Pierre Duhem

{{Infobox scientist

|name = Pierre Duhem

|image = Pierre Duhem.jpg

|birth_name = Pierre Maurice Marie Duhem

|birth_date = {{birth date|1861|6|9|df=y}}

|birth_place = Paris, France

|death_date = {{death date and age|1916|9|14|1861|6|9|df=y}}

|death_place = Cabrespine, France

|education = {{unbulleted list |École Normale Supérieure (licentiate, 1884; agrégation, 1885) | University of Paris (doctorate, 1888)}}

|workplaces = University of Bordeaux

|field = Thermodynamics, philosophy of science, history of science

|known_for = Clausius–Duhem inequality
Gibbs–Duhem equation
Duhem–Margules equation
Duhem–Quine thesis
Confirmation holism
Thermodynamic potential
Energeticism
Historical epistemology
Conventionalism

|thesis_title = De l'aimantation par influence

|thesis_year = 1888

|thesis_url = https://afst.centre-mersenne.org/item/AFST_1888_1_2__L1_0.pdf

}}

Pierre Maurice Marie Duhem ({{IPA|fr|pjɛʁ mɔʁis maʁi dy.ɛm, moʁ-|lang|Pierre duhem pronunciation.ogg}}; 9 JuneJaki, Stanley L. (1987). Uneasy Genius: The Life and Work of Pierre Duhem. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, p. 3. 1861 – 14 September 1916) was a French theoretical physicist who made significant contributions to thermodynamics, hydrodynamics, and the theory of elasticity. Duhem was also a prolific historian of science, noted especially for his pioneering work on the European Middle Ages.{{cite encyclopedia|title=Pierre Duhem|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/duhem/|author=Roger Ariew|year=2022|access-date=2025-02-15}} As a philosopher of science, Duhem is credited with the "Duhem–Quine thesis" on the indeterminacy of experimental criteria. Duhem's opposition to positivism was partly informed by his traditionalist Catholicism, an outlook that put him at odds with the dominant academic currents in France during his lifetime.

Early life and education

Pierre Duhem was born in Paris on 10 June 1861. He was the son of Pierre-Joseph Duhem, who was of Flemish origins, and Marie Alexandrine née Fabre, whose family hailed from Languedoc. Pierre-Joseph worked as a sales representative in the textile industry and the family lived in a modest neighborhood on the Rue des Jeûneurs, just south of Monmartre. The family was devoutly Catholic and its conservative outlook was influenced by having lived through the Paris Commune of 1871, which the Duhems saw as a manifestation of the anarchy that must follow from the rejection of religion.

The young Pierre completed his secondary studies at the Collège Stanislas, where his interest in the physical sciences was encouraged by his teacher Jules Moutier, who was a theoretical physicist and the author of influential textbooks on thermodynamics. Pierre was admitted as the first-ranked of his cohort at the prestigious École normale supérieure (ENS) in 1882. At the ENS, he completed licentiates in mathematics and physics in 1884. He then earned his agrégation in physical sciences in 1885.

Duhem prepared a doctoral thesis on the use of the thermodynamic potential in the theory of electrochemical cells. In his thesis, Duhem explicitly attacked the "principle of maximum work" as framed by Marcellin Berthelot. The jury rejected that thesis and Duhem's academic career appears to have been hampered ever after by his differences with Barthelot. In addition to their scientific disagreements, Duhem was a conservative Catholic and royalist, whereas the politically powerful Barthelot was an anti-clerical republican. In 1888 Duhem finally received his doctorate with a new thesis on the theory of magnetization dynamics.

Despite his accomplishments as a theoretical physicist, and later as a historian and philosopher of science, Duhem never obtained the academic position in Paris that he sought. He found work first at the University of Lille (1887–1893), then briefly at the University of Rennes (1893–1894), and finally as a professor of theoretical physics at the University of Bordeaux, where he was based for the rest of his career.

Theoretical physics

Among scientists, Duhem is best known today for his work on chemical thermodynamics, and in particular for the Gibbs–Duhem and Duhem–Margules equations. His approach was strongly influenced by the early works of Josiah Willard Gibbs, which Duhem effectively explained and promoted among French scientists. In continuum mechanics, he is also remembered for his contribution to what is now called the Clausius–Duhem inequality.

Duhem was a supporter of energetics and was convinced that all physical phenomena, including mechanics, electromagnetism, and chemistry, could be derived from the principles of thermodynamics. Influenced by William Rankine's "Outlines of the Science of Energetics",Macquorn Rankine (1855). "[https://books.google.com/books?id=uU8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA120 Outlines of the Science of Energetics]," The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, Vol. II, pp. 120–140. Duhem carried out this intellectual project in his Traité de l'Énergétique (1911), but was ultimately unable to reduce electromagnetic phenomena to thermodynamic first principles.

