhilosophi1/page/n87/mode/2up |access-date=14 April 2025}}
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• {{cite book |last1=Huyghens |first1=Christiaan |title=Traité de la lumière |trans-title=Treatise on light |date=1690 |publisher=Pieter van der Aa |location=Leiden |page=94 |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_kVxsaYdZaaoC/page/n105/mode/2up |access-date=10 February 2025 |language=French}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Jackson |first1=Roland |title=John Tyndall and the Early History of Diamagnetism |journal=Annals of Science |date=2 October 2015 |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=435–489 |doi=10.1080/00033790.2014.929743|pmid=26221835 |pmc=4524391 }}

• {{cite journal |last1=Kahr |first1=Bart |last2=McBride |first2=J. Michael |title=Optically Anomalous Crystals |journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English |date=January 1992 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1002/anie.199200013}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Katzir |first1=Shaul |title=The Discovery of the Piezoelectric Effect |journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences |date=1 January 2003a |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=61–91 |doi=10.1007/s00407-002-0059-5}}
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• {{cite book |last1=Katzir |first1=Shaul |title=The beginnings of piezoelectricity: a study in mundane physics |date=2006 |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht |isbn=978-1-4020-4669-8}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Kauffman |first1=George B. |last2=Myers |first2=Robin D. |title=Pasteur's Resolution of Racemic Acid: A sesquicentennial Retrospect and a New Translation |journal=The Chemical Educator |date=December 1998 |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=1–4 |url=http://192.129.24.144/licensed_materials/00897/papers/0003006/36kau897.pdf |access-date=13 February 2025 |doi=10.1007/s00897980257a|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060117144722/http://192.129.24.144/licensed_materials/00897/papers/0003006/36kau897.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2006 }}
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• {{cite journal |last1=Lalena |first1=John N. |title=From quartz to quasicrystals: probing nature's geometric patterns in crystalline substances |journal=Crystallography Reviews |date=April 2006 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=125–180 |doi=10.1080/08893110600838528|bibcode=2006CryRv..12..125L }}
• {{cite book |last1=Lang |first1=Sydney B. |title=Sourcebook of pyroelectricity |date=1974 |publisher=Gordon and Breach science |location=London New York Paris |isbn=0677015801 |page=85-156 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pqjNNDYdBPkC&pg=PA85 |access-date=16 March 2025 |chapter=History of pyroelectricity}}
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• {{cite book |last1=Liebisch |first1=Theodor |title=Physikalische Krystallographie |trans-title=Physical crystallography |year=1891 |publisher=Verlag Von Veit & Comp. |location=Leipzig |url=https://archive.org/details/physikalischekr01liebgoog/page/n4/mode/2up |access-date=23 March 2025 |language=German}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Lippmann |first=G. |title=Principe de la conservation de l'électricité |trans-title=Principle of the conservation of electricity |journal=Annales de chimie et de physique |volume=24|page=145 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k348640/f140.item |year=1881 |language=French |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208081244/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k348640 |archive-date=2016-02-08 |access-date=19 April 2025}}
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• {{cite journal |last=Lloyd |first=Humphrey |date=1831 |title=On the Phenomena Presented by Light in Its Passage along the Axes of Biaxal Crystals |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30078786 |journal=The Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy |volume=17 |pages=145–157 |jstor=30078786 |issn=0790-8113}}
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• {{cite journal |last1=Mandarino |first1=Joseph A. |title=Absorption and pleochroism: Two much-neglected optical properties of crystals |journal=The American Mineralogist |date=1959 |volume=44 |issue=1–2 |pages=65–77 |url=http://www.minsocam.org/ammin/AM44/AM44_65.pdf |access-date=24 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Marbach |first1=H. |title=Ueber die optischen Eigenschaften einiger Krystalle des tesseralen Systems |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1855 |volume=170 [94] |issue=3 |pages=412–426 |doi=10.1002/andp.18551700305 |bibcode=1855AnP...170..412M |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15179x/f440.item |access-date=15 April 2025 |trans-title=On the optical properties of some crystals of the tesseral system |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Matteucci |first1=C. |title=Sur certaines propriétés physiques du bismuth cristallisé |journal=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences |date=1855a |volume=40 |pages=541–545 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/26391#page/551/mode/1up |access-date=29 March 2025 |trans-title=On certain physical properties of crystallized bismuth |language=French}}
