Placenta accreta spectrum

The pathogenesis of PAS includes the formation of an abnormally firm and deep attachment to the uterine wall by the placenta. In addition, there may be an absence of the decidua basalis and incomplete development of the Nitabuch's layer.{{cite book |editor1=Steven G. Gabbe |editor2=Jennifer R. Niebyl |editor3=Joe Leigh Simpson |title=Obstetrics: normal and problem pregnancies |year=2002 |publisher=Churchill Livingstone |location=New York, NY [u.a.] |isbn=978-0-443-06572-9 |page=519 |edition=4.}}

Below are the three forms of placenta accreta spectrum, distinguishable by the depth of penetration into the uterine wall.

Women experience higher morbidity with placenta percreta compared to placenta accreta and increta.{{Cite journal |last1=Pather |first1=Selvan |last2=Strockyj |first2=Sasha |last3=Richards |first3=Antony |last4=Campbell |first4=Neil |last5=de Vries |first5=Brad |last6=Ogle |first6=Robert |date=2014 |title=Maternal outcome after conservative management of placenta percreta at caesarean section: A report of three cases and a review of the literature |url=https://obgyn.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajo.12149 |journal=Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology |language=en |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=84–87 |doi=10.1111/ajo.12149 |pmid=24471850 |issn=1479-828X|url-access=subscription }} In cases of placenta percreta, where the uterus is deeply penetrated into and through the myometrium to the bladder or rectum, it is highly advised to avoid any attempts of removing the placenta. Leaving the placenta in situ, not removing it after childbirth, has been part of the conservative management of PAS discussed later.

When the antepartum diagnosis of placenta accreta is made, it is usually based on ultrasound findings in the second or third trimester. Sonographic findings that may be suggestive of placenta accreta include:

• Loss of normal hypo-echoic retroplacental zone
• Multiple vascular lacunae (irregular vascular spaces) within placenta, giving "Swiss cheese" appearance
• Blood vessels or placental tissue bridging uterine-placental margin, myometrial-bladder interface, or crossing the uterine serosa
• Retroplacental myometrial thickness of <1 mm
• Numerous coherent vessels visualized with 3-dimensional power Doppler in basal view

Unfortunately, the diagnosis is not easy and is affected by a significant interobserver variability.{{cite journal |vauthors=Bowman ZS, Eller AG, Kennedy AM, Richards DS, Winter TC, Woodward PJ, Silver RM |title=Interobserver variability of sonography for prediction of placenta accreta |journal=Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine |volume=33 |issue=12 |pages=2153–8 |date=December 2014 |pmid=25425372 |doi=10.7863/ultra.33.12.2153 |s2cid=22246937 |doi-access= }} In doubtful cases it is possible to perform a nuclear magnetic resonance (MRI) of the pelvis, which has a very good sensitivity and specificity for this disorder.{{cite journal |vauthors=D'Antonio F, Iacovella C, Palacios-Jaraquemada J, Bruno CH, Manzoli L, Bhide A |title=Prenatal identification of invasive placentation using magnetic resonance imaging: systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=8–16 |date=July 2014 |pmid=24515654 |doi=10.1002/uog.13327 |s2cid=9237117 }} MRI findings associated with placenta accreta include dark T2 bands, bulging of the uterus, and loss of the dark T2 interface.{{cite journal |last1=Balcacer |first1=Patricia |last2=Pahade |first2=Jay |last3=Spektor |first3=Michael |last4=Staib |first4=Lawrence |last5=Copel |first5=Joshua A. |last6=McCarthy |first6=Shirley |title=Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Sonography in the Diagnosis of Placental Invasion |journal=Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine |volume=35 |issue=7 |year=2016 |pages=1445–1456 |issn=0278-4297 |doi=10.7863/ultra.15.07040 |pmid=27229131 |s2cid=46662788 |doi-access=}}

Although there are isolated case reports of placenta accreta being diagnosed in the first trimester or at the time of abortion < 20 weeks' gestational age, the predictive value of first-trimester ultrasound for this diagnosis remains unknown. Women with a placenta previa or "low-lying placenta" overlying a uterine scar early in pregnancy should undergo follow-up imaging in the third trimester with attention to the potential presence of placenta accreta. Despite the difficulty in diagnosing PAS, there exists many risk factors that can aid in the diagnosis.