Duhem shared Ernst Mach's skepticism about the physical reality and usefulness of the concept of atoms.See Hentschel (1988) on these and other parallels between Duhem and Mach, and on their correspondence. He therefore did not follow the statistical mechanics of James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann, and Gibbs, who explained the laws of thermodynamics in terms of the statistical properties of mechanical systems composed of many atoms.

Duhem was an opponent of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.{{cite journal|author=McMullin, Ernan|year=1990|title=Comment: Duhem's Middle Way|journal=Synthese|volume=83|issue=3|pages=421–430|doi=10.1007/BF00413426 |s2cid=46980317 }}Gillies, Donald. [https://iweb.langara.ca/rjohns/files/2013/01/Gillies_duhem.pdf Philosophy of Science in the Twentieth Century], 1993. In 1914, Duhem commented that Einstein's relativity theory "has turned physics into a real chaos where logic loses its way and common-sense runs away frightened".Lakatos, Imre. (2001). The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes: Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 21. {{ISBN|0-521-28031-1}} In his 1915 book La Science Allemande, he argued strongly against relativity. Duhem stated that the theory of relativity "overthrow[s] all the doctrines in which one has spoken of space, of time, of movement, all the theories of mechanics and of physics".Lowinger, Armand. (1967). The Methodology of Pierre Duhem. AMS Press. p. 25. {{ISBN|9780404040581}}

History of science

File:Oresme-Nicole.jpg, a prominent medieval scholar. Duhem came to regard the medieval scholastic tradition as the origin of modern science.]]

Duhem is well known for his work on the history of science,"Pierre Duhem, himself a distinguished physicist, initiated in heroic fashion, almost singlehandedly, the modern study of the history of medieval science by the simple but effective expedient of reading and analyzing as many medieval scientific manuscripts as possible." — Palter, Robert M. (1961). [https://archive.org/stream/towardmodernscie001652mbp#page/n3/mode/2up Preface to Toward Modern Science], Vol. I. New York: The Noonday Press, p. ix.Paul, Harry W. (1972). "Pierre Duhem: Science and the Historian's Craft," Journal of the History of Ideas, 33, pp. 497–512.Murdoch, John E. (1991). "Pierre Duhem and the History of Late Medieval Science and Philosophy in the Latin West," in R. Imbach & A. Maierù, eds., Gli Studi di Filosofia Medievale fra Otto e Novecento. Rome: Edizioni di Estoria e Letteratura, pp. 253–302."By his numerous publications, Duhem made medieval science a respectable research field and placed the late Middle Ages in the mainstream of scientific development. He thus filled the hiatus that had existed between Greek and Arabic science, on the one extreme, and early modern science in the seventeenth-century Europe, on the other. For the first time, the history of science was provided with a genuine sense of continuity." — Grant, Edward (1996). The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press, p. xi. which resulted in the ten volume Le système du monde: histoire des doctrines cosmologiques de Platon à Copernic (The System of World: A History of Cosmological Doctrines from Plato to Copernicus).{{cite book|last=Duhem|first=Pierre|title=Le système du monde: histoire des doctrines cosmologiques de Platon à Copernic (The System of World: A History Cosmological Doctrines from Plato to Copernicus)|url=https://archive.org/details/lesystmedumond01duhe|year=1914|publisher=Paris, A. Hermann }} As a traditionalist Catholic, Duhem rejected the Enlightened conception of the European Middle Ages as intellectually barren. Instead, he endeavored to show that the Medieval Church had helped to foster the growth of Western science. Duhem's work as a historian of medieval science began with his research on the origins of statics, in the course of which he encountered the works of medieval mathematicians and philosophers such as John Buridan, Nicole Oresme, and Roger Bacon. Duhem came to see in them the true founders of modern science, who in his view had anticipated many of the discoveries of Galileo Galilei and later early modern scientists.Wallace, William A. (1984). Prelude, Galileo and his Sources. The Heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo's Science. N.J.: Princeton University Press. Duhem claimed that "the mechanics and physics of which modern times are justifiably proud" had proceeded, "by an uninterrupted series of scarcely perceptible improvements, from doctrines professed in the heart of the medieval schools."{{cite book |editor-last1=Lindberg |editor-first1=David C. |editor-link1=David C. Lindberg |editor-last2=Westman |editor-first2=Robert S. |title=Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=27 Jul 1990 |edition=1st |chapter=Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Bacon to Butterfield |page=14 |isbn=978-0-521-34804-1 |orig-year=Duhem, Pierre (1905). "Preface". Les Origines de la statique 1. Paris: A. Hermman. p. iv.}}