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• {{cite journal |last1=Mauskopf |first1=Seymour H. |title=Crystals and compounds: molecular structure and composition in nineteenth-century French science |date=July 1976 |journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |series=New series |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=5–82 |doi=10.2307/1006279 |jstor=1006279 |isbn=0871696630 |url=https://archive.org/details/transactions-of-the-american-philosophical-society/TAPhS%2066%2C%203%20Seymour%20H.%20Mauskopf%20-%20Crystals%20and%20Compounds_Molecular%20Structure%20and%20Composition%20in%20Nineteenth-Century%20French%20Science/mode/2up|access-date=1 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Minnigerode |first1=B. |title=Untersuchungen über die Symmetrieverhältnisse und die Elasticität der Krystalle |trans-title=Investigation of the symmetry relations and elasticity of the crystal |journal=Nachrichten von der Königl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften und der Georg-Augusts-Universität zu Göttingen |year=1884 |pages=374–384 |url=http://eudml.org/doc/180034 |access-date=30 March 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Minnigerode |first1=B. |title=Ueber Wärmeleitung in Krystallen |trans-title=About heat conduction in crystals |journal=Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geologie und Paläontologie |year=1886 |volume=1 |pages=1–13 |url=https://archive.org/details/neuesjahrbuchfrm18861leon/page/n25/mode/2up |access-date=21 March 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Minnigerode |first1=B. |title=Untersuchungen über die Symmetrieverhältnisse der Krystalle |trans-title=Investigation of the symmetry relations of the crystal |journal=Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geologie und Paläontologie |year=1887 |volume=5 |pages=145–166 |url=https://archive.org/details/neuesjahrbuchfr83unkngoog/page/144/mode/2up |access-date=21 March 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Mitscherlich |first1=E. |title=Ueber das Verhältniss der Form der krystallisirten Körper zur Ausdehnung durch die Wärme |trans-title=On the relationship between the form of crystals and their expansion by heat |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1824 |volume=77 [1] |issue=5 |pages=125–127 |doi=10.1002/andp.18240770507 |bibcode=1824AnP....77..125M |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1824_1/page/n137/mode/2up |access-date=24 March 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite book |last1=Mohs |first1=Friedrich |title=Grundriss der Mineralogie |trans-title=Outline of mineralogy |date=1822 |publisher=Arnoldischen Buchhandlung |location=Dresden |page=374 |url=https://archive.org/details/grundrissdermine01mohs/page/374/mode/2up |access-date=2 April 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite conference |last1=Mönch |first1=E. |title=Photoelasticity |chapter=A Historical Survey of the Development of Photoelasticity in Germany, Especially in Munich |conference=International Symposium on Photoelasticity |editor-last1=Nisida |editor-first1=Masataka |editor-last2=Kawata |editor-first2=Kozo |date=1986 |publisher=Springer |location=Tokyo |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1007/978-4-431-68039-0_1 |isbn=978-4-431-68039-0}}

• {{cite book |last1=Narasimhamurty |first1=Tamma S. |title=Photoelastic and Electro-Optic Properties of Crystals |date=1981 |publisher=Springer US |location=Boston, MA |isbn=978-1-4757-0027-5 |page=vii |doi=10.1007/978-1-4757-0025-1}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Narasimhan |first1=T. N. |title=Thermal conductivity through the 19th century |journal=Physics Today |date=1 August 2010 |volume=63 |issue=8 |pages=36–41 |doi=10.1063/1.3480074|arxiv=1005.2119 |bibcode=2010PhT....63h..36N }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Navier |first1=C. |title=Sur les lois de l'équilibre et du mouvement des corps solides élastiques |journal=Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences de l'Institut de France |date=1827 |volume=7 |pages=375–394 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/55241#page/613/mode/1up |access-date=2 April 2025 |trans-title=On the laws of equilibrium and movement of elastic solid bodies |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Neumann |first1=F. E. |title=Theorie der doppelten Strahlenbrechung, abgeleitet aus den Gleichungen der Mechanik |trans-title=Theory of double beam refraction, derived from the equations of mechanics |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1832 |volume=101 |issue=7 |pages=418–454 |doi=10.1002/andp.18321010703 |bibcode=1832AnP...101..418N |url=https://archive.org/details/theoriederdoppe00wanggoog/page/n2/mode/2up |access-date=23 March 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Neumann |first1=F. E. |title=Ueber das Elasticitätsmaafs krystallinischer Substanzen der homoëdrischen Abtheilung |trans-title=On the elasticity of crystalline substances of the homohedral division |journal=Annalen der Physik und Chemie |year=1834 |volume=31 |pages=177–192 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k151161/f189.item |access-date=4 April 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Neumann |first1=F. E. |title=Die Gesetze der Doppelbrechung des Lichts in comprimirten oder ungleichförmig erwärmten unkrystallinischen Körpern |trans-title=The laws of birefringence of light in compressed or irregularly heated non-crystalline bodies |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1841 |volume=130 [54] |issue=12 |pages=449–476 |doi=10.1002/andp.18411301203 |bibcode=1841AnP...130..449N |language=German |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1841_54_12/mode/2up |access-date=21 March 2025}}
• {{cite web |title=Neumann's principle |url=https://dictionary.iucr.org/Neumann%27s_principle |website=Online Dictionary of Crystallography |publisher=International Union of Crystallography |access-date=20 March 2025 |ref={{sfnref|Neumann's principle}} |date=16 November 2017}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Nichols |first1=Ernest Fox |title=Ueber das Verhalten des Quarzes gegen Strahlen grosser Wellenlänge, untersucht nach der radiometrischen Methode |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1897 |volume=296 [60] |issue=3 |pages=401–417 |doi=10.1002/andp.18972960302 |bibcode=1897AnP...296..401F |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1897_60_3/page/n1/mode/2up |access-date=9 April 2025 |trans-title=On the behaviour of quartz with rays of large wavelength, investigated using the radiometric method |language=German}}