An important risk factor for placenta accreta is placenta previa in the presence of a uterine scar. Placenta previa is an independent risk factor for placenta accreta. Additional reported risk factors for placenta accreta include maternal age and multiparity, other prior uterine surgery, prior uterine curettage, uterine irradiation, endometrial ablation, Asherman syndrome, uterine leiomyomata, uterine anomalies, and smoking.

Any anomaly in the uterine wall, whether superficial or deep, can lead to PAS, as that anomaly assists the blastocyst to implant onto the uterine wall at that location. The condition is increased in incidence by the presence of scar tissue such as Asherman's syndrome from past uterine surgery, especially from a past dilation and curettage,{{cite journal |last1=Capella-Allouc |first1=S. |last2=Morsad |first2=F |last3=Rongières-Bertrand |first3=C |last4=Taylor |first4=S |last5=Fernandez |first5=H |year=1999 |title=Hysteroscopic treatment of severe Asherman's syndrome and subsequent fertility |journal=Human Reproduction |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=1230–3 |doi=10.1093/humrep/14.5.1230 |pmid=10325268 |doi-access=free}} (which is used for many indications including miscarriage, termination, and postpartum hemorrhage), myomectomy,{{cite journal |last1=Al-Serehi |first1=A |last2=Mhoyan |first2=A |last3=Brown |first3=M |last4=Benirschke |first4=K |last5=Hull |first5=A |last6=Pretorius |first6=DH |year=2008 |title=Placenta accreta: An association with fibroids and Asherman syndrome |journal=Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine |volume=27 |issue=11 |pages=1623–8 |doi=10.7863/jum.2008.27.11.1623 |pmid=18946102 |s2cid=833810}} or caesarean section. Caesarean deliveries have been deemed the main factor for women to develop PAS and placenta previa due to the tissue scarring left after the delivery. Almost a third of all births in the United States are done through cesarean section. A systemic review found that cesarean deliveries increased the incidence of placenta previa. Furthermore, women who had placenta previa and at least 3 cesarean deliveries were statistically more likely to develop placenta accreta than those with previa and no history of cesarean deliveries.{{Cite journal |last1=Marshall |first1=Nicole E. |last2=Fu |first2=Rongwei |last3=Guise |first3=Jeanne-Marie |date=2011-09-01 |title=Impact of multiple cesarean deliveries on maternal morbidity: a systematic review |url=https://www.ajog.org/article/S0002-9378(11)00763-0/abstract |journal=American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology |language=English |volume=205 |issue=3 |pages=262.e1–262.e8 |doi=10.1016/j.ajog.2011.06.035 |pmid=22071057 |issn=0002-9378|url-access=subscription }}

A thin decidua can also be a contributing factor to such trophoblastic invasion. Some studies suggest that the rate of incidence is higher when the fetus is female.[http://www.americanpregnancy.org American Pregnancy Association] (January 2004) '[http://www.americanpregnancy.org/pregnancycomplications/placentaaccreta.html Placenta Accreta] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060116063059/http://www.americanpregnancy.org/pregnancycomplications/placentaaccreta.html|date=2006-01-16}}'. Accessed 16 October 2006 Other risk factors include low-lying placenta, anterior placenta, congenital or acquired uterine defects (such as uterine septa), leiomyoma, ectopic implantation of placenta (including cornual pregnancy).{{cite book |last=Arulkumaran |first=Sabaratnam |title=Best practice in labour and delivery |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-72068-7 |editor-last=Warren |editor-first=Richard |edition=1st ed., 3rd printing. |location=Cambridge |pages=108, 146}}{{cite journal |last=Shimonovitz |first=S |author2=Hurwitz, A |author3=Dushnik, M |author4=Anteby, E |author5=Geva-Eldar, T |author6=Yagel, S |date=September 1994 |title=Developmental regulation of the expression of 72 and 92 kd type IV collagenases in human trophoblasts: a possible mechanism for control of trophoblast invasion. |journal=American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology |volume=171 |issue=3 |pages=832–8 |doi=10.1016/0002-9378(94)90107-4 |pmid=7522400}}{{cite journal |last=ACOG Committee on Obstetric |first=Practice |date=January 2002 |title=ACOG Committee opinion. Number 266, January 2002: placenta accreta. |journal=Obstetrics and Gynecology |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=169–70 |doi=10.1016/s0029-7844(01)01748-3 |pmid=11777527}}

