Plant-based diet

Origin of the term "plant-based diet" is attributed to Cornell University nutritional biochemist T. Colin Campbell who presented his diet research at the US National Institutes of Health in 1980.{{cite web|title= It’s Called ‘Plant-Based,’ Look It Up |first= Ethan |last= Varian |date= December 28, 2019 |newspaper= The New York Times |issn= 1553-8095 |language= en |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/28/style/plant-based-diet.html |url-access= subscription |access-date= January 26, 2025 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20250126184720/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/28/style/plant-based-diet.html |archive-date= January 26, 2025 |url-status=live}}{{cite web|title= How ‘plant-based’ rebranded vegan eating for the mainstream |first= Lavanya |last= Ramanathan |date= February 15, 2019 |work= The Washington Post |issn=0190-8286 |language= en |url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/voraciously/wp/2019/02/15/how-plant-based-rebranded-vegan-eating-for-the-mainstream/ |access-date= January 26, 2025 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240421133557/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/voraciously/wp/2019/02/15/how-plant-based-rebranded-vegan-eating-for-the-mainstream/ |archive-date= April 21, 2024 |url-status=live}} Campbell's research about a plant-based diet extended from The China Project, a decade-long study of dietary practices in rural China, giving evidence that a diet low in animal protein and fat, and high in plant foods, could reduce the incidence of several diseases.{{cite news |author=Jane E. Brody |title=Huge Study Of Diet Indicts Fat And Meat |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/08/science/huge-study-of-diet-indicts-fat-and-meat.html |access-date=3 July 2022 |work=The New York Times |date=8 May 1990}} In 2005, Campbell and his son published The China Study, a best-selling book emphasizing the potential health benefits of a plant-based diet.{{cite news |author=Tara Parker-Pope |title=Nutrition Advice from The China Study |url=https://archive.nytimes.com/well.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/01/07/nutrition-advice-from-the-china-study/ |access-date=3 July 2022 |work=The New York Times |date=7 January 2011}} Campbell also used the plant-based concept to educate consumers about how eating meat had significant environmental consequences.

Some authors draw a distinction between diets that are "plant-based" or "plant-only".{{cite book| vauthors = Dwyer J | veditors = Caballero B, Trugo LC, Finglas PM |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaoffo0000unse_c0f1/mode/2up |title=Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition|date=2003|publisher=Academic Press/Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-227055-0|pages=5974–5979|chapter=Vegetarian Diets|edition=Second}} A plant-based diet may be defined as consuming plant-sourced foods that are minimally processed.

A review analyzing the use of the term plant-based diet in medical literature found that 50% of clinical trials use the term interchangeably with vegan, meaning that the interventional diet did not include foods of animal origin. 30% of studies included dairy products and 20% meat.{{Cite journal |last=Storz |first=Maximilian Andreas |date=June 2022 |title=What makes a plant-based diet? a review of current concepts and proposal for a standardized plant-based dietary intervention checklist |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=76 |issue=6 |pages=789–800 |doi=10.1038/s41430-021-01023-z |issn=1476-5640 |pmc=9187516 |pmid=34675405}}

In 2021, the World Health Organization (WHO) stated that "plant-based diets constitute a diverse range of dietary patterns that emphasize foods derived from plant sources coupled with lower consumption or exclusion of animal products. Vegetarian diets form a subset of plant-based diets, which may exclude the consumption of some or all forms of animal foods."[https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/349086/WHO-EURO-2021-4007-43766-61591-eng.pdf "Plant-based diets and their impact on health, sustainability and the environment: A review of the evidence"]. WHO European Office for the Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable Diseases. Retrieved 12 January 2023. The WHO lists flexitarian, lacto-vegetarian, lacto-ovo vegetarian, ovo-vegetarian, pescatarian and vegan diets as plant-based.

A 2023 review paper defined plant-based as "a dietary pattern in which foods of animal origin are totally or mostly excluded".

In 2024, the International Organization for Standardization drafted ISO 8700 on "Plant-based foods and food ingredients - Definitions and technical criteria for labelling and claims".{{cite web |url=https://www.iso.org/standard/83290.html |title=ISO/DIS 8700 |author= |date=2024-05-30 |publisher=ISO |access-date=2024-06-05}}

As of the early 21st century, some 4 billion people are estimated to live primarily on a plant-based diet, some by choice and some because of limits caused by shortages of crops, fresh water, and energy resources.{{cite journal | vauthors = Pimentel D, Pimentel M | title = Sustainability of meat-based and plant-based diets and the environment | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 78 | issue = 3 Suppl | pages = 660S–663S | date = September 2003 | pmid = 12936963 | doi = 10.1093/ajcn/78.3.660S |url=https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/78/3/660S/4690010 | quote = Worldwide, an estimated 2 billion people live primarily on a meat-based diet, while an estimated 4 billion live primarily on a plant-based diet. The shortages of cropland, fresh water, and energy resources require most of the 4 billion people to live on a plant-based diet | doi-access = free }} Main motivations to follow a plant-based diet appear to be health aspirations, taste, animal welfare, environmental concern, and weight loss.{{Cite journal |last1=Miki |first1=Akari J. |last2=Livingston |first2=Kara A. |last3=Karlsen |first3=Micaela C. |last4=Folta |first4=Sara C. |last5=McKeown |first5=Nicola M. |date=March 2020 |title=Using Evidence Mapping to Examine Motivations for Following Plant-Based Diets |journal=Current Developments in Nutrition |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=nzaa013 |doi=10.1093/cdn/nzaa013 |issn=2475-2991 |pmc=7042611 |pmid=32110769}} In the U.S.A., people take individual action on climate change through their diet. Twenty-six per cent of those who eat a plant-based diet because they are "alarmed" about global warming — defined by the Yale Program on Climate Change Communication as those who are "convinced global warming is happening, human-caused, an urgent threat" — and twenty-seven per cent eat a plant-based diet because they are "concerned" — they believe global warming is a real and serious threat and that humans are causing it, but they think climate impacts remain far enough in the future that they are a lower priority issue.{{cite web |title=Global Warming's Six Americas |url=https://climatecommunication.yale.edu/about/projects/global-warmings-six-americas/ |website=Yale Program on Climate Change Communication |access-date=30 September 2023}}