• {{cite book |last1=Nye |first1=John Frederick |title=Physical properties of crystals: their representation by tensors and matrices |date=1990 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0198511655 |url=https://archive.org/details/physicalproperti0000jfny_w3w8/page/n5/mode/2up |access-date=29 March 2025 |url-access=registration}}

• {{Cite journal |last=O'Hara |first=J. G. |date=1982 |title=The Prediction and Discovery of Conical Refraction by William Rowan Hamilton and Humphrey Lloyd (1832-1833) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20489156 |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Section A: Mathematical and Physical Sciences |volume=82A |issue=2 |pages=231–257 |jstor=20489156 |issn=0035-8975}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Ohba |first1=Shigeru |title=More fun with quartz crytals! |url=https://www.iucr.org/news/newsletter/volume-27/number-1/more-fun-with-quartz-crystals! |journal=IUCr Newsletter |volume=27 |issue=1 |year=2019 |publisher=IUCr |access-date=15 April 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Oldenburg |first1=Henry |title=An account of four sorts of factitions shining substances, communicated to the publisher from very good hands, both in printed papers and in letters not printed |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |date=26 May 1677 |volume=12 |issue=135 |page=867 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1677.0015 |jstor=101770}}
• {{cite book |last1=Orcel |first1=Jean |title=Microscopic study of opaque minerals |date=1972 |publisher=W. Heffer and Sons |location=Cambridge |pages=301–305 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/microscopicstudy0000galo/page/300/mode/2up |access-date=9 April 2025 |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter=Historical note |isbn=978-0-85270-047-1 |language=French}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Pasteur |first1=Louis |title=Mémoire sur la relation qui peut exister entre la forme cristalline et la composition chimique, et sur la cause de la polarisation rotatoire |journal=Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris |date=1848a |volume=26 |pages=535–538 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/21163#page/545/mode/1up |trans-title=Memoir on the relationship which can exist between crystalline form and chemical composition, and on the cause of rotary polarization |language=French |archive-url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k2983p/f539.item |archive-date=15 October 2007}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Pearsall |first1=Thos. J. |title=On the effects of electricity upon minerals which are phosphorescent by heat |journal=Journal of the Royal Institution of Great Britain |date=1830a |volume=1 |pages=77–83 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/19840#page/95/mode/1up |access-date=6 April 2025 |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/journalroyalins00britgoog/page/76/mode/2up |archive-date=13 July 2008 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Pearsall |first1=Thos. J. |title=Further experiments on the communication of phosphorescence and colour to bodies by electricity |journal=Journal of the Royal Institution of Great Britain |date=1830b |volume=2 |pages=267–281 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/19840#page/285/mode/1up |access-date=6 April 2025 |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/journalroyalins00britgoog/page/272/mode/2up |archive-date=13 July 2008 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Plücker |first1=J. |title=Ueber die Abstossung der optischen Axen der Krystalle durch die Pole der Magnete |trans-title=On the repulsion of the optical axes of the crystal by magnetic poles |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=1847 |volume=72 |pages=315–343 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15157m/f329.item |access-date=29 March 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Plücker |first1=J. |last2=Beer |first2=A. |title=Ueber die magnetischen Axen der Krystalle und ihre Beziehung zur Krystallform und den optischen Axen |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=1850 |volume=81 |pages=115–162 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1850_81_9/page/114/mode/2up |access-date=29 March 2025 |trans-title=About the magnetic axes of the crystal and their relation to the crystal shape and the optical axes |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Plücker |first1=J. |last2=Beer |first2=A. |title=Ueber die magnetischen Axen der Krystalle und ihre Beziehung zur Krystallform und den optischen Axen |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=1851 |volume=82 |pages=42–74 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1851_82_1/page/42/mode/2up |access-date=30 March 2025 |trans-title=About the magnetic axes of the crystal and their relation to the crystal shape and the optical axes |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Pockels |first1=Friedrich |title=Ueber den Einfluss elastischer Deformationen, speciell einseitigen Druckes, auf das optische Verhalten krystallinischer Körper |trans-title=The influence of elastic deformations, especially one-sided pressure, on the optical behaviour of crystalline bodies |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1889 |volume=273 [37] |issue=6 |pages=269–305 