Pregnant women above 35 years of age who have had a caesarian section and now have a placenta previa overlying the uterine scar have a 40% chance of placenta accreta, which come with any complications.{{cite book |last=Hobbins |first=John C. |title=Obstetric ultrasound: artistry in practice |publisher=Blackwell |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4051-5815-2 |location=Oxford |page=10}}

• Damage to local organs (e.g., bowel, bladder, uterus and neurovascular structures in the retroperitoneum and lateral pelvic sidewalls from placental implantation and its removal)
• Postoperative bleeding requiring repeated surgery
• Amniotic fluid embolism
• Complications (such as dilutional coagulopathy, consumptive coagulopathy, acute transfusion reactions, transfusion-associated lung injury, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and electrolyte abnormalities) caused by transfusion of large volumes of blood products, crystalloids, and other volume expanders
• Postoperative thromboembolism, infection, multisystem organ failure, and maternal death.

The exact incidence of maternal mortality related to placenta accreta and its complications is unknown, but it is significant,{{cite journal |vauthors=Selman AE |title=Caesarean hysterectomy for placenta praevia/accreta using an approach via the pouch of Douglas |journal=BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology |volume=123 |issue=5 |pages=815–9 |date=April 2016 |pmid=26642997 |pmc=5064651 |doi=10.1111/1471-0528.13762 }} especially if the urinary bladder is involved.{{cite journal |vauthors=Washecka R, Behling A |title=Urologic complications of placenta percreta invading the urinary bladder: a case report and review of the literature |journal=Hawaii Medical Journal |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=66–9 |date=April 2002 |pmid=12050959 }}

Treatment may be delivery by caesarean section and abdominal hysterectomy if placenta accreta is diagnosed before birth.{{cite book |first1=T A |last1=Johnston |first2=S |last2=Paterson-Brown |publisher=Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists |date=January 2011 |title=Placenta Praevia, Placenta Praevia Accreta and Vasa Praevia: Diagnosis and Management |url=http://www.rcog.org.uk/womens-health/clinical-guidance/placenta-praevia-and-placenta-praevia-accreta-diagnosis-and-manageme |series=Green-top Guideline No. 27}}{{cite journal |pages=927–41 |doi=10.1097/01.AOG.0000207559.15715.98 |title=Placenta Previa, Placenta Accreta, and Vasa Previa |year=2006 |last1=Oyelese |first1=Yinka |last2=Smulian |first2=John C. |journal=Obstetrics & Gynecology |volume=107 |issue=4 |pmid=16582134|s2cid=22774083 }} Oxytocin and antibiotics are used for post-surgical management.{{cite book|last=Turrentine|first=John E.|title=Clinical protocols in obstetrics and gynecology|year=2008|publisher=Informa Healthcare|location=London|isbn=978-0-415-43996-1|page=286|edition=3rd}} When there is partially separated placenta with focal accreta, removal of placenta may be reasonable if maternal status is stable. If it is important to save the woman's uterus (for future pregnancies) then resection around the placenta may be successful. Conservative treatment can also be uterus sparing but may not be as successful and has a higher risk of complications.

Techniques include:

• Leaving the placenta in the uterus and curettage of uterus. Methotrexate has been used in this case.
• Intrauterine balloon catheterization to compress blood vessels
• Embolisation of pelvic vessels
• Internal iliac artery ligation
• Bilateral uterine artery ligation

In cases where there is invasion of placental tissue and blood vessels into the bladder, it is treated in similar manner to abdominal pregnancy and manual placental removal is avoided. However, this may eventually need hysterectomy and/or partial cystectomy.