File:Countries (States and Subnational Regions) and Their Positions on Vegetarian Diets in Food-Based Dietary Guidelines.svg position on vegetarian diets within their food-based dietary guidelines:{{cite journal |vauthors=Klapp AL, Feil N, Risius A |title=A Global Analysis of National Dietary Guidelines on Plant-Based Diets and Substitutions for Animal-Based Foods |journal=Current Developments in Nutrition |volume=6 |issue=11 |pages=nzac144 |date=November 2022 |pmid=36467286 |pmc=9708321 |doi=10.1093/cdn/nzac144}}

{{legend|#019c00|Supporters}}

{{legend|#ffc502|Informers}}

{{legend|#ff8800|Less informed}}

{{legend|#c11f1f|Critics}}

{{legend|#bababa|No guidelines}}

{{legend|#616161|Guideline not analysed}}]]

Plant-based diets are of interest in preventing and managing chronic diseases.{{cite journal |last1=Herpich |first1=Catrin |last2=Müller-Werdan |first2=Ursula |last3=Norman |first3=Kristina |title=Role of plant-based diets in promoting health and longevity |journal=Maturitas |date=2022 |volume=165 |pages=47–51 |doi=10.1016/j.maturitas.2022.07.003|pmid=35914402 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Jafari S, Hezaveh E, Jalilpiran Y, Jayedi A, Wong A, Safaiyan A, Barzegar A | title = Plant-based diets and risk of disease mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies | journal = Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition | pages = 7760–7772 | date = May 2021 | volume = 62 | issue = 28 | pmid = 33951994 | doi = 10.1080/10408398.2021.1918628 | s2cid = 233867757 }} The British Dietetic Association stated that a plant-based diet "can support healthy living at every age and life stage", but as with any diet it should be properly planned. The Government of Canada and Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada issued 2024 guidelines for planning meals with plant-based protein sources, including menu ideas for substituting meats with plant foods.{{cite web |title=Canada's food guide: Cooking with plant-based protein foods |url=https://food-guide.canada.ca/en/cooking-skills/cooking-plant-based-protein-foods |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=5 July 2024 |date=2024}}{{cite web |title=What is a plant-based diet? |url=https://www.heartandstroke.ca/articles/what-is-a-plant-based-diet |publisher=Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada |access-date=5 July 2024 |date=2024}}

Not all plant-based foods are equally healthy. Rather, plant-based diets including whole grains as the main form of carbohydrate, unsaturated fats as the main form of dietary fat, an abundance of fruit and vegetables, and adequate n-3 fatty acids can be considered healthy.{{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Kim Allan |last2=Patel |first2=Hena |date=25 July 2017 |title=Healthy Plant-Based Diet: What Does it Really Mean? |journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=423–425 |doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2017.06.006 |issn=1558-3597 |pmid=28728685|doi-access= }}

With processed plant-based foods, such as vegan burger patties or chicken-like nuggets, becoming more available, there is also concern that plant-based diets incorporating these foods may become less healthy.{{Cite journal |last=Macdiarmid |first=J. I. |date=11 October 2021 |title=The food system and climate change: are plant-based diets becoming unhealthy and less environmentally sustainable? |journal=The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=162–167 |doi=10.1017/S0029665121003712 |issn=1475-2719 |pmid=35156593|s2cid=243109615 |doi-access=free |hdl=2164/19207 |hdl-access=free }}

In practice lacto-ovo vegetarians or vegans seem to have a higher overall diet quality compared with nonvegetarians. The reason for this is the closer adherence to health organisation recommendations on consumption of fruits, whole grains, seafood and plant protein and sodium. The higher diet quality in vegetarians and vegans may explain some of the positive health outcomes compared with nonvegetarians.{{Cite journal |last1=Parker |first1=Haley W. |last2=Vadiveloo |first2=Maya K. |date=1 March 2019 |title=Diet quality of vegetarian diets compared with nonvegetarian diets: a systematic review |journal=Nutrition Reviews |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=144–160 |doi=10.1093/nutrit/nuy067 |issn=1753-4887 |pmid=30624697|doi-access=free }}

Plant-based foods are not a reliable source of vitamin B₁₂ by default. A lack of B₁₂ is associated with a range of conditions and it is essential for human health.{{Cite journal |last1=Niklewicz |first1=Ali |last2=Smith |first2=A. David |last3=Smith |first3=Alison |last4=Holzer |first4=Andre |last5=Klein |first5=Andrew |last6=McCaddon |first6=Andrew |last7=Molloy |first7=Anne M. |last8=Wolffenbuttel |first8=Bruce H. R. |last9=Nexo |first9=Ebba |last10=McNulty |first10=Helene |last11=Refsum |first11=Helga |last12=Gueant |first12=Jean-Louis |last13=Dib |first13=Marie-Joe |last14=Ward |first14=Mary |last15=Murphy |first15=Michelle |date=April 2023 |title=The importance of vitamin B12 for individuals choosing plant-based diets |journal=European Journal of Nutrition |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=1551–1559 |doi=10.1007/s00394-022-03025-4 |issn=1436-6215 |pmid=36469110|pmc=10030528 }} Those eating a fully plant-based diet should ensure adequate B₁₂ intake via supplementation or consumption of fortified foods,{{Cite journal |last1=Melina |first1=Vesanto |last2=Craig |first2=Winston |last3=Levin |first3=Susan |date=December 2016 |title=Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27886704/ |journal=Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics |volume=116 |issue=12 |pages=1970–1980 |doi=10.1016/j.jand.2016.09.025 |issn=2212-2672 |pmid=27886704}} such as fortified plant milks or yogurts, nutritional yeast, or fortified cereals.{{Cite web |title=Vitamin B12 |url=https://www.vegansociety.com/resources/nutrition-and-health/nutrients/vitamin-b12 |access-date=2024-04-07 |website=The Vegan Society |language=en}}