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1889_37_6/page/268/mode/2up |doi=10.1002/andp.18892730604 |bibcode=1889AnP...273..269P |access-date=19 April 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Pockels |first1=F. |title=Ueber die durch einseitigen Druck hervorgerufene Doppelbrechung regulärer Krystalle, speciell von Steinsalz und Sylvin |trans-title=About the birefringence of regular crystals, especially of rock salt and sylvite, caused by one-sided pressure |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1890 |volume=275 |issue=3 |pages=440–469 |doi=10.1002/andp.18902750313 |bibcode=1890AnP...275..440P |language=German |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1890_39_3/page/440/mode/2up |access-date=19 April 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Pockels |first1=F. |title=Ueber den Einfluss des electrostatischen Feldes auf das optische Verhalten piezoelektrischer Krystalle |trans-title=The influence of the electrostatic field on the optical behavior of piezoelectric crystals |journal=Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Göttingen |volume=39 |year=1893 |pages=1–204 | url=https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN250442582_0039?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B115%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D |access-date=15 April 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite book |last1=Pockels |first1=F. |title=Lehrbuch der Kristalloptik |trans-title=Textbook of crystal optics |year=1906 |publisher=Teubner |location=Leipzig |bibcode=1906lekr.book.....P |url=https://archive.org/details/lehrbuchderkris00pockgoog/page/n5/mode/2up |access-date=23 March 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Poisson |first1=S. D. |title=Mémoire sur la théorie du magnétisme |trans-title=Memoir on the theory of magnetism |journal=Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences de l'Institut de France |year=1826 |volume=5 |pages=247–338 |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3220m/f255.image |access-date=29 March 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Poisson |first1=S. D. |title=Mémoire sur l'équilibre et le mouvement des corps élastiques |trans-title=Memoir on the balance and movement of elastic bodies |journal=Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences de l'Institut de France |year=1829a |volume=8 |pages=357–570 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/55232#page/625/mode/1up |access-date=2 April 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Poisson |first1=S. D. |title=Note sur le problème des ondes |trans-title=Note on the wave problem |journal=Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences de l'Institut de France |year=1829b |volume=8 |pages=571–580 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/55232#page/839/mode/1up |access-date=2 April 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite web |title=Pyroelectricity |url=https://dictionary.iucr.org/Pyroelectricity |website=Online Dictionary of Crystallography |publisher=International Union of Crystallography |access-date=20 March 2025 |ref={{sfnref|Pyroelectricity}} |date=17 November 2017}}

• {{cite web |last1=Robertson |first1=Edmund F. |last2=O'Connor |first2=John J. |title=The MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive: Biographies |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/ |publisher=School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews | access-date=27 February 2025 |ref={{sfnref|MacTutor}}}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Röntgen |first1=W. C. |last2=Schneider |first2=J. |title=Ueber die Compressibilität von verdünnten Salzlösungen und die des festen Chlornatriums |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1887 |volume=267 [31] |issue=8 |pages=1000–1005 |doi=10.1002/ANDP.18872670828 |bibcode=1887AnP...267.1000R |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1887_31_8/page/1000/mode/2up |access-date=4 April 2025 |trans-title=On the compressibility of dilute saline solutions and solid chloride salts |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Root |first1=Elihu |title=Zur Kenntniss der dielektrischen Polarisation |journal=Annalen der Physik |trans-title=Towards an understanding of dielectric polarization |date=January 1876a |volume=234 |issue=5 |pages=1–35 |doi=10.1002/andp.18762340503 |bibcode=1876AnP...234....1R |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1876_158_5/page/n7/mode/2up |access-date=31 March 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Root |first1=Elihu |title=Zur Kenntniss der dielektrischen Polarisation |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1876b |volume=234 |issue=7 |pages=425–461 |doi=10.1002/andp.18762340705 |bibcode=1876AnP...234..425R |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1876_158_7/page/n87/mode/2up |access-date=31 March 2025 |trans-title=Towards an understanding of dielectric polarization |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Rubens |first1=H. |last2=Aschkinass |first2=E. |title=Die Reststrahlen von Steinsalz und Sylvin |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1898 |volume=301 [65] |issue=6 |pages=241–256 |doi=10.1002/andp.18983010602 |bibcode=1898AnP...301..241R |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1898_65_2/page/n3/mode/2up |access-date=9 April 2025 |trans-title=The residual rays of rock salt and sylvite |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Rubens |first1=H. |last2=Nichols |first2=E. F. |title=Versuche mit Wärmestrahlen von grosser Wellenlänge |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1897 |volume=296 [60] |issue=3 |pages=418–462 |doi=10.1002/andp.18972960303 |bibcode=1897AnP...296..418R |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1897_60_3/page/418/mode/2up |access-date=9 April 2025 |trans-title=Experiments with thermal rays of large wavelength |language=German}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Sarton |first1=George |date=January 1932 |title=Discovery of Conical Refraction by William Rowan Hamilton and Humphrey Lloyd (1833) |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/346641 |journal=Isis |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=154–170 |doi=10.1086/346641 |issn=0021-1753 |quote=I know of no person who has not seen conical refraction that really believed in it. I have myself converted a score of mathematicians by showing them the cone of light". Hamilton replied, "How different from me! If I had seen it only, I should not have believed it. My eyes have too often deceived me. I believe it, because I have proved it}}