If the patient decides to proceed with a vaginal delivery, blood products for transfusion and an anesthesiologist are kept ready at delivery.{{cite journal |pages=77–8 |doi=10.1016/S0020-7292(02)80003-0 |title=Placenta accreta Number 266, January 2002 Committee on Obstetric Practice |year=2002 |journal=International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics |volume=77 |pmid=12053897 |last1=Committee On Obstetric |first1=Practice |issue=1|s2cid=42076480 }}

Conservative management of PAS is an approach used to avoid a hysterectomy, total removal of the uterus. Leaving the placenta in situ and not removing it has been the main approach, specifically for those experiencing placenta percreta, as findings suggest that it can mitigate the high hemorrhage or tissue injury risk that can be caused by a hysterectomy. Furthermore, this is a more practical approach for mothers who want to bear more children in the future.

Although this approach has been successful, findings have shown that leaving the placenta in situ has posed some negative effects, including delayed hemorrhage, endomyometritis, and sepsis (a systemic infection that can lead to organ dysfunction). Systematic reviews have shown a variety of ranges regarding outcome percentages of women with placenta in situ:

• 61% experienced late complications
• 22-58% required hysterectomy
• 60-65% needed additional procedures
• 51% experienced postpartum hemorrhage
• 42% experienced major morbidity
• 78% retained their uterus

As mentioned earlier, methotrexate has been used to assist in placenta re-absorption in cases of placenta in situ. It has shown success in helping to decrease the vascularity of the uterus after pregnancy. However, women on methotrexate can not breastfeed, which can negatively impact maternal bonding, neonatal attachment, and postpartum depression.

It is highly advised that those seeking conservative management (leaving the placenta in situ) are deeply knowledgeable in regards to the short and long term risks, as well as the need for close and lengthy monitoring and after delivery through appropriate counseling. Despite the many risks, if management is successful and carefully monitored, it can lead to good outcomes in regards to PAS.

== Health Inequalities ==

There does not exist much research regarding health inequalities related to women with Placenta Accreta Spectrum (PAS). However, majority of research present has discovered that there is no difference in health inequalities within PAS maternal outcomes for neonatal morbidity, timing of diagnosis, and planned multidisciplinary care, among different racial and ethnic groups. This remained true even after data was adjusting for factors such as income, age, institution and BMI.{{Cite journal |last1=Cohen |first1=Alexa |last2=Lambert |first2=Calvin |last3=Yanik |first3=Megan |last4=Nathan |first4=Lisa |last5=Rosenberg |first5=Henri M. |last6=Tavella |first6=Nicola |last7=Bianco |first7=Angela |last8=Futterman |first8=Itamar |last9=Haberman |first9=Shoshana |last10=Griffin |first10=Myah M. |last11=Limaye |first11=Meghana |last12=Owens |first12=Thomas |last13=Brustman |first13=Lois |last14=Wu |first14=Haotian |last15=Dar |first15=Pe'er |date=2024-07-01 |title=Investigation of health inequities in maternal and neonatal outcomes of patients with placenta accreta spectrum: a multicenter study |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2589-9333(24)00112-5 |journal=American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology MFM |language=English |volume=6 |issue=7 |doi=10.1016/j.ajogmf.2024.101386 |issn=2589-9333 |pmid=38761887|url-access=subscription }} Furthermore, there has been found that there is no correlation between social vulnerability and morbidity associated with PAS.{{Cite journal |last1=Tavella |first1=Nicola Francesco |last2=Rosenberg |first2=Henri Mitchell |last3=Mills |first3=Alexandra |last4=Owens |first4=Thomas |last5=Brustman |first5=Lois |last6=Doulaveris |first6=Georgios |last7=Haberman |first7=Shoshana |last8=Limaye |first8=Meghana |last9=Janevic |first9=Teresa |last10=Jessel |first10=Rebecca Hope |last11=Bianco |first11=Angela Teresa |date=2024-10-13 |title=Examining associations between social vulnerability and maternal morbidity among a multicentre cohort of pregnancies complicated by placenta accreta spectrum disorder in New York City |journal=BMJ Public Health |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |article-number=e001083 |doi=10.1136/bmjph-2024-001083 |doi-access=free |issn=2753-4294|pmc=11816871 }}