Duhem helped to reintroduce the concept of "saving the phenomena" into the modern philosophy of science. In addition to the debates of the Copernican Revolution on "saving the phenomena" ({{lang|el|σῴζειν τὰ φαινόμενα}}, sozein ta phainomena,An ancient view (attributed to Plato by Simplicius of Cilicia) on hypotheses, theories and phaenomena, on what scientists, or more historically accurately (ancient) astronomers, are for, are supposed to do; see

{{Cite book

| publisher = Princeton University Press

| title = Geminos's Introduction to the Phenomena: A Translation and Study of a Hellenistic Survey of Astronomy

| year = 2006

| author1 = Geminus of Rhodes | author2 = James Evans | author3 = J.L. Berggren

| author1-link = Geminus

| pages = 49–51

| chapter = 10. Reality and Representations in Greek Astronomy: Hypotheses and Phenomena

| isbn = 9780691123394

| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HPBE3RbeceQC&pg=PA49

}}

Wherein "The oldest extant text in which the expression "save the phenomena" is only of the first century A.D. namely Plutarch's On the Face in the Orb of the Moon", hence see also (in Greek) Plutarch, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0356%3Astephpage%3D923a De faciae quae in orbe lunae apparet, 923a] (or [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0357%3Asection%3D6 in English]) at the [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ Perseus Project]Cf. {{Cite book

| publisher = University of Chicago Press

| last = Duhem

| first = Pierre

| title = To save the phenomena, an essay on the idea of physical theory from Plato to Galileo

| url = https://archive.org/details/tosavephenomenae0000duhe

| url-access = registration

| location = Chicago

| year = 1969

| oclc=681213472

}} ([https://www.amazon.com/Pierre-Duhem-History-Philosophy-Science/dp/0872203085/ref=sr_1_1#reader_0872203085 excerpt on pg. 132]).Cf. Andreas Osiander's Ad lectorem introduction to Copernicus's De revolutionibus orbium coelestium. contrasted with providing a physical explanationPierre Duhem thinks "Kepler is, unquestionably, the strongest and most illustrious representative of that tradition," i.e., the tradition of realism, that physical theories offer explanations in addition to just "saving the phenomena.") Duhem was motivated by the thinking of Thomas Aquinas, who wrote concerning the epicycles and eccentrics of classical astronomy that

{{blockquote|Reason may be employed in two ways to establish a point: firstly, for the purpose of furnishing sufficient proof of some principle [...] Reason is employed in another way, not as furnishing a sufficient proof of a principle, but as confirming an already established principle, by showing the congruity of its results, as in astronomy the theory of eccentrics and epicycles is considered as established, because thereby the sensible appearances of the heavenly movements can be explained; not, however, as if this proof were sufficient, forasmuch as some other theory might explain them.Summa Theologica, [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1032.htm#article1 I q. 32 a. 1] ad 2}}

Philosophy of science

{{Quote box

|quote = A theory of physics is not an explanation. It is a system of mathematical propositions, deduced from a small number of principles, which have for their aim to represent as simply, as completely and as exactly as possible, a group of experimental laws.{{cite book|last1=Duhem|first1=Pierre Maurice Marie|title=The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory|url=https://archive.org/details/aimstructureofph0000duhe|url-access=registration|date=1991|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=978-0691025247|edition=9932}}{{cite book|last1=Cady|first1=Walter G.|title=Piezoelectricity|date=1946|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York, NY, USA|page=245}}

|author = Duhem

|source = The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory, vol 13, p. 19