• {{cite book |last1=Scholz |first1=Erhard |editor1-last=Rowe |editor1-first=David E. |editor2-last=McCleary |editor2-first=John |title=The history of modern mathematics: proceedings of the Symposium on the history of modern mathematics, Vassar college, Poughkeepsie, New York, June 20-24, 1988 |date=1989b |publisher=Academic Press |location=New York London Toronto |isbn=0125996624 |pages=3–27 |chapter=Crystallographic Symmetry Concepts and Group Theory (1850-1860)}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Scholz |first1=Erhard |title=The rise of Symmetry Concepts in the Atomistic and Dynamistic Schools of Crystallography, 1815-1830 |journal=Revue d'histoire des sciences |date=1989c |volume=42 |issue=1–2 |pages=110–112 |doi=10.3406/rhs.1989.4136 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhs_0151-4105_1989_num_42_1_4136 |access-date=20 January 2025}}
• {{cite book |last1=Scholz |first1=Erhard |title=Companion Encyclopedia of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences |editor1-last=Grattan-Guinness |editor1-first=I. |date=1994 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |volume=2 |isbn=9780415092395 |pages=1269–1274 |chapter=Crystallography}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Schrauf |first1=A. |title=Ueber die Verwendung einer Schwefelkugel zur Demonstration singulärer Schnitte an der Strahlenfläche |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1889 |volume=273 [37] |issue=5 |pages=127–144 |doi=10.1002/andp.18892730508 |bibcode=1889AnP...273..127S |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1889_37_5/page/126/mode/2up |access-date=13 April 2025 |trans-title=About the use of a sulfur sphere for demonstrating singular cuts on the beam surface |language=German}}
• {{cite book |last1=Schuh |first1=Curtis P. |title=Mineralogy & Crystallography: On the History of these Sciences through 1919 |date=2007 |pages=371–373 |publisher=Curtis Schuh |access-date=20 April 2025 |url=https://archive.org/details/History_Mineralogy_2007/page/n382/mode/1up}}
• {{cite web |last1=Schuh |first1=Curtis |title=Liebisch, Theodor |url=http://minrec.org/libdetail.asp?id=867 |year=2013 |website=Biobibliography of Mineralogy |publisher=The Mineralogical Record |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326020908/http://minrec.org/libdetail.asp?id=867 |access-date=17 April 2025|archive-date=26 March 2013 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Schütt |first1=Hans-Werner |title=Eilhard Mitscherlich, Baumeister am Fundament der Chemie |trans-title=Eilhard Mitscherlich, master builder of the foundation of chemistry |date=1992 |publisher=In Kommission bei R. Oldenbourg |location=München |isbn=3486262734 |url=https://archive.org/details/eilhardmitscherl0000schu/page/n5/mode/2up |access-date=28 February 2025 |language=German |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Sénarmont |first1=H. |title=Sur la conductibilité des substances cristallisées pour la chaleur |trans-title=On the heat conductivity of crystallized substances |year=1847 |journal=Annales de chimie et physique |series=3e série |volume=21 |pages=457–470 |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_PJ45AAAAcAAJ/page/n459/mode/2up |access-date=28 March 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Sénarmont |first1=H. |title=Mémoire sur la conductibilité superficielle des corps cristallisés pour l'électricité de tensions |trans-title=Memoir on the surface conductivity of crystallized bodies for voltage electricity |journal=Annales de chimie et de physique |series=3e série |date=March 1850 |volume=28 |pages=257–278 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hx3dy7&seq=267 |access-date=1 April 2025 |language=French |archive-url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k34769f/f252.item |archive-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Sénarmont |first1=H. |title=Experiénces sur la production artificielle du polychroïsme dans les substances crystallisées |trans-title=Experiments on the artificial production of polychroism in crystallized substances |journal=Annales de chimie et de physique |year=1854 |volume=3 |pages=319–336 |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_W5o5AAAAcAAJ/page/n321/mode/2up |access-date=25 March 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite book |last1=Shinn |first1=Terry |editor1-last=Buchwald |editor1-first=Jed Z. |editor2-last=Fox |editor2-first=Robert |title=The Oxford handbook of the history of physics |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford ; New York, NY |isbn=978-0-19-969625-3 |page=868 |edition=First |chapter=The silicon tide |quote=Much pre-twentieth-century study of crystals focused on their geometry, and mathematical description became increasingly central. There was then little reflection on the mechanical, optical, and electrical properties of crystals. This changed early in the twentieth century ...}}