The lack of ethnic and racial health inequalities and social vulnerability in relation to PAS is good news; however, research needs to be conducted to discover if other factors such as income, socioeconomic status, and access to healthcare can lead to PAS health inequalities. This research will be beneficial especially for vulnerable populations, such as migrants, since they are exposed to factors that could lead to poorer pregnancy outcomes.{{Cite journal |last1=Nieto Calvache |first1=Albaro José |last2=Hidalgo |first2=Alejandra |last3=López |first3=María Camila |last4=Vergara-Galliadi |first4=Lina María |last5=Nieto-Calvache |first5=Alejandro Solo |date=December 2022 |title=Placenta accreta spectrum in vulnerable population: How to provide care for pregnant refugees struggling to access affordable healthcare |journal=The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine |volume=35 |issue=25 |pages=5031–5034 |doi=10.1080/14767058.2021.1874906 |issn=1476-4954 |pmid=33455510}}

== Epidemiology ==

The reported incidence of placenta accreta has increased from approximately 0.8 per 1000 deliveries in the 1980s to 3 per 1000 deliveries in the past decade.

Incidence has been increasing with increased rates of cesarean deliveries, with rates of 1 in 4,027 pregnancies in the 1970s, 1 in 2,510 in the 1980s, and 1 in 533 for 1982–2002.{{cite web |last1=Committee on Obstetric Practice |title=Placenta Accreta |url=http://www.acog.org/Resources_And_Publications/Committee_Opinions/Committee_on_Obstetric_Practice/Placenta_Accreta |website=American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists |access-date=2014-08-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123013603/http://www.acog.org/Resources_And_Publications/Committee_Opinions/Committee_on_Obstetric_Practice/Placenta_Accreta |archive-date=2016-11-23 }} In 2002, ACOG estimated that incidence has increased 10-fold over the past 50 years. The risk of placenta accreta in future deliveries after cesarean section is 0.4-0.8%. For patients with placenta previa, risk increases with number of previous cesarean sections, with rates of 3%, 11%, 40%, 61%, and 67% for the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth or greater number of cesarean sections.{{cite journal |last1=Silver |first1=R.M. |last2=Landon |first2=M.B. |last3=Rouse |first3=D.J. |last4=Leveno |first4=K.J. |last5=Spong |first5=C.Y. |last6=Thom |first6=E.A. |title=Maternal morbidity associated with multiple repeat cesarean deliveries |journal=Obstet Gynecol |date=2006 |volume=107 |issue=6 |pages=1226–32 |pmid=16738145 |last7=Moawad |first7=A.H. |last8=Caritis |first8=S. N. |last9=Harper |first9=M. |last10=Wapner |first10=R. J. |last11=Sorokin |first11=Y |last12=Miodovnik |first12=M |last13=Carpenter |first13=M |last14=Peaceman |first14=A. M. |last15=O'Sullivan |first15=M. J. |last16=Sibai |first16=B. |last17=Langer |first17=O. |last18=Thorp |first18=J. M. |last19=Ramin |first19=S. M. |last20=Mercer |first20=B. M. |author21=National Institute of Child Health Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network |doi=10.1097/01.AOG.0000219750.79480.84 |s2cid=257455 |display-authors=etal}}

It is extremely important for pregnant mothers to be aware of this condition, its risk factors, treatment and management, to ensure their health and the health of their baby, and prevent complications throughout the pregnancy.

{{Reflist}}

• [https://www.preventaccreta.org/ National Accreta Foundation]

{{Medical resources

| ICD10 = {{ICD10|O|43|2}}

| ICD9 = {{ICD9|667.0}}

| ICDO =

| OMIM =

| MedlinePlus =

| eMedicineSubj =

| eMedicineTopic =

| DiseasesDB = 10091

| MeshID = D010921

| SNOMED CT = 70129008

| ICD10CM = {{ICD10CM|O43.21}}

}}

{{Pathology of pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Placenta Accreta}}

Category:Complications of labour and delivery

Category:Human pregnancy

Category:Medical emergencies

Category:Placentation disorders