|width = 25%

|align = left

}}

In the philosophy of science, Duhem is best known for arguing that hypotheses are not straightforwardly refuted by experiment and that there are no crucial experiments in science. Duhem’s formulation of his thesis is that “if the predicted phenomenon is not produced, not only is the questioned proposition put into doubt, but also the whole theoretical scaffolding used by the physicist”.{{sfn|Massey|2011|loc=Sec. 1}} Duhem's views on the philosophy of science are explained in his 1906 work The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory.{{cite book|last=Duhem|first=Pierre|others=Philip P. Wiener (Foreword) Jules Vuillemin (Introduction)|trans-title=The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory|title=La Théorie Physique: son Objet et sa Structure|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1954|isbn=978-0-691-02524-7}} In this work, he opposed Newton's statement that the Principia's law of universal mutual gravitation was deduced from 'phenomena', including Kepler's second and third laws. Newton's claims in this regard had already been attacked by critical proof-analyses of the German logician Leibniz and then most famously by Immanuel Kant, following Hume's logical critique of induction. But the novelty of Duhem's work was his proposal that Newton's theory of universal mutual gravity flatly contradicted Kepler's Laws of planetary motion because the interplanetary mutual gravitational perturbations caused deviations from Keplerian orbits. Since no contingent proposition can be validly logically deduced from any it contradicts, according to Duhem, Newton must not have logically deduced his law of gravitation directly from Kepler's Laws.{{cite book|last=Lakatos|first=Imre|author2=Paul Feyerabend |author3=Matteo Motterlini |title=For and Against Method: Including Lakatos's Lectures on Scientific Method and the Lakatos-Feyerabend Correspondence|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1999|pages=45–49|isbn=978-0-226-46774-0}}{{cite book|last=Lakatos|first=Imre|author2=John Worrall |author3=Gregory Currie |title=The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1980|chapter=5: Newton's Effect on Scientific Standards|isbn=978-0-521-28031-0}}{{cite book|last=Lakatos|first=Imre|author2=John Worrall |author3=Gregory Currie |title=Mathematics, Science, and Epistemology|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1978|chapter=5: The Method of Analysis-Synthesis|isbn=978-0-521-21769-9}}

=Opposition to the English inductivist tradition=

Duhem argues that physics is subject to certain methodological limitations that do not affect other sciences. In his The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory (1906), Duhem critiqued the Baconian notion of "crucial experiments". According to this critique, an experiment in physics is not simply an observation, but rather an interpretation of observations by means of a theoretical framework. Furthermore, no matter how well one constructs one's experiment, it is impossible to subject an isolated single hypothesis to an experimental test. Instead, it is a whole interlocking group of hypotheses, background assumptions, and theories that is tested. This thesis has come to be known as confirmation holism. This inevitable holism, according to Duhem, renders crucial experiments impossible. More generally, Duhem was critical of Newton's description of the method of physics as a straightforward "deduction" from facts and observations.

=Duhem's philosophy of science and faith=

In the appendix to The Aim and Structure, entitled "Physics of a Believer," Duhem draws out the implications that he sees his philosophy of science as having for those who argue that there is a conflict between physics and religion. He writes, "metaphysical and religious doctrines are judgments touching on objective reality, whereas the principles of physical theory are propositions relative to certain mathematical signs stripped of all objective existence. Since they do not have any common term, these two sorts of judgments can neither contradict nor agree with each other" (p. 285). Nonetheless, Duhem argues that it is important for the theologian or metaphysician to have detailed knowledge of physical theory in order not to make illegitimate use of it in speculations. Duhem's philosophy of science was criticized by one of his contemporaries, Abel Rey, in part because of what Rey perceived as influence on the part of Duhem's Catholic faith.{{sfn|Page|2018|p=5}} Although Duhem was indeed a believer, a sincere and fervent Catholic, he was eager to point out that his works in physics and chemistry should be considered on their own merits, independent of his religion. They were not examples of "Catholic science," nor even colored by his Catholic faith.{{sfn|Kragh|2008}}{{refn|name=DuhemSeparationScienceReligion}}

Honors and death

Duhem received an honorary doctorate from the Jagiellonian University, in Kraków, Poland, in 1900. On that same year he was elected as a corresponding member of the French Academy of Sciences. He was promoted to titular non-resident member in 1913. Towards the end of his life, Duhem was recommended as a candidate for the chair of History of Science at the prestigious Collège de France, in Paris. Duhem, however, refused to be considered for the position, explaining in a letter to his daughter that "I am a theoretical physicist. Either I will teach theoretical physics at Paris or else I will not go there." He died suddenly in 1916, at the relatively early age of 55, after suffering from a acute attack of angina while staying in a home that had belonged to his maternal grandfather in the small commune of Cabrespine, near the city of Carcassonne, in the southern department of the Aude.