• {{cite book |last1=Shtukenberg |first1=A. G. |last2=Punin |first2=Yurii O. |editor1-last=Kahr |editor1-first=Bart |title=Optically anomalous crystals |date=2007 |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht |isbn=978-1-4020-5287-3}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Sidot |first1=T. |title=Recherches sur la cristallisation de quelques sulfures métalliques |journal=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences |date=1866 |volume=62 |pages=999–1001 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3019n/f999.item |access-date=8 April 2025 |trans-title=Research on the crystallization of some metal sulphides |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Shubnikov |first1=A.V. |title=On the works of Pierre Curie on symmetry |journal=Computers & Mathematics with Applications |date=1988 |volume=16 |issue=5–8 |pages=357–364 |doi=10.1016/0898-1221(88)90225-8|doi-access=free}}
• {{cite book |last1=Simonyi |first1=Károly |translator-last1=Kramer |translator-first1=David |title=A cultural history of physics |date=2012 |publisher=CRC press |location=Boca Raton |isbn=978-1-56881-329-5}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Sorby |first1=H. C. |title=On the microscopical structure of crystals indicating the origin of minerals and rocks |date=2 January 1858 |url=https://archive.org/details/quarterlyjourna141858geol/page/452/mode/2up |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society |volume=14 |issue=1–2 |pages=453–500 |doi=10.1144/GSL.JGS.1858.014.01-02.44 |bibcode=1858QJGS...14..453S |s2cid=128592719 |access-date=11 April 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Sorby |first1=H. C. |date=1864 |title=On the microscopical structure of meteorites |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London |volume=13 |pages=333–334 |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspl.1863.0075 |doi=10.1098/rspl.1863.0075 |s2cid=131171184 |access-date=11 April 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Stefan |first1=J. |title=Ueber die Dispersion des Lichtes durch Drehung der Polarisationsebene im Quarz |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1864 |volume=198 [122] |issue=8 |pages=631–634 |doi=10.1002/andp.18641980812 |bibcode=1864AnP...198..631S |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15207b/f656.item |access-date=14 April 2025 |trans-title=On the dispersion of light by rotation of the polarization plane in quartz |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Stenger |first1=Franz |title=Zur Wärmeleitungsfähigkeit des Turmalins |trans-title=The thermal conductivity of tourmaline |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1884 |volume=258 |issue=8 |pages=522–528 |doi=10.1002/andp.18842580806 |bibcode=1884AnP...258..522S |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1884_22_8/page/522/mode/2up |access-date=28 March 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Stokes |first1=George Gabriel |title=On the Conduction of Heat in Crystals |date=1851 |journal=The Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal |volume=6 |pages=215–238 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_cambridge-and-dublin-mathematical-journal_the-cambridge-and-dublin-mathematical-jour_1851_6/page/n217/mode/2up |access-date=28 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Stokes |first1=George Gabriel |title=On the Change of Refrangibility of Light |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |year=1852 |volume=142 |pages=463–562 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1852.0022 |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophicaltra1421roya/page/462/mode/2up |access-date=8 April 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Stokes |first1=George Gabriel |title=On the Change of Refrangibility of Light – No. II |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |year=1853 |volume=143 |pages=385–396 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1853.0016 |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophicaltra1431roya/page/n401/mode/2up |access-date=8 April 2025}}
• {{cite book |last1=Stokes |first1=George Gabriel |title=Mathematical and Physical Papers |chapter=On the Conduction of Heat in Crystals |orig-date=1901 |date=2009 |pages=203–227 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511702266.008|isbn=978-1-108-00264-6 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Svanberg |first1=J. |title=Expériences sur le pouvoir thermoélectrique du bismuth et de l'antimoine cristallisés |journal=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences |date=1850 |volume=31 |pages=250–252 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/16573#page/260/mode/1up |access-date=26 March 2025 |trans-title=Experiments on the thermoelectric power of crystallized bismuth and antimony |language=French}}

• {{cite book |last1=Thomson |first1=William |year=1854a |title=Mathematical and physical papers |volume=1 |chapter=A mechanical theory of thermo-electric currents in crystalline solids |pages=324–325 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/mathematicalphys01kelv/page/324/mode/2up |access-date=26 March 2025}}
• {{cite book |last1=Thomson |first1=William |year=1854b |title=Mathematical and physical papers |volume=1 |chapter=On thermo-electric currents in linear conductors of crystalline sunstances |pages=266–291 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/mathematicalphys01kelv/page/266/mode/2up |access-date=26 March 2025}}