Even those eating a plant-based diet including a small amount of animal products are at an increased risk of a lower than recommended B₁₂ intake{{Cite journal |last1=Bruns |first1=Anja |last2=Nebl |first2=Josefine |last3=Jonas |first3=Wiebke |last4=Hahn |first4=Andreas |last5=Schuchardt |first5=Jan Philipp |date=2023-11-28 |title=Nutritional status of flexitarians compared to vegans and omnivores - a cross-sectional pilot study |journal=BMC Nutrition |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=140 |doi=10.1186/s40795-023-00799-6 |doi-access=free |issn=2055-0928 |pmc=10685640 |pmid=38017527}} without supplementation or regular consumption of fortified foods.

Observational studies show that vegetarian diets are lower in energy intake than non-vegetarian diets{{Cite journal |last1=Kennedy |first1=E. T. |last2=Bowman |first2=S. A. |last3=Spence |first3=J. T. |last4=Freedman |first4=M. |last5=King |first5=J. |date=April 2001 |title=Popular diets: correlation to health, nutrition, and obesity |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11320946/ |journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association |volume=101 |issue=4 |pages=411–420 |doi=10.1016/S0002-8223(01)00108-0 |issn=0002-8223 |pmid=11320946}} and that, on average, vegetarians have a lower body mass index than non-vegetarians.{{Cite journal |last1=Koutras |first1=Yiannis |last2=Chrysostomou |first2=Stavri |last3=Poulimeneas |first3=Dimitrios |last4=Yannakoulia |first4=Mary |date=June 2022 |title=Examining the associations between a posteriori dietary patterns and obesity indexes: Systematic review of observational studies |journal=Nutrition and Health |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=149–162 |doi=10.1177/02601060211020975 |issn=0260-1060 |pmid=34100659|s2cid=235370106 }}

Two reviews of preliminary research found that vegetarian diets practiced over 18 weeks or longer reduced body weight in the range of {{convert|2|-|3|kg}},{{cite journal | vauthors = Huang RY, Huang CC, Hu FB, Chavarro JE | title = Vegetarian Diets and Weight Reduction: a Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials | journal = Journal of General Internal Medicine | volume = 31 | issue = 1 | pages = 109–116 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26138004 | pmc = 4699995 | doi = 10.1007/s11606-015-3390-7 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Barnard ND, Levin SM, Yokoyama Y | title = A systematic review and meta-analysis of changes in body weight in clinical trials of vegetarian diets | journal = Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics | volume = 115 | issue = 6 | pages = 954–969 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 25620754 | doi = 10.1016/j.jand.2014.11.016 }} with vegan diets used for 12 weeks or longer reducing body weight by 4 kg.{{Cite journal |last1=Termannsen |first1=Anne-Ditte |last2=Clemmensen |first2=Kim Katrine Bjerring |last3=Thomsen |first3=Jonas Mark |last4=Nørgaard |first4=Ole |last5=Díaz |first5=Lars Jorge |last6=Torekov |first6=Signe Sørensen |last7=Quist |first7=Jonas Salling |last8=Faerch |first8=Kristine |date=7 June 2022 |title=Effects of vegan diets on cardiometabolic health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials |journal=Obesity Reviews|volume=23 |issue=9 |pages=e13462 |doi=10.1111/obr.13462 |issn=1467-789X |pmid=35672940|pmc=9540559 |s2cid=249465763 }}

In obese people, a 2022 review found that plant-based diets improved weight control, LDL and total cholesterol, blood pressure, insulin resistance, and fasting glucose.{{Cite journal |last1=Remde |first1=Alan |last2=DeTurk |first2=Stephen N. |last3=Almardini |first3=A. |last4=Steiner |first4=Lauren |last5=Wojda |first5=Thomas |date=8 April 2022 |title=Plant-predominant eating patterns – how effective are they for treating obesity and related cardiometabolic health outcomes? – a systematic review |url= |journal=Nutrition Reviews |volume=80 |issue=5 |pages=1094–1104 |doi=10.1093/nutrit/nuab060 |issn=1753-4887 |pmid=34498070}}

Some reviews indicate that plant-based diets including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, and nuts are associated with a lower risk of diabetes.{{cite journal |vauthors=Qian F, Liu G, Hu FB, Bhupathiraju SN, Sun Q |date=October 2019 |title=Association Between Plant-Based Dietary Patterns and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis |journal=JAMA Internal Medicine |volume=179 |issue=10 |pages=1335–1344 |doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2019.2195 |pmc=6646993 |pmid=31329220}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee Y, Park K |date=June 2017 |title=Adherence to a Vegetarian Diet and Diabetes Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies |journal=Nutrients |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=E603 |doi=10.3390/nu9060603 |pmc=5490582 |pmid=28613258 |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Kahleova H, Pelikanova T |date=2015 |title=Vegetarian Diets in the Prevention and Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes |journal=Journal of the American College of Nutrition |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=448–458 |doi=10.1080/07315724.2014.976890 |pmid=25915002 |s2cid=10451737}}