Works

Books

(1886). [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k62445r.image.f4.langFR Le Potentiel Thermodynamique et ses Applications à la Mécanique Chimique et à l'Étude des Phénomènes Électriques]. Paris: A. Hermann.
(1888). De l'Aimantation par Influence. Suivi de Propositions Données par la Faculté. Paris, Gauthier-Villars et Fils.
(1891). Cours de Physique Mathématique et de Cristallographie de la Faculté des Sciences de Lille. Paris: A. Hermann.
(1891–1892). Leçons sur l'Électricité et le Magnétisme. Paris: Gauthier-Villars et Fils, [https://archive.org/stream/leonssurllec01duheuoft#page/n9/mode/2up tome I] ([https://isidore.co/calibre/get/EPUB/3405 English EPUB]), [https://archive.org/stream/leonssurllec02duheuoft#page/n9/mode/2up tome II] ([https://isidore.co/calibre/get/EPUB/3406 English EPUB]), [https://archive.org/details/leonssurllec03duheuoft tome III] ([https://isidore.co/calibre/get/EPUB/3407 English EPUB]).
(1893). Introduction à la Mécanique Chimique. Paris: G. Carré.
(1894). [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k83732w Sur les Déformations Permanentes et l'Hysteresis]. Bruxelles: Impr. de Hayez.
(1895). Les Théories de la Chaleur.
(1896). [https://archive.org/stream/thoriethermodyn00duhegoog#page/n6/mode/2up Théorie Thermodynamique de la Viscosité, du Frottement et des faux Équilibres Chimiques]. Paris: A. Hermann.
(1897–1898). Traité Élémentaire de Mécanique Chimique Fondée sur la Thermodynamique. Paris: A. Hermann.
(1897). Les Mélanges Doubles: Statique Chimique Générale des Systèmes Hétérogènes.
(1898). Faux Équilibres et Explosions.
(1902). [https://archive.org/stream/lemixteetlacomb00duhegoog#page/n8/mode/2up Le Mixte et la Combinaison Chimique. Essai sur l'Évolution d'une Idée]. Paris: C. Naud.
(1902). [https://archive.org/stream/lesthorieslectr00duhegoog#page/n7/mode/2up Les Théories Électriques de J. Clerk Maxwell: Étude Historique et Critique]. Paris: A. Hermann.
(1902). [https://archive.org/stream/thermodynamique00duhegoog#page/n9/mode/2up Thermodynamique et Chimie: Leçons Élémentaires à l'Usage des Chimistes.] Paris: A. Hermann.
(1903). [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k99732j.r=Pierre+Duhem.langFR Recherches sur l'Hydrodynamique]. Paris: Gauthier-Villars.
(1905–6). Les Origines de la Statique. Paris: A. Herman, [https://archive.org/stream/lesoriginesdelas00duhe#page/n5/mode/2up tome I], [https://archive.org/stream/lesoriginesdelas02duhe#page/n7/mode/2up tome II].
(1905). L'Évolution de la Mécanique. Paris, A. Hermann.
(1906). [https://archive.org/stream/lathoriephysiqu00unkngoog#page/n6/mode/2up La Théorie Physique. Son Objet, sa Structure]. Paris: Chevalier & Riviére (Vrin, 2007).
(1906). [https://archive.org/stream/recherchessurll00duhegoog#page/n13/mode/2up Recherches sur l'Élasticité]. Paris: Gauthier-Villars.
(1906–13). Études sur Léonard de Vinci, ceux qu'il a lus et ceux qui l'ont lu, 3 vol., Paris: A. Hermann.
[https://archive.org/stream/tudessurlona01duhe#page/n11/mode/2up Première série] : Ceux qu'il a lus et ceux qui l'ont lu, 1906.
[https://archive.org/stream/tudessurlona02duhe#page/n9/mode/2up Deuxième série] : Ceux qu'il a lus et ceux qui l'ont lu, 1909.
[https://archive.org/stream/tudessurlona03duhe#page/n9/mode/2up Troisième série] : Les précurseurs parisiens de Galilée, 1913.
(1908). [https://archive.org/stream/josiahwillardgib00duheuoft#page/n5/mode/2up Josiah-Willard Gibbs, à propos de la Publication de ses Mémoires Scientifiques]. Paris: A. Hermann.
(1908). Sauver les Phénomènes. Essai sur la Notion de Théorie Physique de Platon à Galilée. Paris: A. Hermann (Vrin, 2005).
(1909). [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k81298z.r=Pierre+Duhem.langFR Le Mouvement Absolu et le Mouvement Relatif]. Paris: Impr. Librairie de Montligeon. [https://isidore.co/calibre/get/EPUB/4043 English EPUB]
(1911). Traité d'Énergétique. Paris: Gauthier-Villars, [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k997467 tome I] ([https://isidore.co/calibre/get/EPUB/3408 English EPUB]), [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k99747k tome II] ([https://isidore.co/calibre/get/EPUB/3409 English EPUB]).
(1913–1959). Le Système du Monde. Histoire des Doctrines Cosmologiques de Platon à Copernic: [https://archive.org/stream/lesystmedumond01duhe#page/n7/mode/2up tome I], [https://archive.org/stream/lesystmedumond02duhe#page/n7/mode/2up tome II], [https://archive.org/stream/lesystmedumond03duhe#page/n7/mode/2up tome III], [https://archive.org/stream/lesystmedumond04duhe#page/n7/mode/2up tome IV], [https://archive.org/stream/lesystmedumond05duhe#page/n7/mode/2up tome V], tome VI, tome VII, [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k2425f.r=.langFR tome VIII], [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k2426r.r=.langFR tome IX], [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k24272.r=.langFR tome X].
(1915) [https://archive.org/stream/lascienceallemen00duhe#page/n7/mode/2up La Science Allemande]. Paris: A. Hermann.