• {{cite book |last1=Thomson |first1=William |year=1854c |title=Mathematical and physical papers |volume=1 |chapter=On thermo-electricity in crystalline metals in a state of mechanical strain |pages=467–468 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/mathematicalphys01kelv/page/466/mode/2up |access-date=26 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Thomson |first1=William |title=On the Dynamical Theory of Heat . Part V. Thermo-electric Currents |journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh |date=1857a |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=123–171 |doi=10.1017/S0080456800032014 |url=https://archive.org/details/per_transactions-of-the-royal-society-of-edinburgh_transactions-of-the-royal-society-of_1857_21/page/122/mode/2up |access-date=27 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Thomson |first1=William |title=On the thermo-elastic, thermo-magnetic and pyro-electric properties of matter |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics |date=1857b |volume=1 |pages=57–77 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b417523&seq=75 |access-date=2 April 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Thomson |first1=William |year=1878| title=On the thermoelastic, thermomagnetic and pyroelectric properties of matter |journal=Philosophical Magazine |series=Series 5 |volume=5 |issue=28 |pages=4–26 |doi=10.1080/14786447808639378 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A5YOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4 |access-date=20 March 2025}}
• {{cite book |last1=Tutton |first1=A. E. H. |title=Crystallography and practical crystal measurement |volume=2: Physical and Chemical |edition=2nd |year=1922| chapter=Elasticity of crystals and its measurement |page=1337 |publisher=Macmillan & Co. |location=London |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/crystallographyp02tuttrich/crystallographyp02tuttrich/page/1336/mode/2up |access-date=2 April 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Tyndall |first1=John |title=On diamagnetism and magnecrystallic action |journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science |date=September 1851 |volume=2 |issue=10 |pages=165–188 |doi=10.1080/14786445108646857 |url=https://archive.org/details/londonedinburghd02lond/page/164/mode/2up |access-date=30 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Tyndall |first1=John |title=On the nature of the force by which bodies are repelled from the poles of a magnet; to which is prefixed, an account of some experiments on molecular influences |journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science |date=September 1855a |volume=10 |issue=65 |pages=153–179 |doi=10.1080/14786445508641950 |url=https://archive.org/details/londonedinburghp10maga/page/152/mode/2up |access-date=30 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Tyndall |first1=John |title=On the nature of the force by which bodies are repelled from the poles of a magnet; to which is prefixed, an account of some experiments on molecular influences |journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science |date=October 1855b |volume=10 |issue=66 |pages=257–290 |doi=10.1080/14786445508641969 |url=https://archive.org/details/londonedinburghp10maga/page/256/mode/2up |access-date=30 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Tyndall |first1=John |title=On the relation of diamagnetic polarity to magnecrystallic action |journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science |date=February 1856 |volume=11 |issue=70 |pages=125–137 |doi=10.1080/14786445608642034 |url=https://archive.org/details/londonedinburghp11maga/page/124/mode/2up |access-date=30 March 2025}}
• {{cite book |last1=Tyndall |first1=John |title=Researches on diamagnetism and magne-crystallic action |date=1870 |publisher=Longmans, Green, and co. |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/researchesondia02tyndgoog/page/n10/mode/2up |access-date=30 March 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Tyndall |first1=John |last2=Knoblauch |first2=Hermann |title=On the deportment of crystalline bodies between the poles of a magnet |journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science |date=March 1850 |volume=36 |issue=242 |pages=178–183 |doi=10.1080/14786445008646457 |url=https://archive.org/details/londonedinburghp36lond/page/178/mode/2up |access-date=30 March 2025}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Valeur |first1=Bernard |last2=Berberan-Santos |first2=Mário N. |title=A Brief History of Fluorescence and Phosphorescence before the Emergence of Quantum Theory |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |date=1 June 2011 |volume=88 |issue=6 |pages=731–738 |doi=10.1021/ed100182h|bibcode=2011JChEd..88..731V }}
• {{cite thesis |last1=Voigt |first1=Woldemar |date=1874 |title=Untersuchung der Elasticitätsverhältnisse des Steinsalzes |url=https://digital.ub.uni-koeln.de/view/retro_991016492889706476_004099?p=1 |trans-title=Investigation of the elasticity of rock salt |degree=Doctoral |language=German |location=Leipzig |publisher=E. Pöschel |access-date=2 April 2025 |doi=10.58016/retro_991016492889706476_004099}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Voigt |first1=Woldemar |title=Bestimmung der Elasticitätsconstaten des Steinsalzes |journal=Annalen der Physik und Chemie Erganzung |date=1876 |volume=7 |pages=177–214 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15009g/f186.item |access-date=3 April 2025 |trans-title=Determination of the elasticity of rock salt |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Voigt |first1=W. |title=Erklärung der Farbenerscheinungen pleochroitischer Krystalle |journal=Neues jahrbuch für mineralogie geologie und paläontologie |date=1885 |pages=119–141 |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_P8UKAAAAYAAJ/page/119/mode/2up |access-date=25 March 2025 |trans-title=Explanation of color manifestations in pleochroic crystals. |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Voigt |first1=W. |title=Bestimmung der Elasticitätsconstanten von Flusspath, Pyrit, Steinsalz, Sylvin |trans-title=Determination of the elasticity