Therefore, vegetarian and vegan diets are under clinical research to identify potential effects on type 2 diabetes, with preliminary results showing improvements in body weight and biomarkers of metabolic syndrome.{{cite journal | vauthors = Toumpanakis A, Turnbull T, Alba-Barba I | title = Effectiveness of plant-based diets in promoting well-being in the management of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review | journal = BMJ Open Diabetes Research and Care | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = e000534 | date = 2018 | pmid = 30487971 | pmc = 6235058 | doi = 10.1136/bmjdrc-2018-000534 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Jardine MA, Kahleova H, Levin SM, Ali Z, Trapp CB, Barnard ND | title = Perspective: Plant-Based Eating Pattern for Type 2 Diabetes Prevention and Treatment: Efficacy, Mechanisms, and Practical Considerations | journal = Advances in Nutrition | volume = 12 | issue = 6 | pages = 2045–2055 | date = December 2021 | pmid = 34113961 | pmc = 8634508 | doi = 10.1093/advances/nmab063 }}

When the focus was whole foods, an improvement of diabetes biomarkers occurred, including reduced obesity.{{cite journal | vauthors = Toumpanakis A, Turnbull T, Alba-Barba I | title = Effectiveness of plant-based diets in promoting well-being in the management of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review | journal = BMJ Open Diabetes Research & Care | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = e000534 | year = 2018 | pmid = 30487971 | pmc = 6235058 | doi = 10.1136/bmjdrc-2018-000534 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Dinu M, Abbate R, Gensini GF, Casini A, Sofi F | title = Vegetarian, vegan diets and multiple health outcomes: A systematic review with meta-analysis of observational studies | journal = Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition | volume = 57 | issue = 17 | pages = 3640–3649 | date = November 2017 | pmid = 26853923 | doi = 10.1080/10408398.2016.1138447 | hdl-access = free | s2cid = 10073754 | hdl = 2158/1079985 }} In diabetic people, plant-based diets were also associated with improved emotional and physical well-being, relief of depression, higher quality of life, and better general health.

The American College of Lifestyle Medicine stated that diet can achieve remission in many adults with type 2 diabetes when used as a primary intervention of whole, plant-based foods with minimal consumption of meat and other animal products. There remains a need for more randomized controlled trials "to assess sustainable plant-based dietary interventions with whole or minimally processed foods, as a primary means of treating diabetes with the goal of remission."{{cite journal | vauthors = Rosenfeld RM, Kelly JH, Agarwal M, Aspry K, Barnett T, Davis BC, Fields D, Gaillard T, Gulati M, Guthrie GE, Moore DJ, Panigrahi G, Rothberg A, Sannidhi DV, Weatherspoon L, Pauly K, Karlsen MC| title = Dietary Interventions to Treat Type 2 Diabetes in Adults with a Goal of Remission: An Expert Consensus Statement from the American College of Lifestyle Medicine | journal = American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 342–362 | date = May 2022 | pmid = 35706589 | pmc = 9189586 | doi = 10.1177/15598276221087624 }}

Plant-based diets are associated with a decreased risk of colorectal and prostate cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Godos J, Bella F, Sciacca S, Galvano F, Grosso G | title = Vegetarianism and breast, colorectal and prostate cancer risk: an overview and meta-analysis of cohort studies | journal = Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics | volume = 30 | issue = 3 | pages = 349–359 | date = June 2017 | pmid = 27709695 | doi = 10.1111/jhn.12426 | s2cid = 4331025 }}{{Cite journal| vauthors = Gupta N, Taylor J, Borin J, Jacobsohn K, Kenfield S, Eggener S, Patel H, Price C, Davuluri M, Byrne N, Bivalacqua T |date=1 May 2022 |title=Systematic review of the impact of a plant-based diet on prostate cancer incidence and outcomes |url=https://www.auajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1097/JU.0000000000002518.04 |journal=Journal of Urology |volume=207 |issue=Supplement 5 |pages=e42 |doi=10.1097/JU.0000000000002518.04|s2cid=248030075|url-access=subscription }}{{cite journal|vauthors=Shin J, Millstine D, Ruddy B, Wallace M, Fields H|year=2019|title=Effect of Plant- and Animal-Based Foods on Prostate Cancer Risk|journal=Journal of the American Osteopathic Association|url=https://osteopathic.org/wp-content/uploads/JAOA_1911_SHIN0340.pdf|volume=119|issue=11|pages=736–746|doi=10.7556/jaoa.2019.123|pmid=31633743|s2cid=204814110 }} Vegetarian diets are associated with a lower incidence from total cancer (-8%). A vegan diet seems to reduce risk of incidence from total cancer by 15%. However, there was no improvement in cancer mortality.{{Cite journal |last1=Dinu |first1=Monica |last2=Abbate |first2=Rosanna |last3=Gensini |first3=Gian Franco |last4=Casini |first4=Alessandro |last5=Sofi |first5=Francesco |date=22 November 2017 |title=Vegetarian, vegan diets and multiple health outcomes: A systematic review with meta-analysis of observational studies |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26853923/ |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=57 |issue=17 |pages=3640–3649 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2016.1138447 |issn=1549-7852 |pmid=26853923|s2cid=10073754 }}

Preliminary studies indicate that a plant-based diet may improve the gut microbiome.{{cite journal | vauthors = Tomova A, Bukovsky I, Rembert E, Yonas W, Alwarith J, Barnard ND, Kahleova H | title = The Effects of Vegetarian and Vegan Diets on Gut Microbiota | journal = Frontiers in Nutrition | volume = 6 | pages = 47 | date = 2019 | pmid = 31058160 | pmc = 6478664 | doi = 10.3389/fnut.2019.00047 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Tindall AM, Petersen KS, Kris-Etherton PM | title = Dietary Patterns Affect the Gut Microbiome-The Link to Risk of Cardiometabolic Diseases | journal = The Journal of Nutrition | volume = 148 | issue = 9 | pages = 1402–1407 | date = September 2018 | pmid = 30184227 | pmc = 7263841 | doi = 10.1093/jn/nxy141 }}