Articles

(1908). [https://archive.org/stream/revuegnraledess00unkngoog#page/n19/mode/2up "La Valeur de la Théorie Physique,"] Journal de Mathémathiques Pures et Appliquées, Vol. XIX, pp. 7–19.
(1908). [https://archive.org/stream/revuegnraledess00unkngoog#page/n417/mode/2up "Ce que l'on Disait des Indes Occidentales avant Christophe Colomb,"] Journal de Mathémathiques Pures et Appliquées, Vol. XIX, pp. 402–406.
(1909). [https://archive.org/stream/revuedessciences03pari#page/524/mode/2up "Note: Thierry de Chartres et Nicholas de Cues,"] Revues des Sciences Philosophiques et Théologiques, Troisième Année, pp. 525–531.
(1911). [https://archive.org/stream/s6journaldemat07liou#page/n7/mode/2up "Sur les Petites Oscillations d'un Corps Flottant,"] Journal de Mathémathiques Pures et Appliquées, Vol. VII, Sixiéme Série, pp. 1–84.
(1911). [https://archive.org/stream/revuedephilosoph19pariuoft#page/n7/mode/2up "Le Temps selon les Philosophes Hellénes,"] [https://archive.org/stream/revuedephilosoph19pariuoft#page/128/mode/2up Part II], Revue de Philosophie, Vol. XIX, pp. 5–24, 128–145.
(1914). [https://archive.org/stream/rogerbaconessays00litt#page/240/mode/2up "Roger Bacon et l'Horreur du Vide,"] in A.G. Little (ed.), Roger Bacon Essays. Oxford, at the Clarendon Press.
(1915). [https://archive.org/stream/revuedesdeuxmond19151pari#page/656/mode/2up "Quelques Réflexions sur la Science Allemande,"] Revue des Deux Mondes, Vol. XXV, pp. 657–686.
(1916). "L'Optique de Malebranche," Revue de Métaphysique et de Morale, Vol. XXIII, No. 1, pp. 37–91.

[https://web.archive.org/web/20141223073204/http://www.numdam.org/numdam-bin/recherche?aur=Duhem,+Pierre Duhem's mathematics papers from NUMDAM]

=Works in English translation=

{{Cite book

| edition = 1st

| publisher = J. Wiley & Sons; Chapman & Hall

| last = Duhem

| first = Pierre

| title = Thermodynamics and Chemistry. A Non-mathematical Treatise for Chemists and Students of Chemistry.

| location = New York; London

| access-date = 2011-08-31

| year = 1903

| url = https://archive.org/details/cu31924001081490

| oclc=3383130

}}

{{Cite book

| last = Duhem

| first = Pierre

| orig-year = Originally published 1906

| title = The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory

| location = Princeton

| publisher = Princeton University Press

| edition = 2nd

| year = 1991b

| translator-first = Philip P.

| translator-last = Wiener }} Excerpts: [https://web.archive.org/web/20111001060913/http://ftp.colloquium.co.uk/~barrett/schism.htm excerpt 1], & [https://web.archive.org/web/20111001061233/http://ftp.colloquium.co.uk/~barrett/celestial.htm excerpt 2 "Heavenly bodies: Theory, physics and philosophy"]

"Physical Theory and Experiment," in Herbert Feigl & May Brodbeck (ed.), Readings in the Philosophy of Science. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1953, pp. 235–252.
{{Cite book

| publisher = University of Chicago Press

| last = Duhem

| first = Pierre

| title = To Save the Phenomena, an Essay on the Idea of Physical Theory from Plato to Galileo

| url = https://archive.org/details/tosavephenomenae0000duhe

| url-access = registration

| location = Chicago

| year = 1969

|oclc=681213472

}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=UofBybolmREC&pg=PA131 excerpt])

{{Cite book

| publisher = University of Chicago Press

| isbn = 978-0-226-16922-4

| last = Duhem

| first = Pierre

| title = Medieval Cosmology: Theories of Infinity, Place, Time, Void, and the Plurality of Worlds

| location = Chicago

| year = 1985

|oclc=712044683

}} (excerpt: "[https://web.archive.org/web/20110928000346/http://ftp.colloquium.co.uk/~barrett/void.html The 12th century birth of the notion of mass which advised modern mechanics ... and void and movement in the void]")