constants of fluorite, pyrite, rock salt, sylvite |journal=Annalen der Physik und Chemie |year=1888 |volume=35 |issue=12 |pages=642–661 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1888_35_12/page/642/mode/2up |access-date=2 April 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Voigt |first1=W. |title=Ueber die innere Reibung der festen Körper, inbesondere der Krystalle |trans-title=About the internal friction of solid bodies, especially crystals |journal=Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen |date=1890a |volume=36 |pages=1–47 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/176239#page/621/mode/1up |access-date=16 March 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Voigt |first1=W. |title=Allgemeine Theorie der piëzo- und pyroelectrischen Erscheinungen an Krystallen |trans-title=General theory of piëzo and pyroelectric phenomena in crystals |journal=Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen |date=1890b |volume=36 |pages=47–99 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/176239#page/667/mode/1up |access-date=16 March 2025 |language=German}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Voigt |first1=W. |year=1897 |title=Versuch zur Bestimmung des wahren specifischen electrischen Momentes eines Turmalins |trans-title=Experiment to determine the true specific electric moment of tourmaline |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=60 |pages=368–375 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iX0EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA368 |language=German |access-date=20 March 2025}}
• {{cite book |last1=Voigt |first1=Woldemar |title=Die fundamentalen physikalischen Eigenschaften der Krystalle in elementarer Darstellung |trans-title=The fundamental physical properties of crystals in an elementary presentation |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb__Ps4AAAAMAAJ/page/n29/mode/2up |year=1898 |publisher=Von Veit |location=Leipzig |page=20 |access-date=24 March 2025 |language=German |quote=Wir wollen uns deshalb nur darauf stützen, dass Zustände der geschilderten Art bei Spannungen und Dehnungen nicht starrer Körper auftreten, und sie deshalb tensorielle, die für sie charakteristischen physikalischen Grössen aber Tensoren nennen. [We therefore want [our presentation] to be based only on [the assumption that] conditions of the type described occur during stresses and strains of non-rigid bodies, and therefore call them "tensorial" but call the characteristic physical quantities for them "tensors".]}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Weiser |first1=Harry B. |title=Crystalloluminescence |journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry |date=1 October 1918 |volume=22 |issue=7 |pages=480–509 |doi=10.1021/j150187a002 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.229326/page/479/mode/2up |access-date=5 April 2025}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Pierre |title=Recherches sur l'aimantation de la magnétite cristallisée |trans-title=Research on magnetization of crystallized magnetite |journal=Journal de Physique Théorique et Appliquée |date=1896 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=435–453 |doi=10.1051/jphystap:018960050043500 |url=https://hal.science/jpa-00239938v1 |access-date=29 March 2025 |language=French}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Wiedemann |first1=Eilhard |title=Ueber Fluorescenz und Phosphorescenz I. Abhandlung |journal=Annalen der Physik |date=January 1888 |volume=270 [34] |issue=7 |pages=446–463 |doi=10.1002/andp.18882700703 |bibcode=1888AnP...270..446W |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1888_34_7/page/446/mode/2up |access-date=8 April 2025 |trans-title=On Fluorescence and Phosphorescence |language=German}}
• {{cite book |last1=Wilk |first1=Stephen R. |title=How the Ray Gun Got Its Zap: Odd Excursions into Optics |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Cary |isbn=978-0-19-994801-7 |pages=80–84 |chapter=Thomas J. Pearsall and the Ultraviolet}}
• {{cite book |last1=Wooster |first1=W. A. |editor1-last=Lima-de-Faria |editor1-first=J. |title=Historical atlas of crystallography |date=1990 |publisher=Published for International Union of Crystallography by Kluwer Academic Publishers |location=Dordrecht ; Boston |isbn=079230649X |chapter=Brief history of physical crystallography |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/historicalatlaso0000unse_p0f2/page/60/mode/2up |chapter-url-access=registration |pages=61–75 |access-date=9 February 2025}}
• {{cite book |last1=Wyart |first1=Jean |editor1-last=Gillispie |editor1-first=Charles Coulston |title=Dictionary of scientific biography |date=1971 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=0684169649 |pages=503–508 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/science-and-technology/physics-biographies/pierre-curie |access-date=27 February 2025 |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofscie0003unse/page/502/mode/2up |archive-date=23 February 2024 |chapter=Curie, Pierre |volume=3 |url-status=live}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Jian |last2=Tanabe |first2=Setsuhisa |title=Persistent luminescence instead of phosphorescence: History, mechanism, and perspective |journal=Journal of Luminescence |date=January 2019 |volume=205 |pages=581–620 |doi=10.1016/j.jlumin.2018.09.047|bibcode=2019JLum..205..581X }}

• {{cite journal |last1=Zink |first1=Jeffrey I. |last2=Chandra |first2=B. P. |title=Light emission during growth and destruction of crystals. Crystalloluminescence and triboluminescence |journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry |date=January 1982 |volume=86 |issue=1 |pages=5–7 |doi=10.1021/j100390a003}}

{{refend}}

{{Crystallography}}

Category:Crystallography

Category:History of physics