A 2022 review of prospective cohort studies showed that vegetarian diets are associated with a 15% reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases and 21% reduced risk in coronary artery disease, but with no effect on the risk of stroke; for vegan diets, only a reduced risk in coronary artery disease was found.{{Cite journal |last1=Dybvik |first1=Jarle Sæby |last2=Svendsen |first2=Mette |last3=Aune |first3=Dagfinn |date=27 August 2022 |title=Vegetarian and vegan diets and the risk of cardiovascular disease, ischemic heart disease and stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies |journal=European Journal of Nutrition |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=51–69 |doi=10.1007/s00394-022-02942-8 |issn=1436-6215 |pmid=36030329 |pmc=9899747 |s2cid=251866952}}

Other reviews found that plant-based diets, including vegan and vegetarian diets, may lower the risk of cardiovascular diseases, including blood pressure{{Cite journal |last1=Gibbs |first1=Joshua |last2=Gaskin |first2=Eleanor |last3=Ji |first3=Chen |last4=Miller |first4=Michelle A. |last5=Cappuccio |first5=Francesco P. |date=January 2021 |title=The effect of plant-based dietary patterns on blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled intervention trials |url= http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/138736/13/WRAP-effect-plant-based-dietary-patterns-blood-pressure-Cappuccio-2020.pdf|journal=Journal of Hypertension |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=23–37 |doi=10.1097/HJH.0000000000002604 |issn=1473-5598 |pmid=33275398|s2cid=225483653 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Yokoyama |first1=Yoko |last2=Nishimura |first2=Kunihiro |last3=Barnard |first3=Neal D. |last4=Takegami |first4=Misa |last5=Watanabe |first5=Makoto |last6=Sekikawa |first6=Akira |last7=Okamura |first7=Tomonori |last8=Miyamoto |first8=Yoshihiro |date=April 2014 |title=Vegetarian diets and blood pressure: a meta-analysis |journal=JAMA Internal Medicine |volume=174 |issue=4 |pages=577–587 |doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.14547 |issn=2168-6114 |pmid=24566947}} and blood lipid levels.{{Cite journal |last1=Yokoyama |first1=Yoko |last2=Levin |first2=Susan M. |last3=Barnard |first3=Neal D. |date=1 September 2017 |title=Association between plant-based diets and plasma lipids: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Nutrition Reviews |volume=75 |issue=9 |pages=683–698 |doi=10.1093/nutrit/nux030 |issn=1753-4887 |pmc=5914369 |pmid=28938794}}{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Fenglei |last2=Zheng |first2=Jusheng |last3=Yang |first3=Bo |last4=Jiang |first4=Jiajing |last5=Fu |first5=Yuanqing |last6=Li |first6=Duo |date=27 October 2015 |title=Effects of Vegetarian Diets on Blood Lipids: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials |journal=Journal of the American Heart Association |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=e002408 |doi=10.1161/JAHA.115.002408 |issn=2047-9980 |pmc=4845138 |pmid=26508743}} Randomized clinical trials also showed that the reduction in blood pressure (about 4 mmHg) associated with a vegan diet without caloric restrictions is comparable to reductions observed with dietary practices recommended by medical societies and use of portion-controlled diets.{{Cite journal |last1=Lopez |first1=Persio D. |last2=Cativo |first2=Eder H. |last3=Atlas |first3=Steven A. |last4=Rosendorff |first4=Clive |date=July 2019 |title=The Effect of Vegan Diets on Blood Pressure in Adults: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials|journal=The American Journal of Medicine |volume=132 |issue=7 |pages=875–883.e7 |doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2019.01.044 |issn=1555-7162 |pmid=30851264|s2cid=73498903 }}

Preliminary evidence indicates that people on a long-term vegan diet show improvements in cardiovascular and metabolic risk factors.{{Cite journal |last1=Benatar |first1=Jocelyne R. |last2=Stewart |first2=Ralph A. H. |date=2018 |title=Cardiometabolic risk factors in vegans; A meta-analysis of observational studies |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=e0209086 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0209086 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=6301673 |pmid=30571724|bibcode=2018PLoSO..1309086B |doi-access=free }}

The effect of plant-based diets on bone health is inconclusive. Preliminary research indicates that consuming a plant-based diet may be associated with lower bone density, a risk factor for fractures.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ma X, Tan H, Hu M, He S, Zou L, Pan H | title = The impact of plant-based diets on female bone mineral density: Evidence based on seventeen studies | journal = Medicine | volume = 100 | issue = 46 | pages = e27480 | date = November 2021 | pmid = 34797275 | pmc = 8601298 | doi = 10.1097/MD.0000000000027480 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Iguacel I, Miguel-Berges ML, Gómez-Bruton A, Moreno LA, Julián C | title = Veganism, vegetarianism, bone mineral density, and fracture risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Nutrition Reviews | volume = 77 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–18 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30376075 | doi = 10.1093/nutrit/nuy045 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Li T, Li Y, Wu S | title = Comparison of human bone mineral densities in subjects on plant-based and omnivorous diets: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Archives of Osteoporosis | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | pages = 95 | date = June 2021 | pmid = 34145511 | doi = 10.1007/s11657-021-00955-0 | s2cid = 235475271 }}