Duhem, Pierre (1988). The Physicist as Artist: The Landscapes of Pierre Duhem. Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press. {{ISBN|0707305349}}
Duhem, Pierre (1990). "Logical Examination of Physical Theory," Synthese, Vol. 83, No. 2, pp. 183–188.
Duhem, Pierre (1990). "Research on the History of Physical Theories," Synthese, Vol. 83, No. 2, pp. 189–200.
Duhem, Pierre (1991). German Science. La Salle, Ill.: Open Court. {{ISBN|0812691245}}
{{Cite book

| publisher = Springer Netherlands

| isbn = 9789401137300

| last = Duhem

| first = Pierre

| title = The Origins of Statics The Sources of Physical Theory

| volume = 123

| location = Dordrecht

| date = 1991c

| doi = 10.1007/978-94-011-3730-0

| series = Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science

}}

{{Cite book

| publisher = Hackett Pub. Co.

| isbn = 978-0-87220-308-2

| last = Duhem

| first = Pierre

| title = Essays in the History and Philosophy of Science

| location = Indianapolis

| year = 1996

|oclc=33968944

}}

{{Cite book

| publisher = Springer

| isbn = 978-94-007-0311-7

|oclc=733543752

| last = Duhem

| first = Pierre

| title = Commentary on the Principles of Thermodynamics by Pierre Duhem

| location = Dordrecht; New York

| year = 2011

| url = http://www.springerlink.com/content/978-94-007-0310-0/contents/

| archive-url = https://archive.today/20130203020236/http://www.springerlink.com/content/978-94-007-0310-0/contents/

| url-status = dead

| archive-date = 2013-02-03

}}

{{Cite book| publisher = Springer International Publishing| isbn = 978-3-319-18515-6| doi = 10.1007/978-3-319-18515-6 | volume = 314| last = Duhem| first = Pierre Maurice Marie| others = Alan Aversa (trans.)| title = The Electric Theories of J. Clerk Maxwell| location = Cham| series = Boston Studies in the Philosophy and History of Science| access-date = 2015-07-08| date = 2015| url = https://isidore.co/calibre/browse/book/4976}}
{{Cite book| last = Duhem| first = Pierre Maurice Marie| others = Alan Aversa (trans.)| title = Galileo's Precursors: Translation of Studies on Leonardo da Vinci (vol. 3)| access-date = 2019-07-03| date = 2018-06-29| url = https://isidore.co/calibre/get/PDF/6854 | doi = 10.13140/RG.2.2.23235.71201/1}}
{{Cite book| last = Duhem| first = Pierre Maurice Marie| others = Alan Aversa (trans.)| title = Ampère's Force Law: A Modern Introduction| access-date = 2019-07-03| date = 2018-09-09| url = https://isidore.co/calibre/get/PDF/6855| doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.31100.03206/1}} ([https://isidore.co/calibre/get/EPUB/6855 EPUB])

Articles

"[https://books.google.com/books?id=UofBybolmREC&pg=PA29 Physics & Metaphysics]" (1893)
"[https://web.archive.org/web/20111001061324/http://ftp.colloquium.co.uk/~barrett/croyant.html Physics of a Believer]"

Articles contributed to the 1912 Catholic Encyclopedia

[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12047a.htm History of Physics]
[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12079e.htm Pierre de Maricourt]
[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10740b.htm Jordanus de Nemore]
[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11296a.htm Nicole Oresme]
[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13504a.htm Albert of Saxony]
[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14635a.htm Thierry of Freburg]
[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13493a.htm Jean de Sax]

:The above bibliography is not exhaustive. See his complete [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/duhem/#PriSou primary sources] and [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/duhem/#SecSou secondary sources] at the [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/duhem/ Duhem entry] of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

References

{{reflist|30em | refs =

{{refn| name=DuhemSeparationScienceReligion| {{Harvnb|Duhem|1991b}}: "Whatever I have said of the method by which physics proceeds, or of the nature and scope that we must attribute to the theories it constructs, does not in any way prejudice either the metaphysical doctrines or the religious beliefs of anyone who accepts my words. The believer and the nonbeliever may both work in common accord for the progress of physical science such as I have tried to define it. [...] In itself and by its essence, any principle of theoretical physics has no part to play in metaphysical or theological discussions." }}