Plant-based diets are under study for their potential to reduce inflammation.{{cite journal | vauthors = Craddock JC, Neale EP, Peoples GE, Probst YC | title = Vegetarian-Based Dietary Patterns and their Relation with Inflammatory and Immune Biomarkers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | journal = Advances in Nutrition | volume = 10 | issue = 3 | pages = 433–451 | date = May 2019 | pmid = 30947338 | pmc = 6520040 | doi = 10.1093/advances/nmy103 }} C-reactive protein {{ndash}} a biomarker for inflammation {{ndash}} may be reduced by consuming a plant-based diet,{{cite journal | vauthors = Menzel J, Jabakhanji A, Biemann R, Mai K, Abraham K, Weikert C | title = Systematic review and meta-analysis of the associations of vegan and vegetarian diets with inflammatory biomarkers | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 21736 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33303765 | pmc = 7730154 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-020-78426-8 | bibcode = 2020NatSR..1021736M }} particularly in obese people.{{cite journal | vauthors = Escalante-Araiza F, Rivera-Monroy G, Loza-López CE, Gutiérrez-Salmeán G | title = The effect of plant-based diets on meta-inflammation and associated cardiometabolic disorders: a review | journal = Nutrition Reviews | pages = 2017–2028 | date = April 2022 | volume = 80 | issue = 9 | pmid = 35475468 | doi = 10.1093/nutrit/nuac020 }}

A 2020 review stated that dietary patterns based on consuming vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, whole grains, unsaturated vegetable oils, fish, lean meat or poultry, and are low in processed meat, high-fat dairy and refined carbohydrates or sweets, are associated with a decreased risk of all-cause mortality.{{Cite book |last1=Boushey |first1=Carol |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK578477/ |title=Dietary Patterns and All-Cause Mortality: A Systematic Review|last2=Ard |first2=Jamy |last3=Bazzano |first3=Lydia |last4=Heymsfield |first4=Steven |last5=Mayer-Davis |first5=Elizabeth |last6=Sabaté |first6=Joan |last7=Snetselaar |first7=Linda |last8=Van Horn |first8=Linda |last9=Schneeman |first9=Barbara |date=2020 |doi=10.52570/NESR.DGAC2020.SR0108|series=USDA Nutrition Evidence Systematic Reviews |publisher=USDA Nutrition Evidence Systematic Review |pmid=35258870|s2cid=236333620 }}

In a meta-analysis published online in 2023, plant-based diets were shown to have a moderate positive effect on aerobic performance and had no effect on strength performance.{{Cite journal |last1=Damasceno |first1=Yancka Oliveira |last2=Leitão |first2=Cauã V. F. S. |last3=de Oliveira |first3=Gabriel Moraes |last4=Andrade |first4=Fernando Augusto Barcelos |last5=Pereira |first5=André B. |last6=Viza |first6=Rodrigo S. |last7=Correia |first7=Renata C. |last8=Campos |first8=Helton O. |last9=Drummond |first9=Lucas R. |last10=Leite |first10=Laura H. R. |last11=Coimbra |first11=Cândido C.|date=2023-10-23 |title=Plant-based diets benefit aerobic performance and do not compromise strength/power performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=The British Journal of Nutrition |volume=131 |issue=5 |pages=829–840 |doi=10.1017/S0007114523002258 |issn=1475-2662 |pmid=37869973|doi-access=free }}

{{Main|Sustainable diet}}

{{Pie chart

| caption = Biomass of mammals on Earth

| label1 = Livestock, mostly cattle and pigs

| value1 = 60 | color1 = blue

| label2 = Humans

| value2 = 36 | color2 = red

| label3 = Wild mammals

| value3 = 4 | color3 = green

}}

There is scientific consensus that plant-based diets offer lower greenhouse gas emissions, land use and biodiversity loss. In addition, dietary patterns that reduce diet-related mortality also promote environmental sustainability.{{cite journal | vauthors = Poore J, Nemecek T | title = Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers | journal = Science | volume = 360 | issue = 6392 | pages = 987–992 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 29853680 | doi = 10.1126/science.aaq0216 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2018Sci...360..987P }}{{Cite journal|last1=Carey |first1=Cassandra N. |last2=Paquette |first2=Melanie |last3=Sahye-Pudaruth |first3=Sandhya |last4=Dadvar |first4=Abolfazl |last5=Dinh |first5=Dorothy |last6=Khodabandehlou |first6=Khosrow |last7=Liang |first7=Fred |last8=Mishra |first8=Ekta |last9=Sidhu |first9=Mandeep |last10=Brown |first10=Ramon |last11=Tandon |first11=Shilpa |last12=Wanyan |first12=Jessica |last13=Bazinet |first13=Richard P. |last14=Hanley |first14=Anthony J. |last15=Malik |first15=Vasanti |date=2023-02-06 |title=The Environmental Sustainability of Plant-Based Dietary Patterns: A Scoping Review |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |volume=153 |issue=3 |pages=S0022–3166(23)06589–6 |doi=10.1016/j.tjnut.2023.02.001 |issn=1541-6100 |pmid=36809853|s2cid=256652205 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Hedenus |first1=Fredrik |last2=Wirsenius |first2=Stefan |last3=Johansson |first3=Daniel J. A. |title=The importance of reduced meat and dairy consumption for meeting stringent climate change targets |journal=Climatic Change |date=2014 |volume=124 |issue=1–2 |pages=79–91 |doi=10.1007/s10584-014-1104-5 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2014ClCh..124...79H }}

As a significant percentage of crops around the world are used to feed livestock rather than humans, eating less animal products helps to limit climate change (such as through low-carbon diets) and biodiversity loss.{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/3/ar591e/ar591e.pdf|title=Sustainability pathways: Livestock and landscapes|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations|date=2012|access-date=5 June 2019}} Especially beef, lamb and cheese have a very high carbon footprint.{{Cite web |last=Torrella |first=Kenny |date=1 February 2022 |title=This is how much meat and dairy hurt the climate |url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/22905381/meat-dairy-eggs-climate-change-emissions-rewilding |access-date=2022-07-03 |website=Vox |language=en}} While soy cultivation is a "major driver of deforestation in the Amazon basin",{{Cite web|url=https://globalforestatlas.yale.edu/amazon/land-use/soy|title=Soy agriculture in the Amazon Basin|date=2019|publisher=Yale University|access-date=5 June 2019|archive-date=5 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605185853/https://globalforestatlas.yale.edu/amazon/land-use/soy|url-status=dead}} the vast majority of soy crops are used for livestock consumption rather than human consumption.{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelpellmanrowland/2018/06/12/save-the-planet/|title=The most effective way to save the planet| vauthors = Rowland MP |work=Forbes|quote=meat and dairy provide only 18% of our calories and 37% of our protein, yet use up 83% of our farmland.|access-date=5 June 2019}} Adopting plant-based diets could also reduce the number of animals raised and killed for food on factory farms.{{cite news | vauthors = Torrella K |date=22 April 2022 |title=The difference you make when you eat less meat |url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2022/4/22/23036010/eat-less-meat-vegetarian-effects-climate-emissions-animal-welfare-factory-farms |work=Vox |location= |access-date=18 May 2022}}

File:A_third_of_Europeans_say_that_most_of_us_will_switch_to_a_plant-based_diet_within_20_years.jpg say that most people will switch to a plant-based diet within 20 years to help the environment.]]

Research from 2019 on six diets found the plant-based diets more environmentally friendly than the diets higher in animal-sourced foods. Of the six mutually-exclusive diets; individuals eating vegan, vegetarian and pescetarian diets had lower dietary-carbon footprints than typical omnivorous diets, while those who ate 'paleolithic' and ketogenic diets had higher dietary-carbon emissions due to their animal sourced foods.{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Malley K, Willits-Smith A, Aranda R, Heller M, Rose D |date=1 June 2019|title=Vegan vs Paleo: Carbon Footprints and Diet Quality of 5 Popular Eating Patterns as Reported by US Consumers (P03-007-19)|url= |journal=Current Developments in Nutrition|volume=3 |issue=Suppl 1|pages=nzz047.P03–007–19|doi=10.1093/cdn/nzz047.P03-007-19|issn=2475-2991|pmc=6574879}}

A 2020 study found that the climate change mitigation effects of shifting worldwide food production and consumption to plant-based diets, which are mainly composed of foods that require only a small fraction of the land and CO₂ emissions required for meat and dairy, could offset CO₂ emissions equal to those of past 9 to 16 years of fossil fuel emissions in nations that they grouped into 4 types. The researchers also provided a map of approximate regional opportunities.{{cite news |title=Changing what we eat could offset years of climate-warming emissions, new analysis finds |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-09-offset-years-climate-warming-emissions-analysis.html |access-date=9 October 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Hayek MN, Harwatt H, Ripple WJ, Mueller ND |title=The carbon opportunity cost of animal-sourced food production on land |journal=Nature Sustainability |date=7 September 2020 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=21–24 |doi=10.1038/s41893-020-00603-4 |bibcode=2020NatSu...4...21H |s2cid=221522148 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-020-00603-4 |access-date=9 October 2020 |language=en |issn=2398-9629|url-access=subscription }}

It may be possible to increase the transition from meat eating to a plant based diet through social contagion, by which behaviour, emotions, or conditions spread spontaneously through a group or network. A Max Planck Institute study from 2020 found that when meat-eaters are accompanied by vegetarians and have a choice of eating dishes with or without meat, they're more likely to choose a vegetarian dish. This probability increases as the number of vegetarians accompanying the meat eaters increases.{{cite web |last1=Einhorn |first1=Laura |title=Normative Social Influence on Meat Consumption |url=https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_3196378_1/component/file_3204446/content |website=MPG.PuRe |publisher=Max Planck Society |access-date=17 February 2024}} Once enough people have been influenced, the community can reach a tipping point, in which a majority of people transition to a new habit; a 2018 study published in Nature claims that with only 25 per cent of a population, a minority perspective was able to overturn the majority.{{cite journal |last1=Centola |first1=Damon |last2=Becker |first2=Joshua |last3=Brackbill |first3=Devon |title=Experimental evidence for tipping points in social convention |journal=Science |date=8 Jun 2018 |volume=360 |issue=6393 |pages=1116–1119 |doi=10.1126/science.aas8827 |pmid=29880688 |bibcode=2018Sci...360.1116C |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aas8827 |access-date=17 February 2024}}

According to a 2021 Chatham House report, supported by the United Nations Environment Programme, a shift to "predominantly plant-based diets" will be needed to reduce biodiversity loss and human impact on the environment. The report said that livestock has the largest environmental impact, with some 80% of all global farmland used to rear cattle, sheep and other animals used by humans for food. Moving towards plant-based diets would free up the land to allow for the restoration of ecosystems and the flourishing of biodiversity.{{cite news| vauthors = Carrington D |date=3 February 2021 |title=Plant-based diets crucial to saving global wildlife, says report |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/03/plant-based-diets-crucial-to-saving-global-wildlife-says-report |work=The Guardian |location= |access-date=4 February 2021}}