}}

Sources

Dijksterhuis, E.J. (1959). "The Origins of Classical Mechanics from Aristotle to Newton", in M. Clagett (ed). Critical Problems in the History of Science, pp. 163–184. University of Wisconsin Press.
Hentschel, Klaus (1988). "Die Korrespondenz Duhem-Mach: Zur 'Modellbeladenheit' von Wissenschaftsgeschichte", Annals of Science, 73–91.
{{Cite journal

| last = Kragh

| first = Helge

| title = Pierre Duhem, Entropy, and Christian Faith

| journal = Physics in Perspective

| volume = 10

| year = 2008

| issue = 4

| pages = 379–395

| doi = 10.1007/s00016-007-0365-z

| bibcode = 2008PhP....10..379K

| s2cid = 122079983

}}

{{cite book|last=Lowinger|first=Armand|title=The Methodology of Pierre Duhem|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1941}}
{{cite book|last=Martin|first=R. N. D.|title=Pierre Duhem: Philosophy and History in the Work of a Believing Physicist|url=https://archive.org/details/pierreduhemphilo0000mart|url-access=registration|year=1991|publisher=Open Court |isbn=978-0-8126-9160-3}}
{{Cite journal

| last = Massey

| first = Gerald J.

| year = 2011

| title = Quine and Duhem on holistic hypothesis testing

| journal = American Philosophical Quarterly

| volume = 48

| number = 3

| pages = 239–266

}}

{{Cite encyclopedia

| first = Donald G.

| last = Miller

| title = Pierre Duhem

| url = http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Pierre_Maurice_Marie_Duhem.aspx

| publisher = Scribner & American Council of Learned Societies

| isbn = 978-0-684-10114-9

| editor-last = Gillispie

| editor-first = Charles

| encyclopedia = Dictionary of Scientific Biography

| volume=3

| pages=225–233

| location = New York

| year = 1970

}}

{{cite journal|last=Moody|first=Ernest A.|year=1951|title=Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment|journal=Journal of the History of Ideas|volume=12|issue=3| pages=375–422|doi=10.2307/2707752|jstor=2707752}}
Moody, Ernest A. (1966). "Galileo and his Precursors", in C.L. Gollino, ed., Galileo Reappraised. Berkeley: University of California Press, 23–43.
{{cite book|last=Martin|first=R. N. D.|title=Pierre Duhem: Philosophy and History in the Work of a Believing Physicist|url=https://archive.org/details/pierreduhemphilo0000mart|url-access=registration|year=1991|publisher=Open Court |isbn=978-0-8126-9160-3}}
{{Cite encyclopedia| first = Paul| last = Needham| title = Pierre Duhem| url = http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Pierre_Maurice_Marie_Duhem.aspx#2| encyclopedia = Dictionary of Scientific Biography| year = 2008}}
{{cite journal|last1=Page|first1=Meghan D.|title=Sense and Reference of a Believer|journal=American Catholic Philosophical Quarterly|volume=92|pages=145–157|date=17 January 2018|doi=10.5840/acpq2018116143|url=https://www.pdcnet.org/pdc/bvdb.nsf/purchase?openform&fp=acpq&id=acpq_2018_0999_1_16_143|access-date=21 January 2018|url-access=subscription}}
Picard, Émile (1922). [https://archive.org/stream/discoursetmlan00picauoft#page/n15/mode/2up "La Vie et l'Oeuvre de Pierre Duhem,"] in Discours et Mélanges. Paris: Gauthier-Villars.
{{Cite journal

| last = Rey

| first = Abel

| year = 1904

| title = La philosophie scientifique de M. Duhem

| journal = Revue de Métaphysique et de Morale

| volume = 12

| pages = 699–744

}}

{{cite book|last=Stoffel|first=Jean-François|author2=Stanley L. Jaki|title=Pierre Duhem et ses Doctorands: Bibliographie de la Littérature Primaire et Secondaire|publisher=Centre Interfacultaire d'Étude en Histoire des Sciences|year=1996|pages=325|isbn=978-2-930175-00-3}}
{{cite book|last=Stoffel|first=Jean-François|author2=Jean Ladrière|title=Le Phénoménalisme Problématique de Pierre Duhem|publisher=Classe des Lettres, Académie Royale de Belgique|location=Brussels|year=2002|pages=391|isbn=978-2-8031-0190-0}}

External links

{{Internet Archive author |sname=Pierre Duhem}}
[https://archive.org/stream/nature9819161917lock#page/130/mode/2up Obituary, at Science]
[https://web.archive.org/web/20131029190606/http://www.numdam.org/numdam-bin/recherche?h=aur&aur=Duhem,+Pierre&format=short Works by Pierre Duhem], at Numdam
[http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Duhem.html MacTutor Biography]
[https://web.archive.org/web/20131029191609/http://www.revuedesdeuxmondes.fr/archive/article.php?code=54930 Pierre Duhem, by Louis de Launay]
[http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Econ/EconBoyl.htm The Duhem–Quine Thesis in Economics: A Reinterpretation]
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nXhVRKh-LLA Pierre Duhem & Thomas Kuhn]
[http://www.chaos-math.org/en/chaos-v-billiards Duhem's Bull]