A 2022 study published in Nature Food found that if high-income nations switched to a plant-based diet, vast swaths of land used for animal agriculture could be allowed to return to their natural state, which in turn has the potential to pull 100 billion tons of {{CO2}} out of the atmosphere by the end of the century. Around 35% of all habitable land around the world is used to rear animals used by humans in food production.{{cite news |title=How plant-based diets not only reduce our carbon footprint, but also increase carbon capture |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-01-plant-based-diets-carbon-footprint-capture.html |access-date=14 February 2022 |work=Leiden University |language=en}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Sun Z, Scherer L, Tukker A, Spawn-Lee SA, Bruckner M, Gibbs HK, Behrens P |title=Dietary change in high-income nations alone can lead to substantial double climate dividend |journal=Nature Food |date=January 2022 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=29–37 |doi=10.1038/s43016-021-00431-5 |pmid=37118487 |s2cid=245867412 |language=en |issn=2662-1355 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357723207 |url-access=subscription}}

A 2023 study published in Nature Food found that a vegan diet vastly decreases the impact on the environment from food production, such as reducing emissions, water pollution and land use by 75%, reducing the destruction of wildlife by 66% and the usage of water by 54%.{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |title=Vegan diet massively cuts environmental damage, study shows |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jul/20/vegan-diet-cuts-environmental-damage-climate-heating-emissions-study |access-date=20 July 2023 |work=The Guardian |date=20 July 2023}} Another study published in the same year in Nature Communications found that replacing half of the beef, chicken, dairy and pork products consumed by the global population with plant-based alternatives could reduce the amount of land used by agriculture by almost a third, bring deforestation to a near-halt, restore biodiversity, and reduce GHG emissions from agriculture by 31% by 2050. However, the report also notes that a growing population and rising affluence are projected to increase demand for animal products which could have negative impacts on the environment.{{cite news |last=Marashli|first=Imran |date=September 16, 2023 |title=Meat, milk alternatives could slash food system emissions a third: study|url=https://phys.org/news/2023-09-meat-alternatives-slash-food-emissions.html|work=Phys.org|location= |access-date=October 19, 2023}}{{cite journal |last1=Kozicka|first1=Marta |last2=Havlík|first2=Petr|last3=Valin|first3=Hugo |display-authors=etal.|date=2023 |title=Feeding climate and biodiversity goals with novel plant-based meat and milk alternatives|url= |journal=Nature Communications|volume=14 |issue=5316 |page=5316 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-40899-2|access-date=|doi-access=free|pmid=37699877 |pmc=10497520 |bibcode=2023NatCo..14.5316K |hdl=10568/131912|hdl-access=free}}{{cite news |last=Graham |first=Max |date=September 14, 2023 |title=New Study Shows Impacts of Cutting Meat and Dairy Consumption in Half|url=https://www.motherjones.com/environment/2023/09/meat-dairy-consumption-farming-livestock-climate-emissions/|work=Mother Jones |location= |access-date=October 19, 2023}}

A reduction in meat consumption and a shift to more plant-based diets is needed to reach climate targets, addressing public health problems, and protecting animal welfare. Research has been done on how to best promote such a change in consumer behaviour.{{Cite journal |last1=Kwasny |first1=Tatjana |last2=Dobernig |first2=Karin |last3=Riefler |first3=Petra |date=1 January 2022 |title=Towards reduced meat consumption: A systematic literature review of intervention effectiveness, 2001–2019 |journal=Appetite |volume=168 |pages=105739 |doi=10.1016/j.appet.2021.105739 |issn=1095-8304 |pmid=34648912|s2cid=238588727 |doi-access=free }}

Some public health organisations advocate a plant-based diet due to its low ecological footprint. These include the Swedish Food Agency in its dietary guideline{{Cite web|title=Livsmedelsverket|url=https://www.livsmedelsverket.se/en/food-habits-health-and-environment/food-and-environment/eco-smart-food-choice|access-date=6 June 2021|website=livsmedelsverket.se|language=en}} and a group of Lancet researchers who propose a planetary health diet.{{Cite web|title=Planetary Health Diet: Speiseplan für eine gesunde und nachhaltige Ernährung|url=https://www.bzfe.de/nachhaltiger-konsum/lagern-kochen-essen-teilen/planetary-health-diet/|access-date=6 June 2021|website=bzfe.de|language=de-DE}} Vegan climate activist Greta Thunberg also called for more plant-based food production and consumption worldwide.{{Cite web |title=Climate activist Greta Thunberg takes on food industry |url=https://www.dw.com/en/climate-activist-greta-thunberg-takes-on-food-industry/a-57633673 |date=23 May 2021 |access-date=25 May 2021 |website=Deutsche Welle |language=en-GB}} A 2022 report by the Stockholm Environment Institute and the Council On Energy, Environment and Water included protecting animal welfare and adopting plant based diets on a list of recommendations to help mitigate the ecological and social crises bringing the world to a "boiling point".{{cite news | vauthors = Taylor M |date=18 May 2022 |title='World is at boiling point': humanity must redefine relationship with nature, says report |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/may/18/humanity-nature-stockholm-environment-institute-report |work=The Guardian |location= |access-date=18 May 2022}}

Denmark and South Korea announced plant-based action plans in 2023.{{Cite web |last=Vegconomist |date=2023-10-24 |title=South Korea Becomes Second Country to Embrace National Plan for Plant-Based Foods |url=https://vegconomist.com/politics-law/south-korea-second-country-national-plant-based-plan/ |access-date=2023-11-02 |language=en-GB}}

Plant-based protein is gaining popularity as a sustainable and nutritious alternative to animal-based sources.{{Cite web |title=Plant-Based Protein: A Sustainable Nutrition Choice |url=https://www.ultimateyou.co.in/blogs/news/plant-based-protein |website=Ultimate You |date=2025-02-18 |access-date=2025-03-13 |language=en}}

• List of diets
• Plant-based action plan
• Veganism
• Vegetarianism and religion
• Mediterranean diet

{{reflist}}

{{Plant-based diets}}

{{vegetarianism|state=collapsed}}

{{Diets}}